MODULE I

INTRODUCTION

Lesson 1 DC Motors:
Definition of Terms
and Principles

Lesson 2 Types of DC Motors

Lesson 3 Construction, Parts

and Operation

Lesson 4 Identifying
Windings

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MODULE I

DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS

 INTRODUCTION

This module presents the different safety precautions in

working DC motors, types and construction of a DC motors and
generators, to learn the basic motor wiring connections, and to
study the principles of its operation and application. It is also hoped
that you will develop some skills in technical knowledge in trouble
shooting, repair and maintenance of DC motors and generators.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Describe the electrical characteristic of DC motors.

2. Describe the field structure of a Dc motor.
3. Describe the different types of Dc motors.
4. Identify the different DC construction, parts and operation.
5. Identifying the different DC Windings and Connections.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in this module. Read each lesson

carefully then answer the exercises/activities to find out how much
you have benefited from it. Work on these exercises carefully and
submit your output to your instructor via Messenger or Google
Classroom.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your

instructor.

Facebook/Messenger Account:
https://www.facebook.com/wevenevolent

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Mobile Number : 0948-8342-777

Good luck and happy reading!!!

Lesson 1

 Definition of Terms and

Principles

What is DC motor?

A direct current or DC motor, converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy. It is one of two basic types of motors. DC
motors are the simplest type of motor and are used in household
appliances, such as electric razors, and in electric windows in cars.
Also, DC motors operate at a fixed speed for a fixed voltage and
there is no slip.

DC motors are motion components that take electrical power

in the form of direct current (or some manipulated form of direct
current) and convert it into mechanical rotation. The motors do this
through the use of magnetic fields that arise from the electric
currents to spur rotation of a rotor fixed with an output shaft. Output
torque and speed depends on the electrical input and motor design.

Simple DC Motor
Source: https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/draw-the-diagram-of-a-dc-motor-and-label-
the/
Posted on October 15, 2019.

Mechanically DC motor and DC generator are alike, but from a

technical perspective DC motor and DC generator differ greatly.
Though, they both perform their function on direct current supply,
direct current motor supplies mechanical power by converting the

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direct current electrical power whereas DC generator converts

mechanical energy into direct current electricity. The DC generator
produces direct current or direct power at the output. DC generator
is based on the basic concept of Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic
induction where as in the DC motor Lorentz principle is followed,
current carrying conductor placed in the external magnetic field
experiences a force which is known as Lorentz force and torque is
result of this Lorentz force, permanent magnets are stationary
which produces magnetic field and when current carrying conductor
is placed in it, Torque is produced which rotates the motor.
As regards fundamental principles the DC motors are identical
with the DC generators which have the same type of excitation i.e. a
machine that operates as a motor will also operates satisfactorily as
a generator. The difference lies in the mode of construction. The
frame of the generator can be open while motors are either partly or
totally closed and a generator is usually placed in a suitable position
and mechanical protection for the coils and armature maybe
reduced to minimum. On the other hand, motors have to work in
conditions of dampness, dirt, inflammable gases, chemical fumes
and liability to mechanical damage.

Operating Principle of DC Motor

The operation of a dc motor is based on the principle that a

current –carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field,
perpendicular to the lines of flux, tends to move in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux. The relationship
between the directions of the magnetic field, the direction of current
in the conductor, and the direction in which the conductor tends to
move is called the right-hand rule for motors.

Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

Fleming's right hand rule is applicable for electrical

generators. As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
whenever a conductor is forcefully moved in an electromagnetic
field, an emf gets induced across the conductor. If the conductor is
provided a closed path, then the induced emf causes a current to
flow. According to the Fleming's right hand rule, the thumb, fore
finger and middle finger of the right hand are stretched to be
perpendicular to each other as shown in the illustration at right, and
if the thumb represents the direction of the movement of conductor,
fore-finger represents direction of the magnetic field, then the
middle finger represents direction of the induced current.

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Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Source: https://www.electrical4u.com/fleming-left-hand-rule-and-fleming-right-hand-rule/
Posted on June 02, 2019.

The right-hand rule can be used to find the direction of

rotation of a motor. If the motion of a conductor is unknown, it can
be found by extending the thumb, index finger, and middle finger of
your right hand so that they are at right angles to each other. If the
forefinger is pointed in the direction of magnetic flux (north to
south) (check the polarity of the power source to determine this),
and the middle finger is pointed in the direction of current flow in
the conductor, the thumb will point in the direction the conductor
will move.

Keep in mind that a dc motor rotates as a result of two

magnetic fields interacting with one another. The armature of a dc
motor acts through its coils. Since the armature is located within the
magnetic field of the field poles, these two magnetic field interact.
Like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike magnetic poles
attract each other. The dc motor has field poles that are stationary
and an armature that turns on bearings in the space between the
field poles. The armature of a dc motor has windings that are
connected to commutator segments.

DC motor armature rotation

Source: https://www.electrical4u.com/working-or-operating-principle-of-dc-motor/
Posted on June 02, 2019.

Note how the brushes fitting on the commutator segments

create a magnetic field in the conductor according to the polarity of
the battery voltage. The changes in the direction of a current flow
through the armature loop, caused by the switching action of the
commutator segments, change the polarity of the magnetic field
around the conductor. The magnetic fields repel and attract each
other and the armature continues to turn. The momentum of the

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rotating armature carries the armature past the position where the
unlike poles are exactly line up. However, if these fields are exactly
line up when the armature current is turned on, there is no
momentum to start the armature moving. In this case the motor will
note rotate or start. It would be necessary to give the motor a spin
to start it.

THINK!

What are some of DC motors contributions in

today’s industry?

Lesson 2

 Types of DC Motor

The following are the basics of each type of DC motors as well as

their characteristics.

1. Separately Excited DC Motor

As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor

the supply is given separately to the field and armature windings.
The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that, the
armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the
field winding is energized from a separate external source of DC
current.

From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So

the torque in this case can be varied by varying field flux φ,
independent of the armature current Ia.

2. Permanent Magnet Motors

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The permanent magnet motor uses a magnet to supply field flux.

Permanent magnet DC motors have excellent starting torque
capability with good speed regulation. A disadvantage of permanent
magnet DC motors is they are limited to the amount of load they
can drive. These motors can be found on low horsepower
applications.

Another disadvantage is that torque is usually limited to 150% of

rated torque to prevent demagnetization of the permanent
magnets.

The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC

motor) consists of an armature winding as in case of a usual motor,
but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The construction
of these types of DC motor are such that, radially magnetized
permanent magnets are mounted on the inner periphery of the
stator core to produce the field flux.

The rotor on the other hand has a conventional DC armature

with commutator segments and brushes. The diagrammatic
representation of a permanent magnet DC motor is given below.

The torque equation of DC motor suggests:

Here φ is always constant, as permanent magnets of required flux

density are chosen at the time of construction and can’t be changed
thereafter.

For a permanent magnet DC motor:

Where, Ka1 = Ka.φ which is another constant. In this case, the

torque of DC Motor can only be changed by controlling the armature
supply.

3. Self-Excited DC Motor

In case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected

either in series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to
the armature winding. Based on this, self-excited DC Motors can be
classified as:

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Classifications:

a. Shunt Wound DC Motor

In a shunt motor the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the

armature windings. The shunt-connected motor offers good speed
regulation. The field winding can be separately excited or connected
to the same source as the armature.

An advantage to a separately excited shunt field is the ability

of a variable speed drive to provide independent control of the
armature and field.

The shunt-connected motor offers simplified control for

reversing. This is especially beneficial in regenerative drives. To
understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor, let’s
consider the basic voltage equation given by,

[Where, E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the supply voltage, back emf, armature
current and armature resistance respectively]

[since back emf increases with flux φ and angular speed ωω]

Now substituting Eb from equation (2) to equation (1) we get,

The torque equation of a DC motor resembles,

This is similar to the equation of a straight line, and we can

graphically representing the torque speed characteristic of a shunt
wound self-excited DC motor as:

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b. Series Wound DC Motor

In a series DC motor the field is connected in series with the

armature. The field is wound with a few turns of large wire because
it must carry the full armature current.

A characteristic of series motors is the motor develops a large

amount of starting torque. However, speed varies widely between
no load and full load. Series motors cannot be used where a
constant speed is required under varying loads. The entire armature
current flows through the field winding as it’s connected in series to
the armature winding. The series wound self-excited DC motor is
diagrammatically represented below for clear understanding.

Additionally, the speed of a series motor with no load

increases to the point where the motor can become damaged. Some
load must always be connected to a series-connected motor. Series-
connected motors generally are not suitable for use on most
variable speed drive applications.

Now to determine the torque speed characteristic of these types of

DC motor, let us get to the torque speed equation.

From the circuit diagram we can see that the voltage equation gets
modified to:

Whereas back emf remains Eb = kaφω

Neglecting saturation we get,

[since field current = armature current]

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From equation (5) and (6)

From this equation we obtain the torque speed characteristic as

In a series wound DC motor, the speed varies with load. And

operation wise this is its main difference from a shunt wound DC
motor.

c. Compound Wound DC Motor

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be

obtained by combining the operational characteristic of both the
shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound self-
excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially
contains the field winding connected both in series and in parallel to
the armature winding as shown in the figure below:

4. Short Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding

and not the series field winding then it’s known as short shunt DC
motor or more specifically short shunt type compound wound DC
motor.

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5. Long Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding

and the series field winding then it’s known as long shunt type
compounded wound DC motor or simply long shunt DC motor.

THINK!

What are the two electrical elements of a DC

motor?

Lesson 3

 Construction and Parts

A DC motor is a device that converts direct current electrical

energy to mechanical energy (learn about a DC motor’s working
principle).

DC Motor Parts

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A DC motor is constructed with:

1. Stator – It is the static part of the DC machine that houses the

field windings and receives the supply. A rotor is the rotating
part of the DC machine that brings about the mechanical
rotations.

2. Rotor –It is the rotating part of the DC machine that brings

about the mechanical rotations.

Armature core (rotor)

3. A Yoke- The magnetic frame or the yoke of DC motor made up

of cast iron or steel and forms an integral part of the stator or
the static part of the motor. It not only provides mechanical
strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic
flux produced by the field winding.

4. Poles- The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted

onto the inner wall of the yoke with screws. The construction
of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts. Namely,
the pole core and the pole shoe stacked together under
hydraulic pressure and then attached to the yoke. These two
structures are assigned for different purposes, the pole core is
of small cross-sectional area and its function is to just hold the
pole shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe having a
relatively larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux

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produced over the air gap between the stator and rotor to
reduce the loss due to reluctance. The pole shoe also carries
slots for the field windings that produce the field flux. Pole
shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii)
spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

5. Field windings- The field winding of DC motor are made with

field coils (copper wire) wound over the slots of the pole shoes
in such a manner that when field current flows through it, then
adjacent poles have opposite polarity are produced. The field
winding basically form an electromagnet, that produces field
flux within which the rotor armature of the DC motor rotates,
and results in the effective flux cutting. Field coils are former
wound and placed on each pole and are connected in series.
They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they
form alternate North and South poles.

6. Armature windings- It is usually a former wound copper coil

which rests in armature slots. The armature conductors are
insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods;
lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave
windings are generally used. A double layer winding means
that each armature slot will carry two different coils.

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The armature winding of DC motor is attached to the rotor, or

the rotating part of the machine, and as a result is subjected
to altering magnetic field in the path of its rotation which
directly results in magnetic losses. For this reason the rotor is
made of armature core, that’s made with several low-
hysteresis silicon steel lamination, to reduce the magnetic
losses like hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively.
These laminated steel sheets are stacked together to form the
cylindrical structure of the armature core.

The armature core are provided with slots made of the same
material as the core to which the armature winding made with
several turns of copper wire distributed uniformly over the entire
periphery of the core. The slot openings a shut with fibrous wedges
to prevent the conductor from plying out due to the high centrifugal
force produced during the rotation of the armature, in presence of
supply current and field.

7. Commutator- A commutator consists of a set of copper

segments which are insulated from each other. The number of
segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each
segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator
is keyed to the shaft.

It is a cylindrical structure made up of copper segments

stacked together, but insulated from each other by mica. The
number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils.

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Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the

commutator is keyed to the shaft. Its main function as far as
the DC motor is concerned is to commute or relay the supply
current from the mains to the armature winding housed over a
rotating structure through the brushes of DC motor.

8. Brushes- The brushes of DC motor are made with carbon or

graphite structures, making sliding contact over the rotating
commutator. The brushes are used to relay the current from
external circuit to the rotating commutator form where it flows
into the armature winding. They rest on commutator
segments and slide on the segments when the commutator
rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the
current. So, the commutator and brush unit of the DC motor is
concerned with transmitting the power from the static
electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the
rotor.

Back EMF

According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy

conversion is possible until there is something to oppose the
conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by
magnetic drag, but in case of DC motors there is back emf.

When the armature of a motor is rotating, the conductors are

also cutting the magnetic flux lines and hence according to the
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in the
armature conductors. The direction of this induced emf is such that
it opposes the armature current (Ia). The circuit diagram below
illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current.
Magnitude of the Back emf can be given by emf equation of a DC
generator.

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Significance of back emf:

Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the

motor. Consider the load on a dc motor is suddenly reduced. In this
case, required torque will be small as compared to the current
torque. Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess
torque. Hence, being proportional to the speed, magnitude of the
back emf will also increase.
With increasing back emf armature current will start decreasing.
Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will also
decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, speed of the
motor will regulate.

On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load

will cause decrease in the speed. Due to decrease in speed, back
emf will also decrease allowing more armature current. Increased
armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load
requirement. Hence, presence of the back emf makes a DC motor
‘self-regulating’.

How a DC motor can be controlled?

DC motors have only two terminals. If you apply a voltage to

these terminals the motor will run, if you invert the terminals
position the motor will change its direction. If the motor is running
and you suddenly disconnect both terminals the motor will keep
rotating but slowing down until stopping. Finally if the motor is
running and you suddenly short-circuit both terminals the motor will
stop.

So there is not a third wire to control a DC motor, but knowing

the previous behaviors it can be designed a way to control it, and
the solution is an H-bridge.

Look at the last evolution of the DC Motor above, you can

observe that there are four gates and a motor connected between
them. This is the simplest H-bridge, where the four gates represent

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for transistors. By manipulating these gates and connecting the

upper and lower terminals to a voltage supply, you can control the
motor in all the behaviors as below.

THINK!

Is the construction of a DC motor same as that of a DC

generator?

Lesson 4

 Identifying Windings
and Connections

There are 2 types of winding in DC Motors.

1. Field Winding - The winding that produces the working flux

and do not vary with load is the exciting or field winding. Field

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winding is essential for the production of magnetic field which

makes it possible to convert energy from mechanical to
electrical form and vice versa.

2. Armature Winding- Handles all transformed power ,carries the

load current, it handles alternating current only hence
laminated to reduce eddy losses plus its rating is equal to the
rating of our machines. Armature current depend on the type
of load.

Generally, an armature winding is like a conductor, and it covers

with a single cotton cover, double cotton cover, otherwise cotton
fiberglass and enamel. Usually, the rolls of the armature winding will
bound mutually with the cotton tape. Thus the coils will be dipped in
soaked varnish then dried up.

Armature winding can be defined as, an electrical machine in

which emf can be generated because of the air gap field flux. It
must be noted that the air gap is produced because of the DC
current flow in the winding. In general, this winding is housed on
slots of the stator & the field winding on rotor slots.

Armature Winding

This winding is placed in the slots of a rotor whereas the field

winding is placed in slots of the stator. The designing of the
armature winding can be done using the copper, & includes the
huge number of insulated coils. These two coils may have several
turns and may be connected either in series otherwise parallel
based on the required type of winding.

Types of Armature Winding

The winding of the machine is classified into two types. They are
closed type winding and Open type winding.

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1. Open type of winding is that it is not closed at one end. These

are used in AC machines like induction machines and
synchronous machines. The open type winding is further
classified as:

a. Gramme ring winding- the emf will be induced in some

portion of the winding the rest of the portion is left inactive.
Due to this, there is a more non-conductive region in the
gramme winding which is a disadvantage. Both the cost
and weight of the machine increases due to the
unnecessary non-functioning region.

b. Drum type winding - the whole part of the winding is

conductive except at the end connections. As there is a
more active length of the copper, the effective utilization of
the copper is also more.

Classification:

1. The Lap winding – It is classified as simplex lap and multiplex

lap winding. The ending of one coil has connected the
beginning end of the succeeding coil through commutator
which is under the same pole. It is used for high current and
low voltage applications. All the slots are completely filled. So,
it is called a complete winding.

2. Wave Winding - The last coil is attached to the beginning end

of the succeeding coil through a commutator which is under
beside pole. It is used for high voltage and low current
applications. The figure which explains the wave winding is
shown in the figure below.

In the case of wave winding, some slots are not filled completely.
This causes some mechanical imbalance in the rotor. The life of the
machine decreases due to this imbalance. So, in order to overcome
this problem, the empty slots are filled by some dummy coils.

The dummy coils provide mechanical support to the rotor. These

are also called dead coils. No energy conversion takes place inside
the dummy coils and these are not connected to the commutator.

Difference between the Lap and Wave winding

Lap Winding Wave Winding

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The number of parallel paths in The number of parallel paths = 2

lap winding is equivalent to the
poles
The number of brush required is The number of brush required =
equal to the number of poles 2
Used for high current and low Used for low current and high
voltage applications voltage applications
Cost of lap winding is high Cost is less
Efficiency is less It is more
EMf is less Emf is more
An additional coil employed is The additional coil employed is
equalizer ring the dummy coil
Lap winding is used at low Wave winding is used at high
voltage and high current voltage and low current
applications applications

Other Types of Motor Windings

1. Stator Windings

The slot on stator core of the three-phase motor winding carries

stator winding. This winding can be supplied with 3-phase AC
supply. The motor winding in three-phase which is connected in star
or delta form based on the type of starting method used.

Stator winding

The motor like squirrel cage can be frequently on track by the

star to delta stator & thus the stator of the motor can be connected
in delta. The slip ring 3-phase induction motor is in progress by
including resistances, thus the slip ring induction motor’s stator
winding can be associated in star otherwise delta form. Whenever
the stator winding is energized by 3-phase ac supply, then it
generates a rotating magnetic field (RMF).

2. Rotor Winding

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The rotating part is known as the rotor. The rotor includes the
rotor winding as well as rotor core. The rotor winding is energized by
the DC supply. The rotor can be classified into two types namely the
phase wound and the squirrel cage.

The squirrel cage rotor’s core is made up of cylindrical iron core

which has a curved slot over the external surface on which the
aluminum or copper conductors are located. These are short-
circuited at the endings using the copper or aluminum rings.

The electromagnetic induction is the occurrence wherein the

electromagnetic force is induced within the conductor which carries
the conductor due to the variable magnetic field. When the current
stimulates in the rotor then it causes the rotor to move.

Motor Winding Calculation

The motor winding wire calculation can be done using an

ohmmeter. Connect the positive terminal of the multimeter which is
in red color to the positive terminal of the windings of the motor.
Similarly, connect the negative terminal which is in black color to
the negative terminal of the windings of the motor. The reading of
the motor winding machine can be displayed on the multimeter
screen that is resistance in ohms.

With the help of Ohm meter, detach the power supply from
the motor. Place meter on ohms and generally the range can be
expected from 3 to 2 ohms. If we observe the reading like zero, and
a short among phases occurs. Generally, if it is open then it will be
above 2K ohms or infinite.

Thus, this is all about an overview of the motor winding

theory. From the above information finally, we can conclude that
windings are made with copper wires which are wound around a
core to make or obtain electromagnetic energy. The wire utilized
within the windings should be protected. But in some cases, we can
see the windings like bare copper but it’s simply coated with
enamel. The most commonly used material for winding is copper.
Aluminum can also be used but it should be thicker to hold a similar
load securely. The copper winding allows for a tiny sized motor.

Types of Armature Connections

1. Symmetrical connections – The coil leads connect to

commutator bars that are in line with the center of the coil.

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2. Non-symmetrical connections - The coil leads connect to

commutator bars that are not in line with the center of the
coil.

3. Progressive connections – If the start and finish leads of a coil

or the elements of a coil do not cross, the connection is
progressive lap winding.

4. Retrogressive connections – If the start and finish leads of a

coil or the elements of a coil cross, the connection are
retrogressive lap winding.

If the winding is changed from progressive to retrogressive or

vice- versa, the effect will be reversed rotation of the armature
and reversed brush polarity on a generator. Lap wound
armatures are usually progressive connections and wave wound
armature is retrogressive connections.

THINK!

What is the difference between field winding to

armature winding?

 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Enumerate and discuss the parts of a DC motor.

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 MODULE SUMMARY

In module I, you have learned the different types and

construction of a DC motors and generators, to learn the basic
motor wiring connections, and to study the principles of its
operation and application.

There are four lessons in module.

I. Lesson 1 deals with the history, application and advantages

of DC motors and generators.

Lesson 2 deals with the different types of DC motors and their

characteristics.

Lesson 3 deals with the construction, parts and working

operations of a DC motors. How a DC motor can be controlled.

Lesson 4 is about the different windings in DC motors. The

difference between lap winding and armature winding.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module I. now you are

ready to evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading
by answering the summative test.

Good Luck!!!

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 SUMMATIVE TEST

1. What are the basic parts of DC motors and its functions?

2. Discuss the working principle of a DC motor.

3. Enumerate some applications of DC motors in industry.

4. Name the different basic types of DC motor.

5. Explain the physical difference between lap windings and

wave windings.

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