SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

UNIT-v SAMPLING THEOREM

Lecture-2 Sampling TECHNIQUES & INTODUCTION TO
BANDPASS SAMPLING

Kunduru Venkat reddy

Faculty of ECE,
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology
11-Dec-24 Kunduru Venkat Reddy 1
 LIST OF TOPICS TO BE COVERED IN THIS UNIT
 Sampling theorem:
 Graphical and analytical proof for Band limited signals
 Effect of under sampling – Aliasing
 Sampling techniques
 Impulse (Ideal) sampling
 Natural (Chopped) Sampling and
 Flat top (S&H) Sampling
 Reconstruction of signals from its samples
 Introduction to Band Pass sampling.
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 2
 TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS LECTURE
 Sampling theorem:
Sampling techniques
 Ideal(Instantaneous or Impulse) sampling
 Natural (Chopped) Sampling and
 Flat top (S&H) Sampling
 Reconstruction of signals from its samples
Introduction to Band Pass sampling.

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 3

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• Sampling of a signal is done in several ways. Basically
there are three types of sampling techniques:
1. Ideal Sampling:
a) Instantaneous or impulse sampling
2. Practical Sampling:
b) Natural (Chopped) sampling
c) Flat top (S & H) sampling
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 INSTANTANEOUS
(IMPULSE)
SAMPLING

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
INSTANTANEOUS (IMPULSE) SAMPLING
• Ideally, sampling should be done instantaneously so that
the kth element of the sequence obtained by sampling,
represents the value of x(t) at t=kT.
• The operation is shown in Fig.8.5a.
• Assume that the fictitious sampler closes almost for zero
time once in every T sec. it is equivalent to transmitting the
input signal to the output for a very very short time
(almost zero time) once every T sec.
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 6
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
INSTANTANEOUS (IMPULSE) SAMPLING
• The mechanical switch can be replaced by an electronic
switch which is basically a Pulse Amplitude Modulator as
shown in Fig.8.5b.

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 7

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
INSTANTANEOUS (IMPULSE) SAMPLING
• Now, the operation is equivalent to multiplying the input
signal x(t) by an impulse train δT(t) as shown in Fig.8.5c. So
the output of the sampler is a train of impulses of height
equal to the instantaneous value of the input signal at the
sampling instant.
• The impulse train, also called the sampling function is
represented as: 
 T (t )    (t  nT )
n  
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
INSTANTANEOUS (IMPULSE) SAMPLING
• The sampled signal is given by
 
xs (t )  x(t ) T (t )  x(t )   (t  nT )   x(nT ) (t  nT )
n   n  

1 
 X s ( )   X (  ns )
T n 

or X s ( f )  fs  X ( f  nf )
n  
s

• This equation gives the spectrum of ideally sampled signal.

It shows that the spectrum Xs(ω) is an infinite sum of
shifted replicas of X(ω).
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
INSTANTANEOUS (IMPULSE) SAMPLING
• It shows that the spectrum Xs(ω) is an infinite sum of
shifted replicas of X(ω) spaced nωs apart, where n = +1, +2,
etc. and scaled by a factor 1/T.
• However, it may be noted that ideal or instantaneous
sampling is possible only in theory, because it is impossible
to have a pulse with pulse width approaching zero.
• Practically, the natural sampling or flat top sampling is
used.
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 NATURAL (CHOPPED)
SAMPLING

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
• Natural sampling, also called sampling using a
sequence of pulses, is the most practical way of
accomplishing sampling of a band-limited signal.
• This is achieved by multiplying the signal x(t) with a
pulse train pT(t) as shown in Fig.8.6.
• Each pulse of pT(t) is of short duration τ and occurs
at a sampling period of T sec.
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 12
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
• The output of the sampler is same as the input during that
short duration τ. Hence it is termed as natural sampling.

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
• Fig.8.7
Explains the
process of
natural
sampling.

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 14

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
• Fig.8.7a&b:The signal x(t) to be sampled & Its spectrum X(f).
• Fig.8.7c&d:The pulse train pT(t) & Its spectrum P(f).
• Fig.8.7e&f: The o/p of the sampler xs(t) & The o/p spectrum Xs(f).
• From Fig.8.7f it is clear that X(f) can be recovered
from Xs(f), i.e. x(t) can be recovered from xs(t), if
fs>2fm by using a Low Pass Filter whose gain is
constant at least up to f=fm and whose cutoff
frequency, B is such that fm < B < fs- fm.
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
• The output of the sampler is: xs (t )  x(t ) pT (t )


Where pT (t )   p(t  nT )
n  
• As pT(t) is a periodic pulse train, let us write its Fourier
series expansion  
pT (t )   p(t  nT )   F e
n   n  
n
j 2nfs t

1 T2
• Where Fn   T pT (t ) e  j 2nfs t
dt
11-Dec-24
T 2
Prof K.Venkat Reddy 16
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
• Since τ the width of p(t), single pulse in pT(t) is very
much less than T and p(t)=0 for |t|> τ/2, we may
write
1 T2 1 
Fn   T pT (t ) e  j 2nfs t
dt   p(t ) e  j 2nfs t
dt
T 2 T 
Fn  f s P(nf s ) Where P(nf s )  F .T [ p(t )] f nf
s

 pT (t )  f s  P(nf )e
n  
s
j 2nfs t

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 17

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING

x (t )  x(t ) p (t )  x(t ) f  P(nf )e 
s T s s
j 2 nfs t

n  

 fs  P(nf ) x(t )e
n  
s
j 2nfs t

• and
  j 2nfs t 
X s ( f )  F .T xs (t )  F .T  f s  P(nf s ) x(t )e 
 n   

 P(nf ) F .T x(t )e   f  P(nf ) X ( f  nf )

 
j 2nfs t
 fs s s s s
n   n  

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 18

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NATURAL (CHOPPED) SAMPLING
Hence

X s ( f )  fs  P(nf ) X ( f  nf )
n  
s s

If x(t) has a spectrum X(f), as shown in Fig.8.7b,

then Xs(f), the spectrum of the sampled version
of x(t) will appear as shown in Fig.8.7f.
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 FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• Flat Top sampling is the simplest and most popular
sampling method that uses the Sample and Hold
(S/H) circuit with flat top samples.
• This is also called practical sampling.
• Here the top of the samples remain constant which
is equal to the instantaneous value of the base band
signal, x(t) at the beginning of sampling.
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• The duration or width of each sample is τ and the
sampling rate, fs=1/T.
• The schematic of Sample and Hold (S&H) circuit
essentially consists of two switches S1, S2 and a
Capacitor C connected as shown in Fig.8.8a.
• A typical output waveform from an S&H circuit is
shown in Fig.8.8b.

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
•

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 23

 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• With S2 open, S1 closed for a very brief period at
each sampling instant. The capacitor C then gets
charged to a voltage equal to the value of the input
signal x(t) at the sampling instant and holds it for a
period τ, at the end of which S2 is closed to allow
the capacitor to discharge.
• This sequence of operations is repeated at the next
and all subsequent sampling instants.
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• The switches S1 and S2 are generally FET switches
and are operated by giving appropriate pulses to
their gates. An actual S&H circuit uses one or two op-
amps also. The voltage across “C” appears as xs(t)
and is sketched in Fig.8.8b.
• From the Fig.8.8 it is obvious that the sampled
version, xs(t) consists of a sequence of rectangular
pulses
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• The leading edge of the kth pulse being at t=kT and the
amplitude of the pulse being the value of x(t) at t=kT, i.e.
x(kT).
• The sampled signal xs(t) is the convolution of rectangular
pulses p(t) and the ideally sampled version of x(t), i.e. of
xδ(t)
Because in time domain xs (t )  p(t )  x (t )
in frequency domain it is X s ( f )  P( f ) X  ( f )
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• Assume that x(t) has a • Since p(t) is a rectangular
spectrum as shown in pulse of width τ , its Fourier
Fig.8.9. transform, P(f) which is a
Sinc function will have a
shape as shown in Fig.8.10
and will have its first zero
values only at f=+(1/τ).

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• Since τ <T, these zero values of |P(f)| which occur at
+(1/τ), will be far away from fs and –fs.
• Since X s ( f )  P( f ) X  ( f ) , its plot will be as shown in
Fig.8.10b.
• Observation is that the magnitude of the high freqy
components in Xs(f) are relatively reduced as
compared to the magnitude of the low freqy comps
because of the multiplication of Xδ(f) by P(f).
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• So by passing xs(t) through an LPF, we can only get a
distorted version of x(t), but not exact x(t).
• This distortion, wherein the amplitude of the high
frequency components are reduced relative to the
amplitude of the low frequency components, in the
reconstructed signal x(t) obtained from the flat top
sampled version of the signal is referred to as the
aperture effect.
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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
FLAT TOP (S&H) SAMPLING
• This aperture effect can be reduced by using an
equalizer with transfer function He(f) in cascade
with the reconstruction filter.
• Where
1
He ( f )  ; f  fm
P( f )

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 RECONSTRUCTION OF SIGNALS
FROM ITS SAMPLES

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 RECONSTRUCTION OF SIGNALS
FROM ITS SAMPLES
• The process of obtaining the analog signal, x(t) from
the sampled signal, xs(t) is called
Data reconstruction or Interpolation.

• We know that xs (t )  x(t ) T (t )  x(t )   (t  nT )
n  

• Or xs (t )   x(nT ) (t  nT )
n  
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 RECONSTRUCTION OF SIGNALS
FROM ITS SAMPLES
• Since δ(t-nT) is zero except at the sampling instants
t=nT, the reconstruction filter, which is assumed to
be linear and time invariant, has unit impulse
response, h(t).
• The reconstruction filter output, y(t) is given by the
convolution.
 
y (t )    x ( nT )  (   nT ) h (t   ) d
 n  
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 RECONSTRUCTION OF SIGNALS
FROM ITS SAMPLES
• Or, upon changing the order of summation and
integration,
 
y (t )   x(nT )   (  nT )h(t   )d
n   
.i.e.

y (t )   x(nT ) h(t  nT )
n  
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 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION
FILTER

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 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION FILTER
• We choose the bandwidth of the ideal
reconstruction filter to be 0.5fs. The transfer function
of this ideal reconstruction filter is, therefore,
T , | f | 0.5 f s
H( f )  
 0, otherwise
and is as shown
in Fig.8.11.
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 37
 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION FILTER
• The impulse response of the ideal reconstruction
filter is given by fs
2

 Te
j 2ft
h(t )  df
fs

• Which is 2

fs

e 
j 2ft 2
e T jf s t  jf s t
h(t )  T j 2t
 j 2t
e

fs
2
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 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION FILTER

h(t ) 
1
f s t
 e jf st  e  jf st
2j
 
sin f s t
f s t
• Or
h(t )  sinc ( f s t )
• Substituting this value of h(t) in the expression for
output y(t), we get
 
t 
y(t )   x(nT ) sinc [ f s (t  nT )]   x(nT ) sinc   n 
n   n   T 
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 39
 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION FILTER
• A more convenient form for this expression, which is
often referred to as an interpolation formula is:

t 
y (t )   x(nT ) sinc  n 
n   T 
• This shows that the original data signal can be
reconstructed by weighting each sample by a Sinc
function centered at the sample time and summing.
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 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION FILTER
• The reconstruction filter discussed above is non-causal and
an impulse response is not limited. So it cannot be used for
real time applications.
• In practice, several other methods are used to reconstruct
the signal. Some of the important ones among them are:
a. Zero order hold
b. First order hold
c. Linear interpolator
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 IDEAL RECONSTRUCTION FILTER
• Zero order hold

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 INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS
SAMPLING

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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• The sampling theorem, which we have discussed
earlier, is called low pass sampling theorem because
it applies only to low pass signals, i.e. signals for
which X(f)=0 for f>fm, where fm has a finite value.
• Here the signal which is band-limited to fm Hz has to
be sampled atleast at 2fm samples per second, if the
analog signal is to be reconstructed.

11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 44

INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• In the case of band pass signals, that is signals
for which X(f)=0 for all frequencies outside the
range f1<f<f2, where f1>0, this rule does not
apply.
• For this class of signals, while there will be no
aliasing if fs>2f2, there might be no aliasing
even if fs<2f2 provided fs satisfies certain
conditions.
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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• Sampling of a band pass signal with fs>2f2 to
prevent aliasing has two disadvantages.
1. The spectrum of the sampled signal will have
spectral gaps.
2. If f2 is large, the sampling rate is also very
large, and therefore, have practical
limitations.
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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• To overcome this, the band pass sampling
theorem is defined as follows
• Let the bandwidth of the band pass signal shown
in Fig.8.29a be BW = f2-f1 = 2fm. Then the band
pass sampling theorem states that, x(t) can be
recovered without any error what so ever from its
samples, x[nT] taken at regular intervals of T, if the
1 2 f2
sampling rate, fs is such that f s  
T m
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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING

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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
1 2 f2
fs  
T m
• Which is smaller than the Nyquist rate, 2f2. Where
m is the largest integer not exceeding f2/B.
• If we assume that the highest frequency
component present in the band pass signal is
multiple of bandwidth, i.e. f2=KB=K2fm, then
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 49
INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• The band pass sampling theorem states
that “The band pass signal, x(t) whose
maximum bandwidth is 2fm can be
completely represented into and
recovered from its samples, if it is
sampled at the minimum rate of twice
the bandwidth”.
11-Dec-24 Prof K.Venkat Reddy 50
INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• Hence for band pass signal of bandwidth 2fm, the
minimum sampling rate is equal to twice that of
bandwidth, i.e. fs = 2 x B = 4fm samples per second,
or T=1/4fm sec.
• If the spectrum of the band pass signal is X(ω) then
the spectrum of the sampled band pass signal is:

1
X s ( )   X (  2nB)
T n 
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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• Where Xs(ω) is the sum of the original Fourier
transform X(ω) and Shifted replicas of X(ω) and then
scaled by 1/T. Fig.8.29b shows the spectrum of the
original signal and sampled signal for K=3.
• From this fig, we can find that the original signal can
be recovered by passing x(t) through an ideal band
pass filter with a pass band given by f1<|f|<f2 with a
gain of T.
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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• It may be noted that sampling frequencies higher
than what is given by the equation fs=2f2/m may
not be always permit recovery of x(t) without
distortion i.e. they may not be able to avoid aliasing
unless fs>2f2.
• The required sampling rate for a band pass filter
depends on m, i.e. on f2/B.

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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• If fs>2f2, there will not be any aliasing and
perfect reconstruction is possible.
• Also if f2=KB where K is an integer, a sampling
rate fs=2B would suffice and will not produce
any aliasing.

11-Dec-24 Prof Kf2.Venkat Reddy 54

INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• Example: Given a function with spectral range
extending from 5.6MHz to 6.8MHz. Find the
minimum sampling rate and maximum sampling
time.
• Solution:
Given frequency range = 5.6MHz to 6.8MHz
Bandwidth, B=2fm=(6.8-5.6)MHz = 1.2MHz
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INTRODUCTION TO BAND PASS SAMPLING
• Example: Given a function with spectral range extending
from 5.6MHz to 6.8MHz. Find the minimum sampling rate
and maximum sampling time.
• Solution continued:
Minimum sampling rate, fs= 2B = 4fm
= 2x1.2 = 2.4MHz
Maximum sampling time, Ts = 1/fs = 1/(2.4x106)
11-Dec-24
= 0.417μs.
Prof Kf2.Venkat Reddy 56
 SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT POINTS
1. Basically there are three types of sampling
techniques: Instantaneous sampling or impulse sampling,
Natural sampling and Flat top sampling
2. The ideal or instantaneous sampling is possible only
in theory because it is impossible to have a pulse
with pulse width approaching zero.
3. Practically, the flat top sampling or natural sampling
is used.
57
 SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT POINTS
4. Natural sampling, also called sampling using a sequence
of pulses, is the most practical way of accomplishing
sampling of a band-limited signal.
5. Flat Top sampling is the simplest and most popular
sampling method that uses the Sample and Hold(S/H)
circuit with flat top samples.

58
 SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT POINTS
6. The amp of the high freqy comps are reduced relative
to the amp of the low freqy comps, in the
reconstructed signal x(t) obtained from the flat top
sampled version of the signal is referred to as the
aperture effect.
7. The process of obtaining the analog signal x(t) from the
sampled signal xs(t) is called data reconstruction or
interpolation.

59
 SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT POINTS

8. The band pass sampling theorem states

that “The band pass signal x(t) whose
maximum bandwidth is 2fm can be
completely represented into and recovered
from its samples if it is sampled at the
minimum rate of twice the bandwidth”.

60