FIELD METHODS IN

PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO FIELD -stereotype

METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
-confirmation bias
The problem with the problem with these
psychology quotes is: Common sense, on the other hand, is a practical,
shared judgment within a community, relying
Lack of Citations: it's hard to check if it's accurate or on accumulated knowledge and cultural norms.
trustworthy.
METHODS OF KNOWING AND ACQUIRING AND
Oversimplification: Psychology is complex. A short ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE: KNOWLEDGE:
quote might make things sound too simple, missing the
full picture and distorting what the research really says NONSCIENTIFIC INFERENCES NONSCIENTIFIC
INFERENCE:
Misinterpretation: Quotes can be taken out of
context, changing their meaning. Psychological studies 1. TENACITY - involves accepting information
often have specific conditions. because it has been repeated or accepted for
a long time, rather than questioning its validity
Variability in Research Findings: Psychology is or seeking evidence.
always evolving. One quote might capture one study's 2. INTUITION - Intuition involves trusting one's
result but not show the diversity of the results of feelings or instincts to form beliefs or make
other/ongoing research. decisions without relying on concrete evidence
or logical reasoning. (Trust your gut/Gut
Popularity Over Accuracy: Quotes can be popular feeling).
because they sound good, not because they're true. 3. AUTHORITY - Accepting information as true
simply because it comes from a perceived
Pseudo-Scientific Claims: Not all "Psychology says"
authority figure or source, without critically
quotes are based on solid science. Some statements
evaluating the evidence.
might be guesses or ideas without real research to
4. RATIONALISM - Relying on logical reasoning
support them.
or deductive thinking to arrive at conclusions,
Research is a systematic and organized process of often disregarding real-world
inquiry and investigation conducted to discover new evidence/objective truth. “Violent, head-to-
knowledge, verify existing information, or solve specific head contact in football games causes
problems. it is systematic, methodical, and ethical. concussions. John has a concussion.
Therefore, John experienced violent, head-to-
Why Psychologists use it: head contact in a football game.
5. RATIONALISM - Relying on logical reasoning
Psychologists use research to understand human or deductive thinking to arrive at conclusions,
behavior, test hypotheses, and gather evidence, often disregarding real-world
advancing our knowledge of psychology. evidence/objective truth.
6. EMPIRICISM - Relying solely on direct
Helps identify patterns, establish cause-and-effect
sensory experiences or observations as the
relationships, and develop effective interventions,
basis for forming beliefs, often without
therapies, and strategies for mental health
considering broader contextual factors.
improvement.
Psychology is Psychology is a Soft Science.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that
simplify decision-making. They're quick strategies we
• Because it studies human behavior and
use, often based on limited information. feelings, which are not always easy to
measure like things in "hard sciences"
-Hindsight bias
such as physics or chemistry.
OBJECTIVES OF OBJECTIVES OF the hypothesis and applying a specific, real
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE: life, observations.
4. Evaluate the prediction by making a
DESCRIBE: to accurately identify/measure how systematic, planned observations: this is
people think, feel, and behave. the actual research or data collection phase of
the specific of the scientific method.
UNDERSTAND: figure out why people behave the way 5. Use the observations to support, refute,
they do and understand the reasons behind it. define, the original hypothesis: the final step
PREDICT: tries to make guesses about how people of the scientific method is to compare the
might behave in the future based on what we know actual observations with the predictions that
about them. were made from the hypothesis.

CONTROL: to find ways to help or influence people to LESSON 2: THEORY AND

have better mental health or behave in positive ways.
EPISTEMOLOGY
MAJOR APPROACHES IN RESEARCH:
WHAT IS A THEORY?
QUANTITATIVE: Analyze numerical data through
a "theory" is a structured set of ideas that explains and
surveys and experiments to identify patterns and test
predicts things in a specific area of study.
hypotheses with statistics.
It's like a framework to understand and explore
QUALITATIVE: Explore non-numerical data using
concepts in a field
methods like interviews and focus groups to
understand complex phenomena. –a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to
use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable
MIXED METHOD: Combine qualitative and
hypotheses.
quantitative approaches to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of a research question.
KEY FEATURES OF A THEORY
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: an approach to acquiring
1. SET OF ASSUMPTIONS
knowledge that involves formulating specific questions
and then systematically finding answers. 2. SET OF RELATED ASSUMPTIONS

STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS: 3. LOGICAL DEDUCTIVE REASONING

1. Observing behavior in other phenomena: 4. TESTABLE

simply observe the world around you until
some behavior or event catches your HOW TO THEORIZE?
attention.
• The process of generalization is an almost 1. Identify a Question or Problem
automatic human response also known as
induction or inductive reasoning. 2. Research and Gather Information: reasoning
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a
3. Generate Hypotheses or
hypothesis): the process usually begins by
identifying other factors, or variables that are 4. Design and Conduct Experiments or Studies
associated with your observations.
• Variables are characteristics or that THEORY V.S HYPOTHESIS: A HYPOTHESIS IS AN
change or have different values for EDUCATED GUESS YOU CAN TEST, AND A
different individuals are associated with THEORY IS A WELL-PROVEN EXPLANATION
your observations. BACKED BY LOTS OF EVIDENCE.
• A hypothesis is a statement that
describes a relationship between or Epistemology: the study of how we know things and
among variables. what counts as knowledge.
• A hypothesis is not a final answer but
- The theory of knowledge, with regards to its
rather a proposal to be tested and
methods, validity, and scope. Epistemology is
evaluated.
the investigation of what distinguishes justified
3. Use your hypothesis to generate a testable
beliefs from opinion.
prediction: usually, this step involves taking
RESEARCH AS A SCRIPT: - YES. A TOPIC CAN BE EXPLORED WITH
THE USE OF ANY MAJOR APPROACH, IT’S
1. Formulate the idea JUST A MATTER OF EFFICIENCY
2. Formulate the design
3. Collect the data
4. Analyze the data
5. Communicate the findings

ALTERNATIVE KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS

QUANTI QUALI MIXED

POSTPOSITIVISM CONSTRUCTIVISM PRAGMATISM
▪ Determination ▪ Understanding ▪ Consequence
▪ Reductionism ▪ Multiple of actions
▪ Empirical meanings ▪ Problem-
observation ▪ Social and centered
and historical ▪ Real-world
measurement construction practice
▪ Theory
verification

POSTPOSITIVISM CONSTRUCTIVISM FORMULATE THE IDEA

• Understanding
• Determination 1. Find your one idea
• Multiple
• Reductionism • Literature
participants
• Empirical observation and • Experiences
meanings
measurement
• Social and • Others
• Theory verification
historical 2. Review the Literature
constructions • Read the Lit
• Theory
• Interpret the Lit
generation
• Discuss the Lit
ADVOCACY/PARTICIPATORY PRAGMATISM • Think about the Lit
• Consequences 3. Formulate the Research Question
• Political
• Empowerment issue-
of actions • Theories?
• Problem- • Past Findings
oriented
centered
• Collaborative • Refine Ideas
• Pluralistic
• Change-oriented 4. Select the Methodical Approach
• Real-world
practice oriented • Quali?
• Quanti?
• Mixed Method
5. Evaluate the Research
EMPHASIS ON ASSUMED CHARACTERISTICS OF
• Is it relevant?
RESEARCH
• Is it valuable?
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research • Is it practical?
Uses numbers Uses words
ALTERNATIVE KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS
Concerned with behavior Concerned with meanings
Begins with hypothesis Induces hypothesis from POSTPOSITIVISM
data Best described as:
Generalizations Case studies
o Scientific method, science research, empirical
They are not dichotomous/polar opposites science etc.
o This explanation will attempt to establish causal
SO SIR, DOES THAT MEAN A TOPIC CAN BE
links and relationships between the different
EXPLORED USING QUALI OR QUANTI?
 elements (or variables) of the subject and relate hypothese n ▪ Integrates
them to a particular theory or practice. s ▪ Brings the data at
▪ Uses personal different
POSTPOSITIVISM (QUANTITATIVE) standards of values to stages
reliability study ▪ Presents
o Determination – examining causes and effects and validity ▪ Validates visual
outcomes. ▪ Observes findings pictures of
o Reductionism – reduces ideas that constitute and ▪ Interprets procedures
hypotheses and questions measures data ▪ Employs
o Empirical observation and measurement – information ▪ Creates practices of
carefully observe objective outcomes. numerically agenda for both
▪ Uses change quantitative
o Theory Verification – begins with a theory
unbiased ▪ Collaborates and
context data to support the previous theory approaches with qualitative
uses participants researches
CONSTRUCTIVISM statistics
Best described as:
STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY
o are particularly concerned with understanding
behavior from the participants’ subjective frames QUANTI QUALI MIXED
of reference. ▪ Narratives ▪ Sequential
▪ Experiment
▪ Phenomenolog ▪ Transformativ
o approach research from the perspective that al Designs
y e
human behavior is not as easily measured as ▪ Non-
▪ Ethnographies ▪ Concurrent
experimenta
phenomena in the natural sciences. ▪ Grounded
l designs
Theory
such as
CONSTRUCTIVISM (QUALITATIVE) ▪ Case Study
surveys
o Understanding – individuals seek to understand
the world they live in.
o Multiple participant meanings – individuals
POSTPOSITIVISM
develop subjective meanings to their experiences.
o Social and historical construction – subjective 1. Knowledge is conjectural (and antifoundational) –
meanings are negotiated socially and historically absolute truth can never be found. Thus, evidence
through interaction with others. established in research is always imperfect and
fallible. It is for this reason that researchers state
METHODS that they do not prove a hypothesis; instead, they
indicate a failure to reject the hypothesis.
QUANTI QUALI MIXED 2. Research is the process of making claims and
▪ Emerging ▪ Both then refining or abandoning some of them for other
▪ Predetermined
methods predetermine claims more strongly warranted. Most quantitative
▪ Instrument-
▪ Open-ended d and
biased and research, for example, starts with the test of a
questions emerging
close-ended theory
▪ Interview methods
questions
data, ▪ Both open- 3. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape
▪ Performance
document ended &
data, attitude knowledge. In practice, the researcher collects
data and close-ended
data, & information on instruments based on measures
audiovisual question
census data
data ▪ Multiple forms completed by the participants or by observations
▪ Statistical
▪ Text and of data recorded by the researcher.
analysis
image drawing from
analysis. all possibility
4. Research seeks to develop relevant, true
▪ Statistical and statements, ones that can serve to explain the
text analysis situation of concern or that describe the causal
relationships of interest. In quantitative studies,
PRACTICES OF THE RESEARCHER
researchers advance the relationship among
variables and pose this in terms of questions or
QUANTI QUALI MIXED
hypotheses.
▪ Positions ▪ Collects 5. Being objective is an essential aspect of
▪ Tests or
self both competent inquiry; researchers must examine
verifies
▪ Collects quantitative
theories methods and conclusions for bias. For example,
participant and
▪ Identifies standard of validity and reliability are important in
meanings qualitative
variables quantitative research.
▪ Focuses on a ▪ Develops a
▪ Relates
single rationale for
variables in
phenomeno mixing
CONSTRUCTIVISM methods, techniques, and procedures of research
that best meet their needs and purposes.
1. Meanings are constructed by human beings as • Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute
they engage with the world they are interpreting. unity. In a similar way, mixed methods researchers
Qualitative researchers tend to use open- ended look to many approaches for collecting and
questions so that the participants can share their analyzing data rather than subscribing to only one
views. way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative).
2. Humans engage with their world and make sense • Truth is what works at the time. It is not based in a
of it based on their historical and social duality between reality independent of the mind or
perspectives- we are all born into a world of within the mind. Thus, in mixed methods research,
meaning bestowed upon us by our culture. Thus, investigators use both quantitative and qualitative
qualitative researchers seek to understand the data because they work to provide the best
context or setting of the participants through understanding of a research problem.
visiting this context and gathering information • The pragmatist researchers look to the what and
personally. They also interpret what they find, an how to research, based on the intended
interpretation shaped by the researcher’s own consequences- where they want to go with it.
experiences and background. Mixed methods researchers need to establish a
3. The basic generation of meaning is always social, purpose for their mixing, a rationale for the
arising in and out of interaction with a human reasons why quantitative and qualitative data need
community. The process of qualitative research is to be mixed in the first place.
largely inductive, with the inquirer generating • Pragmatists agree that research always occur in
meaning from the data collected in the field. social, historical, political, and other contexts. In
this way, mixed methods studies may include a
ADVOCACY/PARTICIPATORY postmodern turn, a theoretical lens that is
1. Participatory action is recursive or dialectical and reflective of social justice and political aims.
focused on bringing about change in practices. • Pragmatists have believed in an external world
Thus, at the end of advocacy/participatory studies, independent of the mind as well as that lodged in
researchers advance an action agenda for the mind. But they believe that we need to stop
change. asking questions about reality and the laws of
2. This form of inquiry is focused on helping nature (Cherryholmes, 1992). “They would simply
individuals free themselves from constraints found like to change the subject” (Rorty, 1983, p. xiv).
in the media, in language, in work procedures, and
in the relationships of power in educational setting. LESSON 3: QUANTITATIVE
Advocacy/participatory studies often begin with an
important issue or stance about the problems in RESEARCH
society, such as the need for empowerment.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
3. It is emancipatory in that it helps unshackle people
from the constraints of irrational and unjust • a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the
structures that limit self-development and self- collection and analysis of data.
determination. The advocacy/participatory studies • It is formed from a deductive approach where
aim to create a political debate and discussion so emphasis is placed on the testing of theory,
that change will occur. shaped by empiricist and positivist
4. It is practical and collaborative because it is inquiry philosophies.
completed with others rather than on or to others.
In this spirit, advocacy/participatory authors CHARACTERISTICS OF A QUANTITATIVE
engage the participants as active collaborators in RESEARCH
their inquiries.
• the investigator identifies a research problem
PRAGMATISM based on trends in the field or on the need to
explain why something occurs
• Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of • some quantitative research problems require that
philosophy and reality. This applies to mixed
you explain how one variable affects another.
methods research in that inquirers draw liberally
• use an instrument to measure the variables in the
from both quantitative and qualitative assumptions
study
when they engage in their research.
• An instrument is a tool for measuring, observing,
• Individual researchers have a freedom of choice.
or documenting quantitative data.
In this way researchers are free to choose the
MEASURING VARIABLE
• Questionnaires/ Psychometric Test • Quasi-experiment – measure outcomes for
• Reliability- a test is reliable if it’s consistent; that program participants and non-participants without
is, it’s self-consistent random assignment
• Validity - a test is valid if it measures what it
claims to measure
• You analyze the data using mathematical
procedures, called statistics.
• These analyses consist of breaking down the data
into parts to answer the research questions

TWO BROAD QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

DESIGN

• Experimental Design
METHODOLOGY/DATA ANALYSIS
• Survey/Descriptive/Nonexperimental Design
• Hypothesis Testing
• Statement of the Problem/Objectives of the Study
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Survey designs are research designs that o Descriptive Question
measure variables as they occur naturally. o “What is the profile of the respondents?”
• The researcher doesn’t intentionally manipulate or o “To what extent is the students’ stress?”
interfere with any of the variables (unlike o “What is the level of the respondents’ aggression?”
experiments). o “To determine the degree of the respondents’
• Survey designs to examine the relationships mental health
between variables as they happen in the real
world. • Statement of the Problem/Objectives of the Study
• Correlational, and Descriptive Studies o Descriptive Statistics
o Frequency
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN o Percentage
• Cross-sectional Study o Central Tendency and Variability
• Longitudinal Study
Hypothesis Testing

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN • Statement of the Problem/Objectives of the Study

• An experiment is simply a design of a study that
Inferential Question
aims to establish a cause-and effect relationship
by manipulating one thing. o “Is there a significant difference on the level of
• Causation is NOT synonymous with Correlation stress when grouped according to their profile?”
o Does watching violent games have a significant
effect on the behavior of a child?”
o Do the number of hours studying have a significant
relationship with the academic performance?

PARAMETRIC NON-PARAMETRIC
Assumed normal Assumed non-normal
distributions distribution
Interval or Ratio Nominal or Ordinal
Results can be Results cannot be
significantly affected by significantly affected by
outliers outliers
Have more statistical It is not so powerful like
MAJOR TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN power parametric test
Tend to need larger Can be used on small
• Pre-experiment – often studied but no samples sample size
comparison between an equivalent non treatment
Samples should be Can be used where the
group is made.
drawn randomly from the samples are not
• True experiment
population selected randomly
DESIGNING QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
PARAMETRIC NON-
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE
TEST PARAMETRIC
TEST RESEARCH

REQUIRED • Normal
• Normal 1. Qualitative research is best suited to address a
Distribution is
FEATURES Distribution research problem in which you do not know
not required
• Homogeneous the variables and need to explore.
• Homogeneous
Variance
Variance is
• Interval or ◦ A central phenomenon is the key concept, idea,
not required
Ratio Data or process studied in qualitative research.
• Nominal or
Ordinal Data
◦ The research problem of the difficulty in teaching
children who are deaf requires both an exploration
(because we need to better know how to teach
MEASURE TYPE OF TEST TYPE OF DATA these children) and an understanding (because of
PEARSON Parametric Interval its complexity) of the process of teaching and
CORRELATION learning.
SPEARMAN Non-parametric Ordinal
2. The literature review plays a less substantial
RHO
role at the beginning of the study than in
• 1.00 = Perfect Relationship quantitative research.
• 0.75 – 0.99 = Very Strong Relationship
• 0.50 – 0.74 = Strong Relationship ◦ although you may review the literature to justify
• 0.25 – 0.49 = Moderate Relationship the need to study the research problem, the
• 0.01 – 0.24 = Weak Relationship literature does not provide major direction for the
• 0.00 = No Relationship research questions.
◦ qualitative research relies more on the views of
participants in the study and less on the direction
identified in the literature by the researcher.

3. In qualitative research, the purpose statement

the research questions and are stated so that
you can best learn from participants.

◦ You research a single phenomenon of interest

and state this phenomenon in a purpose
statement.
◦ “What is the lived experience of ?”
◦ “What are the perspectives of mothers of children
with disabilities on trust in school principals?”

4. In qualitative research, you collect data to learn

from the participants in the study and develop
forms, called protocols, for recording data as
the study proceeds.

◦ Interview Protocol - which consists of four or

five questions
◦ Observational Protocol - which the researcher
records notes about the behavior of participants.

5. In qualitative research typically you gather a

text database, so the data analysis of text
consists of dividing it into groups of sentences

◦ Text Segments
 ◦ Rather than using statistics, you analyze words QUALITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT AND
or pictures to describe the central phenomenon RESEARCH QUE STIONS
under study.
◦ From this complex picture, you make an QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
interpretation of the meaning of the data by
reflecting on how the findings relate to existing HYPOTHESIS
research
Quantitative Qualitative

6. In reporting qualitative research you employ a • Hypotheses are used • Hypotheses are not
used; instead, inquirers
wide range of formats to report your studies. • Researchers test
use only research
hypotheses using
questions.
◦ A study may begin with a long, personal narrative statistics
• Statistics are not used
told in story form or with a more objective,
in qualitative research,
scientific report that resembles quantitative hypotheses in qualitative
research. research are not
◦ Being reflexive– involve discussing personal appropriate
experiences and identifying how you collaborated
with participants during phases of the project.

VARIABLE
7. Natural setting: Qualitative researchers tend to
collect data in the field at the site where Quantitative Qualitative
participants experience the issue or problem under • The investigator • The term variable is not
study. identifies multiple used, and instead the
variables and seeks to inquirer seeks to gather
8. Multiple Sources of Data: Qualitative researchers measure them. information on a single
typically gather multiple forms of data, such as concept—a central
phenomenon
interviews, observations, documents, and
audiovisual information rather than rely on a single
data source.
THEORY
9. Emergent design: This means that the initial plan
Quantitative Qualitative
for research cannot be tightly prescribed, and
some or all phases of the process may change or • Researchers often test • Theories are typically
theories, broad not tested. Instead, the
shift after the researcher enters the field and
explanations that predict inquirer asks participants
begins to collect data. the results from relating in a study to share ideas
variables. and build general
10. Reflexivity: In qualitative research, the inquirer themes based on those
reflects about how their role in the study and their ideas.
personal background, culture, and experiences
hold potential for shaping their interpretations,
such as the themes they advance and the
STANCE
meaning they ascribe to the data.
Quantitative Qualitative
11. Holistic Account: This involves reporting multiple • The investigator • The inquirer uses more
perspectives, identifying the many factors involved employs a close-ended of an open-ended stance
in a situation. stance by identifying and often changes the
variables and selecting phenomenon being
instruments to collect studied or at least allows
FIVE APPROACHES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
data before the study it to emerge during the
◦ Phenomenology begins. study.
• Quantitative research • The research questions
◦ Narrative Analysis/Research
questions and may change based on
◦ Ethnography hypotheses do not the responses of the
change during the study. participants.
◦ Case Study
CENTRAL PHENOMENON
◦ Grounded Theory
◦ A central component of both the purpose statement
and the research questions in qualitative research is
the central phenomenon
 ◦ “The lived experience of single mothers of ◦ The purpose of this qualitative study is to describe
CSN” classroom learning using the Internet for five high-
school students participating in a sign language
◦ “The perspectives of terminal case cancer
class.
patients on life fulfillment”
Sample Scripts
◦ They also show a focus on a single concept or
process rather than relating two or more ideas as ◦ The purpose of this qualitative study is to describe
found in quantitative research classroom learning using the Internet for five high-
school students participating in a sign language
class.
◦ If we analyze this example, we find:
The central phenomenon: classroom learning using
the Internet
The participants: five high-school students
The research site: a class in sign language at X high
school

WRITING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Qualitative research questions are open-ended,

Example general questions that the researcher would like
answered during the study.
◦ Esteem and academic performance
Guidelines
◦ Social anxiety and negative self talk
◦ Ask questions that use neutral, exploratory
◦ Resilience and coping strategies language and refrain from conveying an expected
◦ Decision making and peer influence direction (or non-directional outcome if you are
thinking like a quantitative researcher). For example,
◦ Attachment style and new experiences
use action verbs such as generate, discover,
◦ Procrastination and fear of failure understand, describe, and explore
◦ Classroom dynamics and discipline
Central Questions
WRITING QUALITATIVE PURPOSE STATEMENT
◦ consider stating the most general question you can
◦ A purpose statement in qualitative research ask
indicates the intent to explore or understand the ◦ place it at the end of the introduction to your study,
central phenomenon with specific individuals at a and state it as a brief question
certain research site.
Sample Script
◦ In quantitative research, inquirers write this purpose
◦ What is (the central phenomenon) for
statement as a single sentence and typically include it
(participants) at (research site)?
in a study at the end of the introduction.
Central Questions
Guidelines
Sample Script
◦ State the central phenomenon you plan to explore.
◦ What is creativity for five students at Roosevelt High
◦ Use words that convey intent about the exploration,
School?
such as explore, discover, understand, and
describe. Beginning word: “What”
◦ Refer to the research site where you will study the Central phenomenon: creativity
participants. Participants: five students
Sample Scripts Research site: Roosevelt High School
◦ The purpose of this qualitative study will be to Central Questions
(explore/discover/understand/describe) (the
central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research ◦ Are the types of questions asked during data
site). collection (e.g., conducting interviews or when
observing) the same questions as the sub- PHASE 2: PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS AND
questions? INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORKS
◦ Yes, the core questions you ask might be the
• Ontological
issue sub-questions in your study.
• Epistemological
◦ You would not ask your central question • Axiological
because that is the overall question you seek • Methodological
to answer with your research. • Postpositivism
Sub-questions/Corollary Questions • Social constructivism
◦ possess the same qualities as central questions (i.e., • Transformative frameworks
open ended, emerging, neutral in language, and few in • Postmodern perspectives
number), but they provide greater specificity to the • Pragmatism
questions in the study. • Feminist theories
• Critical theory and critical race theory
◦ Preliminary conversations or interviews with your
• Queer theory
participants can provide useful leads for these sub
• Disabilities theories
questions. Writing Qualitative Research Questions

Sub-questions How do your beliefs guide your actions as a

researcher?
◦ What are students’ experiences with weapons in high
schools? (central question) PHASE 3: RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND
◦ What are the categories of experiences of APPROACHES
students? (sub question)
• Design
◦ What process occurs that reflects these • Case study
experiences? (sub question) • Ethnography, participant observation, performance
◦ What experiences reflect the relationship ethnography
among the categories? (sub-question) • Phenomenology, ethnomethodology
• Grounded theory
Sub-questions • Life history, testimonio
◦ Types of Sub-questions • Historical method
• Action and applied research
• Issue Sub-question - are questions that narrow
the focus of the central question into specific questions • Clinical research
(or issues) the researcher seeks to learn from
How do your philosophical and theoretical frameworks
participants in a study.
inform your choice of research approaches?
• Procedural Sub-question - indicate the steps to
be used in analyzing the data in a qualitative study. PHASE 4: METHODS OF COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
PHILOSOPHICAL, • Observing
PARADIGM AND • Interviewing
•
INTERPRETIVE Artifacts, documents and records
• Visual methods
FRAMEWORKS OF • Autoethnography
QUALITATIVE STUDY • Oral history
• Data management records
PHASE 1: THE RESEARCHER AS A • Computer-assisted analysis
MULTICULTURAL SUBJECT • Textual analysis
• Focus groups
• History and Research tradition • Applied ethnography
• Conceptions of self and the other
• The ethics and politics of research In what ways does your research approach influenced
the methods you used for data collection and analysis?
What perspectives and experiences do you bring to
your research? PHASE 5: THE ART, THE PRACTICE, AND
POLITICS OF INTERPRETATION AND
EVALUATION
 • Criteria for judging adequacy EPISTEMOLOGY
• Practices and policy of interpretation
▪ Researchers try to get as close as possible to the
• Writing as interpretation
participants being studied.
• Evaluation traditions
• Policy analysis ▪ Researchers conduct their studies in the “field”,
• Applied research where the participants live and work – these are
important contexts for understanding what the
What contributes to your decision related to rigor, participants are saying.
inferences, and used of findings?
▪ The longer researchers stay in the “field”, the more
PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS they “know what they know”.

▪ In the choice of qualitative research, inquirers make ▪ Ontological beliefs will dictate epistemological beliefs.
certain assumptions:
▪ “What the researcher believes about the nature of
1. Ontology – stance toward the nature of reality reality will dictate what kind of relationship they think
the researcher should have with whatever is being
2. Epistemology – how the researcher knows what
studied”.
she or he knows
▪ TWO BASIC SETS OF BELIEFS:
3. Axiology – the role of values in the research
1. Etic Approach – taking an “outsider’s” view of
4. Rhetoric – the language of the research.
someone else’s situation ▪ Cross cultural examination
5. Methodology – the methods used in the process. of I.Q, without taking culture bg into consideration ▪
You study a culture that you don’t belong to; i.e
researching.
ONTOLOGICAL
▪ Nature of reality and its characteristics. 2. Emic Approach – “Insider’s” view of reality;
interacting to people within. ▪ Culture specialized test. ▪
▪ Researchers are embracing the idea of multiple You try and gather information within the society, by
realities. immersing or actively participating in their culture.

▪ Evidence of multiple realities includes “use of ▪ “What is truth”

multiple quotes based on the actual words of different
individuals and presenting different perspective from ▪ “What is real knowledge?”
individuals.
▪ “What is the relationship between the researcher and
TWO TYPES OF ONTOLOGY what is being studied?”

1. Realism – believe that the truth can be discovered ▪ In practice – get into the field and participate to gain an
using objective measurements; believes in only one understanding of participants’ view on their realities.
truth.

2. Relativism – believe in multiple versions of reality;

what is real depends on the meaning you attach to
truth.

▪ “What is the nature of being, reality, existence?”

▪ “What can be known about it?”

▪ In practice – use the words of participants in quotes AXIOLOGICAL

and themes to show offering perspectives. ▪ A branch of philosophy that studies values.

▪ “Should we seek just to understand or seek to

change the world for the better?”

▪ “What is the role of values?”

▪ Because reality is subjective, facts cannot be

separated from values.
 4. Hypothesis will generate conclusions and
theories

PARADIGMS OR WORLDVIEWS

▪ “basic set of beliefs that guide action”

1. Postpositivism
2. Constructivism
RHETORICAL 3. Advocacy/Participatory
▪ Assumption that the writing needs to be personal 4. Pragmatism
and literary in form.

▪ “What is the language of research?” POSTPOSITIVISM

▪ It will take a scientific approach to research
▪ Since reality is subjective, it is okay to write
narratively, in the first person, & informally, using ▪ Elements:
personal voice.
▪ Reductionistic
▪ Logical
▪ Empirical Data Collection
▪ Cause-and-effect oriented
▪ Deterministic based on theories
▪ recognizes limits or reason.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
▪ Individuals seek understanding of the world in which
they live and work.

▪ The goal of research, then, is to rely as much as

METHODOLOGY possible on the participants’ views of the situation.

▪ Philosophies that guide how knowledge should be ▪ In practice, the questions become broad and general
gathered. so that the participants can construct the meaning of a
situation, meaning typically forged in discussions or
▪ Methodology can be divided based on the interactions with other people.
ontological and epistemological beliefs that led to
them.
ADVOCACY/PARTICIPATORY
▪ Quantitative – deductive reasoning ▪ It focuses on the needs of people who are
“powerless” in society.
1. The study starts with a theory.
▪ Research shouldn’t JUST result in information,
2. From that theory, hypothesis will be developed
research should also result in action.
3. Hypothesis Testing
▪ Empowering participants to make change in their
4. Prove or disprove the hypothesis (Results) communities and advocating for the powerless people
so that change can happen
▪ Qualitative – inductive reasoning
Key Features:
1. Talk to participants to gather specific information
▪ Participatory action is recursive or dialectical and Is
2. Look for patterns and common findings focused on bringing about change in practices.

3. Hypotheses are created (though it’s a term for ▪ It is focused on helping individuals free themselves
the quantitative) from constraints found in the media, in language, in
work procedures, and in the relationships of power in
educational settings.
 ▪ It helps unshackle people from the constraints of ▪ perspectives are concerned with empowering human
irrational and unjust structures that limit self beings to transcend the constraints placed on them by
development and self-determination. race, class, and gender

▪ It is practical and collaborative because it is inquiry ▪ raise important questions about the control and
completed “with” others rather than “on” or “to” others. production of knowledge, particularly about people and
communities of color.
PRAGMATISM
▪ This worldview focus on the outcomes of the QUEER THEORY
research–the actions, situations, and consequences of ▪ focuses on individuals calling themselves lesbians,
inquiry–rather than antecedent conditions.
gays, bisexuals, or transgendered people.
▪ Instead of a focus on methods, the important aspect
▪ The research using this approach does not objectify
of research is the problem being studied and the
individuals, is concerned with cultural and political
questions asked about this problem.
means, and conveys the voices and experiences of
=How do we fix this?” over “What causes this?”= individuals who have been suppressed.

▪ In practice, researchers will use multiple methods of

DISABILITY THEORIES
data collection to best answer the research question
▪ Disability as a dimension of difference, not of defect
▪ Employ both quantitative and qualitative research
sources of data collection (ethnography) ▪ Viewing individuals with disabilities as different is
reflected in the research process, such as in the types of
▪ Focus on the practical implications of the research questions asked, the labels applied to these individuals,
considerations of how the data collection will benefit the
INTERPRETIVE COMMUNITIES community.
▪ It provides an overall orienting lens that is used to
THE INDUCTIVE LOGIC OF RESEARCH IN A
study questions of gender, class, and race (or other
QUALITATIVE STUD
issues of marginalized groups).

▪ They guide the researchers as to what issues are

important to examine (e.g., marginalization,
empowerment, oppression, power) and the people who
need to be studied (e.g., women, low economic social
status, ethnic and racial groups, sexual orientation,
disability).

▪ Emphasize the importance of conducting research

that best addresses the research problem.

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES
▪ View as problematic women’s diverse situations and
the institutions that frame those situations.

▪ Research topics may include policy issues related to

realizing social justice for women in specific contexts or
knowledge about oppressive situations for women

▪ The questions feminists pose relate to the centrality of

gender in the shaping of our consciousness. The aim of
this ideological research is to “correct both the
invisibility and distortion of female experience in ways
relevant to ending women’s unequal social position”

CRITICAL & CRITICAL RACE THEORY

 Three: Reflection on Meanings
LESSON 7: INTERVIEW:
CONCEPTUALIZATION AND Interview One: Focused Life History

TOOL CONSTRUCTION the interviewer’s task is to put the participant’s

experience in context by asking him or her to tell as
WHY INTERVIEW? much as possible about him or herself in light of the
“If given a chance to talk freely, people appear to know a topic up to the present time.
lot about what is going on”
• How is your experience growing up into a
The best stories are those that stir people’s minds, teenage girl? What are the hardships you
hearts, and souls and by so doing give them new insights experienced so far?
into themselves, their problems and their human • How is your experience as a student?
condition. The challenge is to develop a human science • What challenges did you have to overcome?
that can more fully serve this aim. The question, then, is
Interview Two: Details of Experience
not “Is story telling science?” but “Can science learn to
tell good stories?” concentrates on the concrete details of the
participants’ in the topic area of the study.
• At the root of in-depth interviewing is an interest
in understanding the lived experience of other • What are the things that you do at this time of
people and the meaning they make of that summer? present lived experience As an only
experience. child, how is your relationship with your
• Interviewing provides access to the context of parents?
people’s behavior and thereby provides a way • Can you describe or visualize to us how you
for researchers to understand the meaning of interact with your friends at school?
that behavior.
• The best at exploring experiences, since it is (We do not ask for opinions but rather the details of their experience,
upon which their opinions may be built.)
open-ended in nature
Interview Three: Reflection on Meanings
It is a powerful way to gain insight into educational
and other important social issues through this is where we ask participants to reflect on the
understanding the experience of the individuals whose experiences they addressed to us.
lives reflect those issues.
• “In the previous segment of our interview, you
“It satisfies one’s emphatic and intellectual curiosity. mentioned that you rarely interact with people,
particularly with people whom you deem, I
APPROACHES IN INTERVIEW quote, “Not in my League”. And when you were
• Phenomenological Interview focus on the a kid, you said that your parents instilled a
experiences of participants on a particular thinking in you, that you need to always “Aim
event, and the meanings they make of that High”. What sense can you make out of this? Do
experience you think something is going on between those
• Hermeneutic Interview focuses on the two things I pointed out?”
reflections of both researchers and participants • “You said that you were the only child for 10
as they share ideas and reflect together. years, and when your brother came along, you
felt like you didn't matter that much anymore.
• Ethnographic Interview to explore the
Based on this, how would you define the
meanings that people ascribe to actions and
parents’ love for their offspring?
events in their cultural worlds, expressed in
their own language.
SPACING OF INTERVIEWS
STRUCTURE FOR PHENOMENOLOGICAL 1. The researcher can space each interview from 3
INTERVIEW: days to a week apart.
3 PART SYSTEM Interview One: Focused Life History 2. This allows time for the participant to mull over
the preceding interview but not enough time to
Interview Two: The Details of Experience Interview lose the connection between the two.
 3. The multiple (3) 1½ hours of interaction may understand your central phenomenon and the research
develop the relationship between the question you are asking.
participants and the interviewers positively.
2. Gain access to these individuals and sites by
VALIDITY OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS: obtaining permissions.

• Qualitative questionnaires are often 3. Consider what types of information will best answer
'unique' and not designed to be your research questions.
generalizable to other studies.
4. Design protocols or instruments for collecting and
• Forming interview questions must give
recording the information.
information to answer your research
questions. (central phenomenon)
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES IN QUALITATIVE
CONDUCTING THE INTERVIEW: DESIGN

• In qualitative design, you select people or sites that

• Pre-screen through phone calls
can best help you understand the central phenomenon
• Offer flexibility
Purposeful Sampling
• Send a reminder via email/chat
• Start with an introduction • researchers intentionally select individuals and sites to
• Establish a rapport learn or understand the central phenomenon.
• Audio Video Recording
• Documentation (With Blurring of Face • The standard used in choosing participants and sites is
whether they are “information rich” 5. Administer the
SUMMARY OF ROOMS FOR IMPROVEMENT data collection with special attention to potential ethical
issues that may arise.
Validity: Does your question have the ability to provide
you with the information to answer your Corollary Purposeful Sampling
Question?
• In any given qualitative study, you may decide to study
Efficiency: Write questions in a straight forward a site (e.g., one college campus), several sites (three
manner. This is for you and your participant’s benefit small liberal arts campuses), individuals or groups
(freshman students), or some combination (two liberal
Integrity: Are your questions well-constructed, will they arts campuses and several freshman students on those
be clear? Rule of thumb in creating questions is that: The campuses).
participants should think more of their answer, not the
question.

Technicality: Typographical errors are ERRORS.

Reliability: Are the things you are asking related to each

other? Do they seem coherent, having the ability to
generate answers that will make sense to the
researcher?

Explorative ability: Question more about their TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA WILL COLLECT
experience first. And then ask of how they interpret We can see the varied nature of qualitative forms of data
those. We can ask spontaneous questions too, as long when they are placed into the following categories:
as it is valid.
• Observations
LESSON 8: DATA
• Interviews and questionnaires
COLLECTION METHODS
• Documents
FIVE STEPS IN DATA COLLECTION METHODS:
• Audiovisual materials
1. Identify participants and sites to be studied and to
engage in a sampling strategy that will best help you
OBSERVATIONS
–the process of gathering open-ended, firsthand
information by observing people and places at a
research site.

–Advantages: the opportunity to record information as it

occurs in a setting, to study actual behavior, and to
study individuals who have difficulty verbalizing their
ideas (e.g., preschool children).

–Disadvantages: you will be limited to those sites and

situations where you can gain access, and in those sites,
you may have difficulty developing rapport with
individuals. • Consider what information you will record during an
observation.
–Role of a Participant Observer
• Record descriptive and reflective field notes
• A Participant Observer is an observational role
adopted by researchers when they take part in activities –Descriptive field notes record a description of the
in the setting they observe. events, activities, and people (e.g., what happened).

–Role of a Nonparticipant Observer –Reflective field notes record personal thoughts that
researchers have that relate to their insights, hunches,
• A Nonparticipant Observer is an observer who visits a or broad ideas or themes that emerge during the
site and records notes without becoming involved in the observation (e.g., what sense you made of the site,
activities of the participants. people, and situation).

–Changing Observational Roles • Make yourself known, but remain unobtrusive.

• is one where researchers adapt their role to the • After observing, slowly withdraw from the site
situation.

• For example, you might first enter a site and observe as

a nonparticipant, simply needing to “look around” in the
early phases of research. Then you slowly become
involved as a participant.

Process of Observation

• Select a site to be observed that can help you best

understand the central phenomenon. • INTERVIEWS
–occurs when researchers ask one or more participants
• Ease into the site slowly by looking around; getting a general, open-ended questions and record their
general sense of the site; and taking limited notes, at answers. The researcher then transcribes and types the
least initially. data into a computer file for analysis.
• At the site, identify who or what to observe, when to –Open-ended Questions so that the participants can
observe, and how long to observe. best voice their experiences unconstrained by any
perspectives of the researcher or past research findings.
• Determine, initially, your role as an observer.
Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions on
• Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the
Questionnaires
best understanding of the site and the individuals.
• One-on-One Interviews
• Design some means for recording notes during an
observation. • a data collection process in which the researcher asks
questions to and records answers from only one
–Fieldnotes are text (words) recorded by the researcher
participant in the study at a time.
during an observation in a qualitative study.
• One-on-one interviews are ideal for interviewing
participants who are not hesitant to speak, who are
articulate, and who can share ideas comfortably.

• Focus Group Interviews

• the process of collecting data through interviews with a

group of people, typically four to six.

• Focus groups are advantageous when the interaction

among interviewees will likely yield the best information
and when interviewees are similar to and cooperative
with each other.
• Telephone Interview ✓Adapt! Overcome! Improvise!

• The participants in a study may be geographically • Use probes to obtain additional information.
dispersed and unable to come to a central location for
– Probes are sub-questions under each question that the researcher
an interview. In this situation, you can conduct
asks to elicit more information.
telephone interviews.
• Be courteous and professional when the interview is
• One drawback of this kind of interviewing is that the
over.
researcher does not have direct contact with the
participant.

• Email Interview

• consist of collecting open-ended data through

interviews with individuals using computers and the
Internet to do so.

• It can also promote a conversation between yourself

as the researcher and the participants, so that through
follow-up conversations, you can extend your
understanding of the topic or central phenomenon being
studied.

• Open-Ended Question on Questionnaires

• You may ask some questions that are closed ended

and some that are open ended.

• The advantage of this type of questioning is that your

predetermined closed-ended responses can net useful • DOCUMENTS
information to support theories and concepts in the –consist of public and private records that qualitative
literature. researchers obtain about a site or participants in a
study, and they can include newspapers, minutes of
meetings, personal journals, and letters.

• public documents are minutes from meetings, official

memos, records in the public domain, and archival
material in libraries.

• private documents consist of personal journals and

–Conducting Interviews
diaries, letters, personal notes, and jottings individuals
• Identify the interviewees. write to themselves.

• Determine the type of interview you will use.

• AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS
• During the interview, audiotape the questions and –consist of images or sounds that researchers collect to
responses. help them understand the central phenomenon under
study.
• Take brief notes during the interview.
–The advantage of using visual materials is that people
• Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the
easily relate to images because they are so pervasive in
interview.
our society.
• Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in
–Images such as videotapes and films, for example,
the study
provide extensive data about real life as people visualize
–Conducting Interviews it.

• Come in with a plan, but be flexible.

 • Cresswell (2007) begin with a short-list of five to six
LESSON 9: CODING AND provisional codes to begin the process of “lean coding”.
THEMATIC ANALYSIS IN This expands to no more than 25-30 categories that then
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH combine into 5-5 major themes.

• No Magic or Standardized number to achieve

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

• CODING- process of labeling and organizing your

qualitative data to identify different themes and the
relationships between them. TYPES OF CODES

• Attribute Coding: Identifying and labeling specific

• CATEGORIES – linking codes to create a unit or a
attributes or characteristics within the data.
categories
• In a study on customer feedback, attribute coding
• THEMES - are features of participants' accounts
might involve labeling comments as "product quality,"
characterizing particular perceptions and/or
"customer service," or "shipping time."
experiences that the researcher sees as relevant to the
research question. • Descriptive Coding: Providing labels or descriptions
to segments of data to summarize their content or
• Deductive – Approaches coding in a rigid manner,
meaning.
concentrating on relevant data that will satisfy pre made
codes • Within interview transcripts about experiences with
online learning, segments of data could be labeled
• Inductive – Approach data as is. Search for codes.
descriptively as "positive feedback on video lectures" or
• Hybrid – Use of both approaches in Coding and "frustration with discussion forum interface."
Thematic Analysis
• Structural Coding: Grouping data based on its
structure or organization within the text.
STEPS IN THEMATIC ANALYSIS (BRAUN &
CLARKE, 2006) • Example: In a study analyzing forum discussions,
Step 1: Become Familiar with the Data structural coding might involve categorizing data into
sections like "initial post," "replies," and "closing
• Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re reading remarks."
the data, noting down initial ideas.
• In Vivo Coding: Using participants' own words or
Step 2: Generate Initial Codes phrases to label and interpret data, capturing the
essence of their experiences.
• Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic
fashion across the entire data set, collating data • Example: From interview transcripts about healthcare
relevant to each code experiences, a participant's statement "feeling like just a
number" could be coded in vivo as "depersonalization."
How Many Codes are Enough?
• Analytic Coding: Going beyond surface-level
• Lichtman (2006) – Generate 80 – 100 codes that will be
descriptions to interpret and analyze underlying
organized into 15-20 categories which eventually
meanings or themes in the data.
synthesize into 5-7 major concepts.
• Example: In a study exploring perceptions of social
media, analytic coding might involve analyzing data
about "likes" and "shares" to understand their • Example: In a study tracking attitudes towards
implications for social validation and self-esteem. technology over several years, longitudinal coding might
involve coding data from surveys administered at
• Process Coding: Identifying and coding data that different time points to identify shifts in perceptions and
describe sequences of actions or processes. usage patterns.

• Example: In research on career transitions, process

TYPES OF CODES
coding might involve coding data to capture the stages
of transitioning, such as "job search," "decision- • Descriptive Codes – summarize the data into one
making," and "adjustment period." word or short phrase usually it is NOUN

• Topic Coding: Assigning codes to data based on the • In Vivo Coding – words or short phrases from the
specific topics or subjects they address. participants

• Example: In a study on environmental attitudes, • Holistic Coding – a single code to a large unit in the
segments of data discussing "recycling habits" and corpus, rather than detailed coding, to capture a sense
"attitudes towards renewable energy" could be coded of the overall contents and the possible categories that
under respective topics. may develop.

• Pattern Coding: Identifying recurring patterns or

themes across the data.

• Example: In an analysis of interviews about coping

strategies during a crisis, pattern coding might involve
identifying recurring patterns like "seeking social
support" or "engaging in self-care activities."

• Focused Coding: Narrowing down coding to focus on

specific themes or aspects of the data.

• Example: In a study on workplace communication, Step 3: Generate Themes

focused coding might involve coding specifically on
Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data
instances of "miscommunication" rather than broader
relevant to each potential theme.
themes like "team dynamics."

• Axial Coding: Making connections between codes or

categories to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of the data.

• Example: In research on student motivation, axial

coding might involve connecting codes related to
"intrinsic motivation" and "extrinsic rewards" to
understand how they interact and influence academic
performance.

• Theoretical Coding: Coding data in relation to existing Step 4: Review Themes

theories or frameworks to generate or support
theoretical insights. Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded
extracts (Level 1) and the entire data set (Level 2),
• Example: In a study on identity formation, theoretical generating a thematic ‘map’ of the analysis.
coding might involve coding data based on concepts
from identity theories, such as "identity exploration" or • Are they useful and accurate representations of data?
"identity commitment."
• Are we missing anything?
• Longitudinal Coding: Tracking changes or
• Are these themes really present in the data?
developments in the data over time, often in longitudinal
studies or research designs. • What changes can be made to make the themes work
better?
Step 5: Define Themes

Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme,

and the overall story the analysis tells, generating clear
definitions and names for each theme.

• Defining Themes: What we mean by each themes?

• Naming Themes: Easy and Understandable Name

Step 6: Write up themes

CONTENT OF RESULTS

• Subsection of Themes

•Theme/Narrative/Illustrative Quote