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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics Edexcel 

3. Waves

CONTENTS
3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3.1.1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion
3.1.3 The Wave Equation
3.1.4 The Doppler Effect
3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves
3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves
3.2 Reflection & Refraction
3.2.1 Light & Sound Waves
3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction
3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction
3.2.4 Snell's Law
3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law
3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection
3.3 Sound
3.3.1 Core Practical: Investigating the Speed of Sound
3.3.2 Sound & Oscilloscopes
3.3.3 Core Practical: Using an Oscilloscope
3.3.4 Pitch & Loudness

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3.1 Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum YOUR NOTES


3.1.1 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Waves can exist as one of two types:
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are defined as:
Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the
direction of energy transfer

For a transverse wave:

The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
Transverse waves can move in a liquid or solid, but not a gas
Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in a vacuum
The point on the wave that is:
The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
The lowest below the rest position is called the trough

Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down

Examples of transverse waves are:

Ripples on the surface of water
Vibrations in a guitar string
S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

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Longitudinal Waves YOUR NOTES

Longitudinal waves are defined as: 
Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of
energy transfer

For a longitudinal wave:

The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
They can move in solids, liquids and gases
They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)
The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
Close together, called compressions
Spaced apart, called rarefactions

Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly

backwards and forwards

Examples of longitudinal waves are:

Sound waves
P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas
Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is
moving parallel to the direction of energy transfer
Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions

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YOUR NOTES


Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and

compressions

Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal)

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YOUR NOTES


Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the
table:

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Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table YOUR NOTES



 Worked Example
The diagram below shows a loudspeaker generating sound waves, which
travel to the right as indicated. Sound waves are longitudinal.A dust mote
floats in the air just next to the loudspeaker, labelled D.

Draw arrows on the diagram to indicate how the dust mote D would vibrate
as sound waves pass it.

Step 1: Recall the definition of longitudinal waves

Points along longitudinal waves vibrate parallel to the direction of energy

transfer
This means the dust mote vibrates in a line parallel to the direction of the
sound waves drawn

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Step 2: Draw arrows at the point labelled D to show it vibrating in parallel to the YOUR NOTES
direction of the sound waves


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Waves & Energy YOUR NOTES

Waves transfer energy and information 
Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth

In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter

Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy and
information and not matter

Waves transfer energy and information, but not matter. This toy duck bobs up and
down as water waves pass underneath

The type of wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave

This is because the duck is moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave
The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave
All waves transfer energy, but they do not transfer the particles of the medium
This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels
with it, the points on the wave just vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
Objects floating on water, like the toy duck, simply bob up and down when waves
pass under them, demonstrating that there is no movement of matter in the
direction of the wave, only energy

 Exam Tip
Exam questions may ask you to describe waves and this is most easily done
by drawing a diagram of the wave and then describing the parts of the wave
- a good, clearly labelled diagram can earn you full marks!You may also be
asked to give further examples of transverse or longitudinal waves - so
memorise the lists given here!

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3.1.2 Describing Wave Motion YOUR NOTES


Describing Wave Motion
When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to
know, including:
Amplitude
Wavelength
Frequency
Time Period
Wavefront
Amplitude
Amplitude is defined as:
The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave

It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)

Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed
position

Wavelength
Wavelength is defined as
The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next
wave.

In a transverse wave:
The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
In a longitudinal wave
The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the
centre of the next
The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram

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Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave YOUR NOTES

Frequency 
Frequency is defined as:
The number of waves passing a point in a second

Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Time Period
The time period (or sometimes just 'period') of a wave is defined as:
The time taken for a single wave to pass a point

The time period is given the symbol T and is measured in seconds (s)

Wavefront
Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used
to represent a single wave
The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called
a ray
The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with a short
wavelength
When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long
wavelength

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YOUR NOTES


Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts

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3.1.3 The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES


The Wave Equation
All waves obey the wave equation, which is used to calculate the wave speed:

Where:
v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
λ = wavelength in metres (m)
The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this
formula triangle:

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Frequency & Time Period YOUR NOTES

The equation which relates the frequency of a wave to its time period is: 

Where:
T = time period, measured in seconds (s)
f = frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz)

 Worked Example
Visible light has a frequency of about 6 × 1014 Hz.How long does it take for
one complete cycle of visible light to enter our eyes?

Step 1: List the known values

Frequency, f = 6 × 1014 Hz
Step 2: State the relationship between frequency and time period

This question involves quantities of time and frequency, so the equation which
relates time period and frequency of a wave is:

Step 3: Substitute the known values in to the equation and calculate the time
period

T = 1 ÷ (6 × 1014) = 1.67 × 10-15 s

Therefore, it takes 1.67 × 10-15 s (to 2 decimal places) for one wave of visible
light to pass our eyes

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Calculations in Different Contexts YOUR NOTES

The wave equation can be applied and rearranged to calculate properties of 
waves, such as:
wave speed
frequency
time period
The wave equation applies to all types of wave, including sound waves and
electromagnetic waves

 Worked Example
A certain sound wave moves at about 330 m/s and has a time period of
0.0001 seconds.Calculate:
a) The frequency of the sound wave
b) The wavelength of the sound wave

Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Time period, T = 0.0001 s

Step 2: Write out the equation relating time period and frequency

Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer

f = 1 ÷ T = 1 ÷ 0.0001
Frequency, f = 10 000 Hz = 1 × 104 Hz
Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities

Wave speed, v = 330 m/s

Frequency, f = 1 × 104 Hz
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation

v=f×λ
Step 3: Rearrange the equation to calculate the wavelength

λ=v÷f
Step 4: Use the frequency you calculated in part (a) and put the values into the
equation

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λ = 330 ÷ 1 × 104 YOUR NOTES

Wavelength, λ = 0.033 m 

 Worked Example
A local radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 200 kHz.The wavelength
of these radio waves is 1500 m.Calculate the speed of these radio waves
and state an appropriate unit.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Frequency, f = 200 kHz = 200 000 Hz

Wavelength, λ = 1500 m
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation

This question requires wave speed, so state the equation linking wave speed,
wavelength and frequency:
v=f×λ
Step 3: Substitute the known values to calculate the wave speed

v = 200 000 × 1500 = 300 000 000 = 3 × 108

Step 4: State the unit with the answer

The units for speed are m/s

Therefore, the speed of these radio waves is 3 × 108 m/s

 Exam Tip
When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
For example, use λ for wavelength, not L or W
If you can’t remember the correct letters, then just state the word equations
Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in
m/s, but if the wavelength is given in cm you might have to give the speed
in cm/s
Likewise, watch out for frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz

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3.1.4 The Doppler Effect YOUR NOTES


The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is defined as:
The apparent change in wavelength and frequency of a wave emitted by a
moving source

This effect can be observed in a variety of scenarios whenever sources of waves

move:
The frequency of the sound waves emitted by ambulance or police sirens goes
from a high pitch to a low pitch as the vehicle whizzes past
Galaxies in outer space emit electromagnetic radiation - light waves - which
appear to be redder than normal because because the stars are moving away
from us
Explaining the Doppler Effect
Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out
symmetrically

This stationary police car emits sound from the siren and the waves spread out
symmetrically

If the object emitting waves begins to move, the waves can get squashed together
at one end of the object, and stretched at the other end

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YOUR NOTES


To an observer in front of the moving car, the wavelength appears to be smaller

because they squash together. To an observer behind the moving car, the waves
appear to stretch out

The waves at the front of the moving vehicle appear to be squashed together:
This means the wavelength decreases (and the frequency of the waves
increases)

The waves behind the moving vehicle appear to be stretched out:

This means the wavelength increases (and the frequency of the waves
decreases)

 Exam Tip
Remember that the Doppler Effect is an apparent change in wavelength and
frequency and that this only happens because a wave emitter is moving
away from or towards an observer.Because the speed of the waves emitted
stays constant, if the wavelength of the wave appears to decrease, this must
mean the frequency appears to increase, and vice versa.

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3.1.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Waves YOUR NOTES


Properties of EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves are defined as:
Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an
absorber

All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:

They are all transverse
They can all travel through a vacuum
They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
There are 7 types of electromagnetic waves, which all together form a continuous
spectrum

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The EM Spectrum YOUR NOTES

The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the 
wavelengths or frequencies
This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest
frequency) to shortest wavelength (highest frequency)

Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic
spectrum

The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
Radiation with higher energy is:
Highly ionising
Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
Radiation with lower energy is:
Useful for communications
Less harmful to humans
Visible Light
Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans
Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum

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In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are YOUR NOTES
able to perceive beyond visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths 
of light
Each colour within the visible light spectrum corresponds to a narrow band of
wavelength and frequency
The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy)

The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the
shortest

Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional, this means that:

An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency (towards the red end of
the spectrum)
A decrease in wavelength is an increase in frequency (towards the violet end
of the spectrum)

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
See if you can make up a mnemonic to help you remember the EM 
spectrum!One possibility is:
Raging Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns

To remember the colours of the visible spectrum you could remember

either:
The name “Roy G. Biv”
Or the saying “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain”

You could even combine both to have a mega mnemonic:

Raging Martians Invaded Roy G. Biv Using X-ray Guns!

The electromagnetic spectrum is usually given in order of decreasing

wavelength and increasing frequency i.e. from radio waves to gamma
waves
Remember:
Radios are big (long wavelength)
Gamma rays are emitted from atoms which are very small (short
wavelength)

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3.1.6 Applications of EM Waves YOUR NOTES


Applications of EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves have a variety of uses and applications
The main ones are summarised in the table below:
Applications of EM Waves Table

A summary of the uses and dangers of different EM waves are summarised in the
diagram below:

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YOUR NOTES


Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum

Radio Waves & Microwaves

These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses

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Their main uses concern wireless communication – in fact many things that YOUR NOTES
people often assume use radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, 
radar, mobile phones, satellite communications…)
At very high intensities microwaves can also be used to heat things
This is what happens in a microwave oven
Infrared
Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras
(thermal imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in
medicine
Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the
spectrum and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are
used to illuminate an area without being seen, which is then detected using the
camera
Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an
infrared receiver on a device such as a TV
Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so
most fibre optic communication systems use infrared
Visible
Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye
can see
The human eye can detect wavelengths from 750 nanometres (red light) up to 380
nanometres (violet light)
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of
protecting itself against the ultraviolet
When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it
as visible light (making them glow)
This process is known as fluorescence. Fluorescence can be used to secretly
mark things using special ink – in fact most bank notes have invisible
fluorescent markings on them
Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light
X-rays
The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine
X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues, but are absorbed by the denser
parts of the body, such as bones
When exposed to x-rays the bones can a shadow which can be seen using a
special x-ray detector or using photographic film
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
If these gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very
effective at killing it

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Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria YOUR NOTES


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3.1.7 Dangers of EM Waves YOUR NOTES


Dangers of EM Waves
As the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, so does the energy
Beyond the visible part of the spectrum, the energy becomes large enough to
ionise atoms
As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the
frequency
The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation
Although the intensity of a wave also plays a very important role

Ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays can all ionise atoms

In general, electromagnetic waves become more dangerous the shorter their

wavelength
For example, radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays
can cause cancer and are regarded as extremely dangerous
Because of ionisation, ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have
hazardous effects on human body tissue
The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose
They can damage cells and cause mutations, making them cancerous
The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised in the table
below:

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Dangers of EM Waves Table YOUR NOTES



Microwaves
Certain frequencies of microwaves are absorbed by water molecules
Since humans contain a lot of water, there is a risk of internal heating from
microwaves
This might worry some people, but microwaves used in everyday circumstances
are proven to be safe
Microwaves used for communications (including mobile phones) emit very
small amounts of energy which are not known to cause any harm
Microwave ovens, on the other hand, emit very large amounts of energy,
however, that energy is prevented from escaping the oven by the metal walls
and metal grid in the glass door
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is similar to visible light, except it is invisible to the human eye and
carries a much higher energy
If eyes are exposed to high levels of UV it can cause severe eye damage
Good quality sunglasses will absorb ultraviolet, preventing it from entering the
eyes
Ultraviolet is ionising meaning it can kill cells or cause them to malfunction,
resulting in premature ageing, and diseases such as skin cancer
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Sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light, preventing it from damaging the skin YOUR NOTES
X-rays & Gamma Rays 
X-rays and gamma rays are the most ionising types of EM waves
They are able to penetrate the body and cause internal damage
They can cause the mutation of genes and cause cancer
Fortunately, the level of X-rays used in medicine is kept to minimum levels at
which the risk is very low
Doctors, however, will leave the room when taking X-rays in order to avoid
unnecessary exposure to them
People working with gamma rays have to take several precautions to minimise
their exposure and are routinely tested to check their radiation dose levels
For example, radiation badges are worn by medical professionals such as
radiographers to measure the amount of radiation exposure in their body

Radiation badges are used by people working closely with radiation to monitor
exposure

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3.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES


3.2.1 Light & Sound Waves
Light
Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum which means it is a
transverse wave
This means the direction the light particles vibrate is perpendicular to the
direction of the energy transfer

Light waves are transverse: the particles vibrate in a perpendicular direction to the
energy transfer

Light can undergo:

Reflection
Refraction

All waves in the electromagnetic spectrum can be reflected and refracted

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Sound YOUR NOTES

Sound waves are vibrations of air molecules 
When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid those vibrations can be
transferred to the solid
For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate
If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
This means the direction the light particles vibrate is parallel to the direction
of the energy transfer
Hence, it consists of:
Compressions - regions of higher density
Rarefactions - regions of lower density

Sound waves are longitudinal: the particles vibrate in the same direction as the
energy transfer

Sound can also undergo:

Reflection
Refraction

The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo

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3.2.2 Reflection & Refraction YOUR NOTES


Reflection & Refraction
All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected and refracted
Reflection occurs when:
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead stays in the original medium

An identical image of the tree is seen in the water due to reflection

Refraction occurs when:

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and
undergoes a change in direction

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YOUR NOTES


Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities

The Law of Reflection

Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to
the boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of
incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The angles are the same, so the law of reflection can be written:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Angle of incidence and angle of reflection

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Ray Diagrams YOUR NOTES

Reflection Ray Diagrams 
Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to
the boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of
incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The law of reflection states that these angles are the same

Ray diagram of reflection of a wave at a mirror

When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is
travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively and
measured from the normal
Refraction Ray Diagrams
Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent
media
At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction
The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal
This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually
represented by a straight dashed or dotted line
The change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two
media:
From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the
normal
From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the
normal

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When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all YOUR NOTES


How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a
rectangular block

The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in
different substances
When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence
they bend towards the normal
The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the
frequency of waves does not change
Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low
frequency, whilst blue has a high frequency)
When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of
water), therefore, the frequency does not change

 Worked Example
Two parallel rays of light entering and passing through prism A and prism
C.

Draw a third parallel ray entering and passing through prism B.

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Step 1: Draw a parallel ray on the left YOUR NOTES



Step 2: Draw the refracted ray at the first surface

As the ray enters the block it bends towards the normal since it is going into
a denser material
In this case, the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence
Step 3: Draw the refracted ray at the second surface

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YOUR NOTES


As the ray leaves the block it bends away from the normal
In this case, the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence

 Exam Tip
When drawing ray diagrams for reflection:
1. A simple straight line with an arrow is enough to represent the wave
You do not need to draw the wavefronts unless asked to do so!
2. Take care to draw the angle correctly
If it is slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious
difference between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection then you will probably lose a mark!
Practice drawing refraction diagrams as much as you can! It's very important
to remember which way the light bends when it crosses a boundary:
As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
Remember: Enters Towards

When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line
Remember: Leaves Away

Don't forget to draw the arrows for the direction of the light rays and make
sure they are drawn with a ruler and a sharp pointed pencil

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3.2.3 Core Practical: Investigating Refraction YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 4: Investigating Refraction
Aim of the Experiment
To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks
and triangular prisms
Variables
Independent variable = shape of the block
Dependent variable = direction of refraction
Control variables:
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Method

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YOUR NOTES


Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the
rectangular perspex block using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the
block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the
points are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking
the block at a different angle
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular)
Analysis of Results
Compare the different refraction patterns for each block

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YOUR NOTES


Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks

i and r are always measured from the normal

For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central
line:
i>r

For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the
central line:
i<r

When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not
refract, it passes straight through the block:
i=r

If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern,
as shown below:

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YOUR NOTES


How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
Random Errors:
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper

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3.2.4 Snell's Law YOUR NOTES


Snell's Law
When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends
towards the normal
How much the light bends depends on the density of the material

Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i
(bends towards the normal)
If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i
(bends away from the normal)
The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's
Law:

Where:
n = the refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator
This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

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YOUR NOTES


Snell's law formula triangle

The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the
material (which is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):

The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for
different materials
Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is
about 2.4 for diamond
Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is
about 1.5 for glass
Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle

of 15° with the normal before entering the block.Calculate the angle it
makes with the normal after it enters the glass block.

Step 1: List the known quantities

Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53

Angle of incidence, i = 15°
Step 2: Write the equation for Snell's Law

Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)

Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function

r = sin–1 (0.1692) = 9.7 = 10°

 Exam Tip
Important: (sin i / sin r) is not the same as (i / r). Incorrectly cancelling the
sin terms is a very common mistake!When calculating the value of i or r start
by calculating the value of sin i or sin r.You can then use the inverse sin
function (sin–1 on most calculators by pressing 'shift' then 'sine') to find the
angle.One way to remember which way around i and r are in the fraction is
remembering that 'i' comes before 'r' in the alphabet, and therefore is on the
top of the fraction (whilst r is on the bottom).

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3.2.5 Core Practical: Investigating Snell's law YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 5: Investigating Snell's Law
Aim of the Experiment
To investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block
Variables
Independent variable = angle of incidence, i
Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r
Control variables:
Use of the same perspex block
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Method

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YOUR NOTES


Apparatus set-up to investigate Snell's Law

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block
using a pencil
2. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block
3. Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence to be studied and mark these
lines on the paper
4. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block at the
first angle to be investigated
5. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the
block
6. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
7. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a rays
striking the block at the next angle
An example table of results might look like this:

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YOUR NOTES


Analysis of Results
If the angles have been measured correctly, the paper should end up looking like
this:

The angles of incidence and refraction are related by Snell's Law:

Where:
n = refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
Plot a graph of sin i on the y-axis against sin r on the x-axis

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The refractive index is equal to the gradient of the graph YOUR NOTES
An example graph might look like this: 

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
[popover id="QzmzrDGuwfpwthVl" label="Random Errors:]
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper

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3.2.6 Total Internal Reflection YOUR NOTES


Total Internal Reflection
Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one,
instead of being refracted, all of the light is reflected
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection
Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:
The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident
material is denser than the second material

Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

The angle of incidence > the critical angle
The incident material is denser than the second material

Critical angle and total internal reflection

Total internal reflection is utilised in:

Optical fibres eg. endoscopes
Prisms eg. periscopes
Optical Fibres
Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they
can be used for
Communications
Endoscopes
Decorative lamps
Safety reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads
Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits
the edge of the fibre

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YOUR NOTES


Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body

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YOUR NOTES


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Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body YOUR NOTES
Prisms 
Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:
Periscopes
Binoculars
Telescopes
Cameras
A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects
It consists of two right-angled prisms

Reflection of light through a periscope

The light totally internally reflects in both prisms

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Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total
internal reflectionRemember: total internal reflection occurs when going
from a denser material to less dense material and ALL of the light is
reflectedIf asked to give an example of a use of total internal reflection, first
state the name of the object that causes the reflection (e.g. a right-angled
prism) and then name the device in which it is used (e.g. a periscope)

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Critical Angle YOUR NOTES

As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until 
it gets closer to 90°
When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the
boundary
At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c

As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and
lead to total internal reflection of the light

When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is
now reflected
This is total internal reflection

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at a

vertical face of the cube.The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39°
and the angle of refraction is 25° as shown in the diagram.The light ray is
totally internally reflected for the first time at X.

Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and
calculate the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.

Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary

When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary

At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle

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The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time” YOUR NOTES
meaning that this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs 
Therefore, 65° is the critical angle

 Exam Tip
If you are asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle in an exam,
you can be sure to gain full marks by drawing and labelling the same
diagram above (showing the three semi-circular blocks)

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Calculating Critical Angle YOUR NOTES

The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n 
The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:

This equation shows that:

The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be
totally internally reflected

 Worked Example
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers
shape the stones so that light is reflected inside.Compare the critical angles
of opal and diamond and explain which stone would appear to sparkle
more.
The refractive index of opal is about 1.5
The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4

Step 1: List the known quantities

Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5

Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4
Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index

Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co)

sin(co) = 1 ÷ 1.5 = 0.6667

co = sin–1 (0.6667) = 41.8 = 42°
Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd)

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sin(cd) = 1 ÷ 2.4 = 0.4167 YOUR NOTES

cd = sin–1 (0.4167) = 24.6 = 25° 

Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light is larger
than the critical angle (i>c)
In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between 42°
and 90°
The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co>cd)
This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over a
larger range of angles (25° to 90°)
Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will
appear to sparkle more than the opal

 Exam Tip
When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:
First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c)
Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c

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3.3 Sound YOUR NOTES


3.3.1 Core Practical: Investigating the Speed of Sound
Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Trundle wheel = 0.01 m
Tape measure = 0.1 cm
Stopwatch = 0.01 s
Experiment 1: Measuring the Speed of Sound Between Two Points
The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two
points
Variables
Independent variable = Distance
Dependent variable = Time
Control variables:
Same location to carry out the experiment
Method

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YOUR NOTES


Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1. Use the trundle wheel to measure a distance of 100 m between two people
2. One of the people should have two wooden blocks, which they will bang together
above their head to generate sound waves
3. The second person should have a stopwatch which they start when they see the
first person banging the blocks together and stop when they hear the sound
4. This should be repeated several times and an average taken for the time travelled
by the sound waves
5. Repeat this experiment for various distances, e.g. 120 m, 140 m, 160 m, 180 m
A possible results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results
The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:

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YOUR NOTES


The speed of sound in air should work out to be about 340 m/s
Experiment 2: Measuring the Speed of Sound with Oscilloscopes
The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two
points using an oscilloscope
Variables
Independent variable = Distance
Dependent variable = Time
Control variables:
Same location to carry out the experiment
Same set of microphones for each trial
Method

Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Connect two microphones to an oscilloscope

2. Place them about 2 m apart using a tape measure to measure the distance between
them
3. Set up the oscilloscope so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a
sound, and adjust the time base so that the sound arriving at both microphones
can be seen on the screen
4. Make a large clap using the two wooden blocks next to the first microphone
5. Use the oscilloscope to determine the time at which the clap reaches each
microphone and the time difference between them
6. Repeat this experiment for several distances, e.g. 2 m, 2.5 m, 3 m, 3.5 m

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A possible results table might look like this: YOUR NOTES



Analysis of Results
The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:

The speed of sound in air should work out to be about 340 m/s
Evaluating the Experiments
Systematic Errors:
In Experiment 2, ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly
The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into
account when calculating speed
Random errors:
A main cause of error in Experiment 1 is the measurement of time
Ensure to take repeat readings when timing intervals and calculate an average
to keep this error to a minimum
Maximise the distance between the two people where possible. This will
reduce the error in measurements of time because the time taken by the
sound waves to travel will be greater

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When you are answering questions about methods to measure waves, the 
question could ask you to comment on the accuracy of the measurementsIn
the case of measuring the speed of sound:
Experiment 2 is the most accurate because the timing is done
automatically
Experiment 1 is the least accurate because the time interval is very
short
Whilst this may not be too important when giving a method, you should be
able to explain why each method is accurate or inaccurate and suggest ways
of making them better (use bigger distances)
For example, if a manual stopwatch is being used there could be
variation in the time measured which can be up to 0.2 seconds due to a
person's reaction time
The time interval could be as little as 0.3 seconds for sound travelling in
air
This means that the variation due to the stopwatch readings has a big
influence on the results and they may not be reliable

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3.3.2 Sound & Oscilloscopes YOUR NOTES


Sound & Oscilloscopes
An oscilloscope is a device that can be used to study a rapidly changing signal,
such as:
A sound wave
An alternating current

Oscilloscopes have lots of dials and buttons, but their main purpose is to display and
measure changing signals like sound waves and alternating current

When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope, the (longitudinal) sound wave

is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen
The time base (like the 'x-axis') is used to measure the time period of the wave

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YOUR NOTES


A sound wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen of the
oscilloscope. The time base can be used to measure a full time period of the wave
cycle

The height of the wave (measured from the centre of the screen) is related to the
amplitude of the sound
The number of entire waves that appear on the screen is related to the frequency
of the wave
If the frequency of the sound wave increases, more waves are displayed on
screen

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3.3.3 Core Practical: Using an Oscilloscope YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 7: Using an Oscilloscope
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the frequency of a sound wave using
an oscilloscope
Variables
Independent variable = Tuning forks of different frequencies
Dependent variable = Time period
Equipment List

Method

Measuring the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope

1. Connect the microphone to the oscilloscope as shown in the image above

2. Test the microphone displays a signal by humming
3. Adjust the time base of the oscilloscope until the signal fits on the screen - ensure
that multiple complete waves can be seen

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4. Strike the tuning fork on the edge of a hard surface to generate sound waves of a YOUR NOTES
pure frequency 
5. Hold the tuning fork near to the microphone and observe the sound wave on the
oscilloscope screen
6. Freeze the image on the oscilloscope screen, or take a picture of it
7. Measure and record the time period of the wave signal on the screen by counting
the number of divisions for one complete wave cycle
8. Repeat steps 4-6 for a variety of tuning forks
A possible results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results
To convert the time period of the wave from the number of divisions into seconds,
use the scale of the time base. For example:
The time base is usually measured in units of ms/cm (milliseconds per
centimetre)
This would mean a wave with a time base of 4 cm has a time period of 4 ms
To calculate the frequency of the sound waves produced by the tuning forks, use
the equation:

Where:

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f = Frequency, measured in hertz (Hz) YOUR NOTES

T = Time period, measured in seconds (s) 
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly
The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into
account when calculating the time period
Random Errors:
A cause of random error in this experiment is noise in the environment, so ensure
it is carried out in a quiet location

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3.3.4 Pitch & Loudness YOUR NOTES


Pitch
The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the vibrating source of sound
waves
If the frequency of vibration is high, the sound wave has a high pitch
If the frequency of vibration is low, the sound wave has a low pitch

The pitch of the sound is related to the frequency of the sound waves

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YOUR NOTES


This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The red wave has
smaller wavelength than the blue wave hence it has higher frequency and higher pitch

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Loudness YOUR NOTES

The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the vibrating source of 
sound waves
If the sound is loud, the sound wave has a large amplitude

This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The blue wave has
twice the amplitude of the green wave because the blue wave is louder

Range of Human Hearing

The human ear responds to the vibrations caused by sound waves
The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz

The range of human hearing is between 20 – 20 000 Hz. Below 20 Hz is known as

infrasound. Above 20 000 Hz is known as ultrasound

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