Industrial Automation(5042) MODULE I

What is industrial Electronics?

⦿ Industrial electronics refers to equipment, tools and processes that involve electrical equipment in
an industrial setting. This could be a laboratory, automotive plant, power plant or construction site etc.

⦿ The scope of industrial electronics ranges from the design and maintenance of simple electrical fuses to
complicated programmable logic controllers (PLCs), solid-state devices and motor drives. Industrial
electronics can handle the automation of all types of modern day electrical and mechanical industrial
processes.

⦿ Industrial electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with power electronic devices

What is Power Electronics?

⦿ Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics to the control and conversion of
electric power.

⦿ In power electronics substantial amounts of electrical energy are processed.

⦿ Electronics generally refers to processing of information (signals). That is processing the signals rather
than the power supply.

⦿ Whereas in Power Electronics, the focus is more on efficient utilization of electrical power.

Signal devices and Power devices

⦿ Signal devices: The devices that handle low power .

› Eg: Diode, Transistor, FET etc..

⦿ Power devices: The devices that handle high power

⦿ They are rated at high power rather than signal level.

› Power diodes, Power transistors, Power FETs’

⦿ The switching speed is low compared with signal devices.

⦿ The power switching devices are termed as Thyristors

⦿ The power semiconductor devices are extensively used in power electronic circuits.

⦿ A system that converts electric energy to an electric load through a control circuit is known as a Power
Electronic System.

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Thyristors

⦿ High power solid state switching devices

⦿ Three or more junctions

⦿ They can handle large voltage and current

⦿ They fabricated with high voltage and current ratings.

⦿ The primary function of a thyristor is to control electric power and current by acting as a switch.

Thyristor family members

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Applications of thyristors

The main application of thyristors is to control high power circuits.

⦿ Mainly used in variable speed motor drives (AC & DC motor speed controllers).

⦿ Used in controlling high power electrical application such as lights, welding machines etc.

⦿ Used in fault current limiter and circuit breakers.

⦿ Used as light dimmers in television, movie theatres.

⦿ Used in temperature and illumination systems.

Advantages of Thyristor

The advantages of Thyristor include:

⦿ Low cost.

⦿ Can be protected with the help of fuse.

⦿ Can handle large voltage/ current.

⦿ Able to control AC power.

⦿ Very easy to control.

⦿ Takes less time to operate.

⦿ Thyristor switches can operate with large frequency.

⦿ Requires less space when compared to mechanical switches.

⦿ Maintenance cost of Thyristor is very less.

⦿ Very easy to use for sophisticated controlling.

⦿ Power handling capacity is very good.

Disadvantages of Thyristor

The disadvantages of Thyristor includes:

⦿ Cannot be used for higher frequencies.

⦿ In AC circuit, Thyristor needs to be turned on each cycle.

⦿ SCR takes time to turn on and off. This causes delay or damage in the load.

⦿ It can stop the motor when connected, but cannot hold it stationary.

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 ⦿ The response rate of Thyristor is very low.

⦿ Not much use in DC circuits, as the Thyristor cannot be cutoff just by removing the gate drive.

⦿ Low Efficiency.

⦿ Latching and Holding current is more in GTO Thyristor.

⦿ Reverse blocking capability of voltage is less than forward blocking capability.

⦿ Reliability of TRIAC thyristor is less than SCR.

⦿ TRIACs have lower dv/dt rating when compared to SCR.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier-SCR

⦿ The term SCR stands for silicon controlled rectifier

SCR is most important and popular member of the thyristor family.

(Fast switching action , small size and high voltage and current ratings. )

⦿ SCRs are constructed from silicon and are most commonly used for converting AC current to DC current
(rectification), hence the name Silicon controlled rectifier.

⦿ The SCR is a four-layered semiconductor device that forms NPNP or PNPN structure.

⦿ It has three terminals Anode, Cathode and Gate

⦿ The Gate acts as a control terminal of the SCR.

Constructional features of SCR

⦿ The SCR is a four layer and three terminal device.

⦿ The four layers made of P and N layers, are arranged alternately such that they form three junctions J1, J2
and J3.

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⦿ The outer layers (P and N-layers) are heavily doped whereas middle P and N-layers are lightly doped.

⦿ The gate terminal is taken at the middle P-layer,

⦿ Anode is from outer P- layer and Cathode is from outer N- layer terminals.

⦿ To manufacture the SCR, three types of constructions are used.

⦿ Planar type, Mesa type and Press pack type.

⦿ For low power SCRs, planar construction is used where all the junctions in an SCR are diffused.

⦿ In mesa type construction, junction J2 is formed by diffusion method and thereby outer layers are alloyed
to it.

› This construction is mainly used for high power Silicon Controlled Rectifiers.

› To provide high mechanical strength, the SCR is braced with plates made up of either molybdenum or
tungsten. And one of these plates is soldered to a copper stud which is further threaded to connect the heat
sink.

PLANAR CONSTRUCTION MESA CONSTRUCTION

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Different SCR packages

Two Transistor Analogy of SCR

⦿ It is a combination of two transistors. The collector of each transistor is connected to the base of the other
transistor.

⦿ Assume that load resistance is connected between the anode and cathode terminals and a small voltage is
applied at the gate and cathode terminals.

⦿ When there is no gate voltage, the transistor 2 is in cut-off mode due to zero base current. Therefore, no
current flows through the collector and hence the base of transistor T1. Hence, both transistors are open
circuited and thereby no current flows through the load.

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 ⦿ When a particular voltage is applied between the gate and cathode, a small base current flows through the
base of the transistor 2 and thereby collector current will increase. And hence the base current at the
transistor T1 drives the transistor into saturation mode and thus load current will flow from anode to
cathode.

In the figure the base current of transistor T2 becomes the collector current of transistor T1 and vice-versa. Hence
Ib2 = Ic1 and

Ic2 = Ib1. Also current through the cathode terminal,

Ik = Ig + Ia ……(1)

For a transistor,

Ib1 = Ie1 – Ic1 ……(2) and Ic1 = α1Ie1 + Ico1……(3) Where Ico1 is the leakage current.

Substituting equation 3 in equation 2 we get

Ib1 = Ie1 (1 – α1) – Ico1 …….(4)

From the figure anode current is the emitter current of transistor T1,Ia = Ie1

Then Ib1 = Ia (1 – α1) – Ico1 And also for transistor T2

Ic2 = α2Ie2 + Ico2 But Ik = Ie2

Therefore Ic2 = α2Ik + Ico2

Ic2 = α2 (Ig + Ia) + Ico2 …..(5)

But Ib1 = Ic2 …..(6)

Substituting the equations 4 and 5 in equation 6 we get

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Ia (1 – α1) – Ico1 = α2 (Ig + Ia) + Ico2

Ia = [α2 Ig + Ico1 + Ico2] / [1- (α1 + α2)]

By assuming the leakage currents are negligible in both transistors we get

Ia = [α2 Ig] / [1- (α1 + α2)]

where α1 and α2 are the respective gains of the two transistors.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

⦿ Anode and cathode are connected to main source voltage through the load.

⦿ The gate and cathode are fed from source 𝐸𝑆.

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Working or Modes of Operation of SCR

Depending on the biasing given to the SCR, the operation of SCR is divided into three modes. They are

⦿ Reverse Blocking Mode

⦿ Forward blocking Mode

⦿ Forward Conduction Mode and

Reverse Blocking Mode

⦿ In this mode of operation, cathode is made positive with respect to anode. Then the junctions J1 and J3 are
reverse biased and J2 is forward biased. This reverse voltage drives the SCR into reverse blocking region
results to flow a small leakage current through it and acts as an open switch as shown in figure.

⦿ So, the device offers a high impedance in this mode until the voltage applied is less than the reverse
breakdown voltage VBR of the SCR. If the reverse applied voltage is increased beyond the VBR, then
avalanche breakdown occurs at junctions J1 and J3 which results to increase reverse current flow through
the SCR.

Forward Blocking Mode

⦿ When Supply is connected such that +ve is given to anode and -ve to cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are forward
biased. But Junction J2 is reverse biased.

⦿ Potential barrier gets formed at J2 junction. The device will not conduct. If voltage given is above forward
break over voltage, the device conducts.

Forward Conduction Mode

⦿ In this mode, SCR or Thyristor comes into the conduction mode from blocking mode. It can be done in
two ways as either by applying positive pulse to gate terminal or by increasing the forward voltage (or
voltage across the anode and cathode) beyond the break over voltage of the SCR.

⦿ Once any one of these methods is applied, the avalanche breakdown occurs at junction J2. Therefore the
SCR turns into conduction mode and acts as a closed switch thereby current starts flowing through it.

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 ⦿ In the VI characteristic figure, if the gate current value is high, the minimum will be the time to come in
conduction mode as Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1. In this mode, maximum current flows through the SCR and its value
depends on the load resistance or impedance.

⦿ It is also noted that if gate current is increasing, the voltage required to turn ON the SCR is less if gate
biasing is preferred. The current at which the SCR turns into conduction mode from blocking mode is
called as latching current (IL).

And also when the forward current reaches to level at which the SCR returns to blocking state is called as holding
current (IH). At this holding current level, depletion region starts to develop around junction J2. Hence the
holding current is slightly less than the latching current

Turn on methods of SCR

 The turning on Process of the SCR is known as Triggering.

 Turning the SCR from Forward Blocking state to Forward Conduction state is known as Triggering.

 That means anode current suddenly rises to a high value and latches into conduction mode from non-
conductive state.

Various methods of SCR triggering

With a voltage applied to the SCR, if the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, the SCR becomes
forward biased. Thus, the SCR comes into the forward blocking state. The SCR can be made to conduct or
switching into conduction mode is performed by any one of the following methods.

 Forward Voltage Triggering

 Thermal or Temperature Triggering

 Radiation or Light triggering

 dv/dt Triggering

 Gate Triggering

Forward Voltage Triggering

 In this mode, an additional forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode.

 When the anode terminal is positive with respect to cathode(VAK) , Junction J1 and J3 is forward biased
and junction J2 is reverse biased.

 No current flows due to depletion region in J2 is reverse biased (except leakage current).

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  As VAK is further increased, at a voltage VBO (Forward Break Over Voltage) the junction J2 undergoes
avalanche breakdown and so a current flows and the device tends to turn ON(even when gate is open)

 At this stage SCR turns into conduction mode and hence a large current flow through it with a low voltage
drop across it. During the turn ON state the forward voltage drop across the SCR is in the range of 1 to 1.5
volts and this may be increased with the load current.

 In practice this method is not employed because it needs a very large anode to cathode voltage. And also
once the voltage is more than the VBO, it generates very high currents which may cause damage to the
SCR. Therefore, most of the cases this type of triggering is avoided.

Thermal (or) Temperature Triggering

 The width of depletion layer of SCR decreases with increase in junction temperature.

 The reverse leakage current depends on the temperature. If the temperature is increased to a certain value ,
this causes to increase the leakage current and further it increases the current gains of the SCR.

 By increasing the temperature , at junction J2 causes the breakdown of the junction and hence it conducts.

 This triggering occur in some circumstances particularly when if the device temperature is more (also
called false triggering).

 This type of triggering is practically not employed because it causes the thermal runaway and hence the
device or SCR may be damaged.

Radiation Triggering (or) Light Triggering

 In this method, light rays with appropriate wavelength and intensity are allowed to strike the junction
J2.These types of SCRs are consisting a niche in the inner p-layer. Therefore, when the light struck on this
niche, electron-hole pairs are generated at the junction J2 which provides additional charge carriers at the
junction leads to turn ON the SCR.

 For light triggered SCRs a special terminal niche is made inside the inner P layer instead of gate terminal.

 When light is allowed to strike this terminal, free charge carriers are generated. When intensity of light
becomes more than a normal value, the thyristor starts conducting.

 An SCR turned ON by light radiation is also called as Light Activated SCR (LASCR).

dv/dt Triggering

 When SCR is forward biased, junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 are forward biased and junction 𝐽2 is reversed biased so it
behaves as if an insulator is place between two conducting plate. Here 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 acts as a conducting plate
and 𝐽2 acts as an insulator

 Junction J2 behaves as a capacitor, due to the charges existing across the junction.

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  So if we increase the rate of change of forward voltage instead of increasing the magnitude of voltage.
Junction 𝐽2 breaks and starts conducting. A high value of changing current may damage the SCR.

 However, this method is also practically avoided because it is a false turn ON process and also this can
produce very high voltage spikes across the SCR so there will be considerable damage to it.

 If voltage across the device is V, the charge by Q and capacitance by C then,

ic=dQ/dt

Q=CV

ic=d(CV)/dt

C.dV/dt+V.dC/dt

as dC/dt = 0

ic = C.dV/dt

 Therefore when the rate of change of voltage across the device becomes large, the device may turn ON,
even if the voltage across the device is small.

 This is most common and efficient method to turn ON the SCR.

 When the SCR is forward biased, a sufficient voltage at the gate terminal injects some electrons into the
junction J2. This result to increase reverse leakage current and hence the breakdown of junction J2 even at
the voltage lower than the VBO.

 As 𝐼𝑔 increases 𝑉𝐵𝑂 reduces which decreases then turn ON time.

 This is the simplest, reliable and efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs.

 In this process power loss is less and also low applied voltage is required for triggering.

Gate Triggering Methods

⦿ Gate triggering is the most efficient and reliable method. Most of the control applications use this type of
triggering because the desired instant of SCR turning is possible with gate triggering method.

Various gate firing circuits of SCR.

⦿ Resistance – Capacitance (RC) Triggering (Firing) Circuit

⦿ UJT Triggering (Firing )Circuit

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 Resistance Triggering

 The resistance triggering of SCR where it is employed to drive the load from the input AC supply.

 Resistance and diode combination circuit acts as a gate control circuitry to switch the SCR in the desired
condition.

 As the positive voltage applied, the SCR is forward biased and doesn’t conduct until its gate current is
more than minimum gate current of the SCR.

 When the gate current is applied by varying the resistance R2 such that the gate current should be more
than the minimum value of gate current, the SCR is turned ON. And hence the load current starts flowing
through the SCR.

 The SCR remains ON until the anode current is equal to the holding current of the SCR. And it will switch
OFF when the voltage applied is zero. So the load The diode protects the gate drive circuit from reverse
gate voltage during the negative half cycle of the input. And Resistance R1 limits the current flowing
through the gate terminal and its value is such that the gate current should not exceed the maximum gate
current.
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 It is the simplest and economical type of triggering but limited for few applications due to its
disadvantages.

 In this, the triggering angle is limited to 90 degrees only. Because the applied voltage is maximum at 90
degrees so the gate current has to reach minimum gate current value somewhere between zero to 90
degrees.

 current is zero as the SCR acts as open switch

Resistance–Capacitance (RC) Triggering

 The limitation of resistance firing circuit can be overcome by the RC triggering circuit which provides the
firing angle control from 0 to 180 degrees. By changing the phase and amplitude of the gate current, a
large variation of firing angle is obtained using this circuit.

 The RC triggering circuit consisting of two diodes with an RC network connected to turn the SCR.

 By varying the variable resistance, triggering or firing angle is controlled in a full positive half cycle of the
input signal.

 During the negative half cycle of the input signal, capacitor charges with lower plate positive through
diode D2 up to the maximum supply voltage Vmax. This voltage remains at -Vmax across the capacitor
till supply voltage attains zero crossing.

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  During the positive half cycle of the input, the SCR becomes forward biased and the capacitor starts
charging through variable resistance to the triggering voltage value of the SCR.

 When the capacitor charging voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage, SCR is turned ON and the
capacitor holds a small voltage. Therefore the capacitor voltage is helpful for triggering the SCR even
after 90 degrees of the input waveform.

 In this, diode D1 prevents the negative voltage between the gate and cathode during the negative half
cycle of the input through diode D2.

UJT Triggering

 It is the most common method of triggering the SCR because the prolonged pulses at the gate using R and
RC triggering methods cause more power dissipation at the gate so by using UJT as triggering device the
power loss is limited as it produce a train of pulses.

 The RC network is connected to the emitter terminal of the UJT which forms the timing circuit. The
capacitor is fixed while the resistance is variable and hence the charging rate of the capacitor depends on
the variable resistance means that the controlling of the RC time constant.

 When the voltage is applied, the capacitor starts charging through the variable resistance. By varying the
resistance value voltage across the capacitor get varied. Once the capacitor voltage is equal to the peak
value of the UJT, it starts conducting and hence produce a pulse output till the voltage across the capacitor
equal to the valley voltage Vv of the UJT. This process repeats and produces a train of pulses at base
terminal 1.

 The pulse output at the base terminal 1 is used to turn ON the SCR at predetermined time intervals.

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 Turn off methods of SCR
Commutation

 When SCR is turned ON by applying appropriate positive gate voltage between the gate and cathode
terminals, but it cannot be turned OFF through the gate terminal.

 The SCR can be brought back to the forward blocking state from the forward conduction state by reducing
the anode or forward current below the holding current level.

 The turn OFF process of an SCR is called commutation.

 The term commutation means the transfer of currents from one path to another.

SCR Turn OFF Methods

To turn OFF the conducting SCR the below conditions must be satisfied.

 The anode or forward current of SCR must be reduced to zero or below the level of holding current and
then,

 A sufficient reverse voltage must be applied across the SCR to regain its forward blocking state.

Depending on the commutation voltage the commutation methods are classified into two major types.

 1) Natural commutation and

 2) Forced commutation

Natural Commutation

 This is widely used method of commutation makes use of the alternating, reversing nature of a.c voltage to
effect the current transfer. As the current passes through natural zero, a reverse voltage will
simultaneously appear across the device. This immediately turns-off the device. This process is called as
natural commutation since no external circuit is required for this purpose.

 In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If the SCR is
connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle the anode current goes through the
natural current zero and also immediately a reverse voltage is applied across the SCR. These are the
conditions to turn OFF the SCR.

 This method of commutation is also called as source commutation, or line commutat ion, or class F
commutation.

Forced commutation

 In case of d.c circuits, for switching off the SCR, the forward current should be forced to be zero by
means of some external circuits. The process is called forced commutation.

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 This commutating circuit consists of components like inductors and capacitors called as commutating
components. These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR that
immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero.

 Based on the manner in which the zero current achieved and arrangement of the commutating
components, forced commutation is classified into different types such as class A, B, C, D, and E.

 This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.

The six distinct classes by which the SCR can be turned off are:

 Class A or Self commutation, or resonant commutation, or load commutation.

 Class B or Self commutated by a LC circuit

 Class C or Complementary commutation

 Class D or Auxiliarycommutation

 Class E or External pulse commutation

 Class F or AC line commutation

Class A or Self commutation

 This is also known as self commutation, or resonant commutation, or load commutation. In this
commutation, the source of commutation voltage is in the load. This load must be an under damped R-L-C
supplied with a DC supply so that natural zero is obtained.

 The commutating components L and C are connected either parallel or series with the load resistance R

 When the SCR is triggered, anode current flows and charges up C with the dot as positive. The L-C-R
forms a second order under-damped circuit. The current through the SCR builds up and completes a half
cycle. When the inductor current will then attempt to flow through the SCR in the reverse direction and
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 the SCR will be turned off. Load can be either in parallel with capacitance or in series with the
capacitance as in fig below. The capacitor voltage is at its peak when the SCR turns off and the capacitor
discharges into the resistance in an exponential manner .The SCR is reverse-biased till the capacitor
voltages returns to the level of the supply voltage V.

 The value of load resistance and commutating components are so selected that they forms a under damped
resonant circuit to produce natural zero. When the thyristor or SCR is triggered, the forward currents starts
flowing through it and during this the capacitor is charged up to the value of E.

 Once the capacitor is fully charged (more than the supply source voltage) the SCR becomes reverse biased
and hence the commutation of the device. The capacitor discharges through the load resistance to make
ready the circuit for the next cycle of operation. The time for switching OFF the SCR depends on the
resonant frequency which further depends on the L and C components.

 This method is simple and reliable. For high frequency operation which is in the range above 1000 Hz,
this type of commutation circuits is preferred due to the high values of L and C components.

Class-B or Resonant Pulse Commutation

 This is also a self commutation circuit in which commutation of SCR is achieved automatically by L and
C components, once the SCR is turned ON. In this, the LC resonant circuit is connected across the SCR
but not in series with load as in case of class A commutation and hence the L and C components do not
carry the load current.

 When the DC supply is applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges with an upper plate positive and lower
plate negative up to the supply voltage E. When the SCR is triggered, the current flows in two directions,

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 one is through E+ – SCR – R – E- and another one is the commutating current through L and C
components.

 Once the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor is starts discharging through C+ – L – T – C-. When the
capacitor is fully discharged, it starts charging with a reverse polarity. Hence a reverse voltage applied
across the SCR which causes the commutating current IC to oppose load current IL.

 When the commutating current Ic is higher than the load current, the SCR will automatically turn OFF and
the capacitor charges with original polarity.

 In the above process, the SCR is turned ON for some time and then automatically turned OFF for some
time. This is a continuous process and the desired frequency of ON/OFF depends on the values of L a nd
C. This type of commutation is mostly used in chopper circuits.

Class C or Complementary commutation

 In complementary commutation the current can be transferred between two loads. Two SCRs are used and
firing of one SCR turns off the other.

 Initially both T1 and T2 are off; now, T1 is fired. Load current IL flows through R1 . At the same time,
the capacitor C gets charged to V volts through R2 and T1 (‘b’ becomes positive with respect to ‘a’).
When the capacitor gets fully charged, the capacitor current ic becomes zero.

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  To turn off T1 , T2 is fired; the voltage across C comes across T1 and reverse biases it, hence T1 turns off.
At the same time, the load current flows through R2 and T2 . The capacitor ‘C’ charges towards V through
R1 and T2 and is finally charged to V volts with ‘a’ plate positive. When the capacitor is fully charged,
the capacitor current becomes zero.

 To turn off T2 , T1 is triggered, the capacitor voltage (with ‘a’ positive) comes across T2 and T2 turns off.

 Initially, both SCRs are in OFF state so the capacitor voltage is also zero. When the SCR T1 or main SCR
is triggered, current starts flowing in two directions, one path is V+ – R1 – T1 – V- and another path is the
charging current V+ – R2- C+ – C- T1 – V- . Therefore, the capacitor starts charging up to the value of V.

 When the SCR T2 is triggered, SCR is turned ON and simultaneously a negative polarity is applied across
the SCR T1. So this reverse voltage across the SCR T1 immediately causes to turn OFF the SCR T1. Now
the capacitor starts charging with a reverse polarity through the path of V+ – R1- C+ – C- T2 – V-. And
again, if the SCR T1 is triggered, discharging current of the capacitor turns OFF the SCR T2.

 This commutation is mainly used in single phase inverters with a centre tapped transformers. The Mc
Murray Bedford inverter is the best example of this commutation circuit. This is a very reliable method of
commutation and it is also useful even at frequencies below 1000Hz.

Class D or Auxiliarycommutation

 This is also called as auxiliary commutation because it uses an auxiliary SCR to switch the charged
capacitor. In this, the main SCR is commutated by the auxiliary SCR. The main SCR with load resistance
forms the power circuit while the diode D, inductor L and SCR2 forms the commutation circuit.

 When the supply voltage E is applied, both SCRs are in OFF state and hence the capacitor voltage is zero.

 In order to charge the capacitor, SCR2 must be triggered first. So the capacitor charges through the path
E+ – C+ – C- – SCR2- R- E-.

 When the capacitor is fully charged the SCR2 becomes turned OFF because no current flow through the
SCR2 when capacitor is charged fully.
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  If the SCR1 is triggered, the current flows in two directions; one is the load current path E+ – SCR1- R-
E- and another one is commutation current path C+ – SCR1- L- D- C.

 As soon as the capacitor completely discharges, its polarities will be reversed but due to the presence of
diode the reverse discharge is not possible. When the SCR2 is triggered capacitor starts discharging
through C+ – SCR2- SCR1- C-. When this discharging current is more than the loa d current the SCR1
becomes turned OFF.

 Again, the capacitor starts charging through the SCR2 to a supply voltage E and then the SCR2 is turned
OFF. Therefore, both SCRs are turned OFF and the above cyclic process is repeated.

 This commutation method is mainly used in inverters and also used in the Jones chopper circuit.

Class E or External pulse commutation

 This is also known as external pulse commutation. In this, an external pulse source is used to produce the
reverse voltage across the SCR.

 If the SCR need to be commutated, pulse duration equal to the turn OFF time of the SCR is applied.

 If the pulse is applied to the primary of the pulse transformer, an emf or voltage is induced in the
secondary of the pulse transformer.

 This induced voltage is applied across the SCR as a reverse polarity and hence the SCR is turned OFF.
The capacitor offers a very low or zero impedance to the high frequency pulse.

Class F or AC line commutation

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  This method of commutation is also called as source commutation, or line commutation.

 In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If the SCR is
connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle the anode current goes through the
natural current zero and also immediately a reverse voltage is applied across the SCR.

 This commutation is possible with line commutated inverters, controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters and
AC voltage regulators because the supply is the AC source in all these converters.

DIAC
 The term DIAC stands for the Diode for Alternating Current (DIAC),

 It is a bidirectional semiconductor switch that can be turned ON in both forward and reverse direction.

 This device is a member of the Thyristor family and it is mostly used in triggering TRIAC and other
Thyristor based circuits.

 The DIAC starts conducting electric current if the applied voltage goes beyond its break-over voltage.

Diac structure

The DIAC can be fabricated as either a three layer or a five layer structure. In the three layer structure the
switching occurs when the junction that is reverse biased experiences reverse breakdown. The three layer
version of the device is the more common and can have a break-over voltage of around 30 V.

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 V-I characteristics of DIAC

 The DIAC is also made of a five-layered structure; the layers closer to the terminals are the combination
of both positive and negative layers.

 When the voltage is passed to the terminals the layer with respective polarit y to the voltage gets activated,
this combination of both the polarities helps in operating the DIAC in both the directions

 Consider the MT1 terminal to be positive, then the P1 layer near MT1 will be activated, so the conduction
will be taking place in the order of P1-N2-P2-N3.

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 When the current is flowing from MT1 to MT2 the junction between P1-N2 and P2-N3 are Forward
Biased and the junction between N2-P2 is reverse biased.

 Similarly, if we consider MT2 terminal to be positive, then the P2 layer near MT2 will be activated and
the conduction will be taking place in the order of P2-N2-P1-N1. The current will be flowing from MT2 to
MT1 and the junctions between P2-N2 and P1-N1 are forward biased and the junction Between N2- P1 is
reverse biased. Hence the conduction will be possible in both the directions.

 The V-I characteristics of DIAC which indicates the current flow through the diac with respect to the
voltage across it. As long as the voltage across it is within its breakover limits that is from –VBO(VBO2)
to +VBO(VBO1), the resistance offered by the diac is very high.

 Initially, the resistance of the DIAC will be higher because of the Reverse Bias junction between the
layers so there will be small leakage current flowing through the DIAC, it is mentioned as the blocking
state in the curve.

 Once the applied voltage reaches the breakdown voltage the resistance of the DIAC drops abruptly and
then it starts conducting which leads to a sharp decrease in voltage and the current starts increasing, which
is mentioned as a conduction state in the curve.

 Most of the DIACs will be having the breakdown voltage around 30 Volts, the exact breakdown voltage
will be based on the type of the device. The DIAC will be in the conducting state until the current
reaches the particular value called the holding current, where holding current is the minimum current that
required for a device to keep it in the ON state.

Application of DIAC

The main application of a DIAC is its use in a TRIAC triggering circuit. The DIAC is connected to the
gate terminal of the TRIAC. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined value, the
gate voltage will be zero and hence the TRIAC will be turned off.
Some other applications of a DIAC include:

It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit

It is used in a heat control circuit

It is used in the speed control of a universal motor

TRIAC
 SCR as a unidirectional device and has a reverse blocking characteristics that prevents the current flow in
reverse biased condition. But for many applications, bidirectional control of current is required

 The TRIAC is a bidirectional switching device that can control the AC power efficiently and accurately.

 To accomplish the bidirectional control TRIAC is used

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 The triac is equivalent to two back to back SCRs connected with one gate terminal as shown in figure.

 TRIAC is an abbreviation for a TRIode AC switch. TRI means that the device consisting of three
terminals and AC means that it controls the AC power or it can conduct in both directions of alternating
current.

 The triac has three terminals namely Main Terminal 1(MT1), Main Terminal 2 (MT2) and Gate (G)

 It is a bidirectional device that can pass the current in both forward and reverse biased conditions and
hence it is an AC control device.

 If MT1 is forward biased with respect to MT2, then the current flows from MT1 to MT2. Similarly, if the
MT2 is forward biased with respect to MT1, then the current flows from MT2 to MT1.It is achieved
whenever the gate is triggered with an appropriate gate pulse.

Construction of TRIAC

 A triac is a five layer, three terminal semiconductor device. The gate terminal is connected to both N4 and
P2 regions by a metallic contact and it is near to the MT1 terminal.

 The terminal MT1 is connected to both N2 and P2 regions, while MT2 is connected to both N3 and P 1
regions. Hence, the terminals MT1 and MT2 connected to both P and N regions of the device and thus the
polarity of applied voltage between these two terminals decides the current flow through the layers of the
device. positive or negative voltage at the gate terminal.

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 Working and Operation of TRIAC

 With the gate open, MT2 is made positive with respect to MT1 for a forward biased traic. Hence traic
operates in forward blocking mode until the voltage across the triac is less than the forward breakover
voltage.

 Similarly for a reverse biased triac, MT2 is made negative with respect to MT1 with gate open.Until the
voltage across the triac is less than the reverse breakover voltage, device operates in a reverse blocking
mode.

 A traic can be made conductive by either positive or negative voltage at the gate terminal.

 It is possible to connect various combinations of negative and positive voltages to the triac terminals
because it is a bidirectional device.

 The four possible electrode potential combinations which make the triac to operate four different
operating quadrants or modes are given as.

 MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.

 MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.

 MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.

 MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.

Mode 1: MT2 is Positive, Positive Gate Current

 When the gate terminal is made positive with respect to MT1, gate current flows through the P2 and N2
junction. When this current flows, the P2 layer is flooded with electrons and further these electrons are
diffused to the edge of junction J2 (or P2-N1 junction).
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  These electrons collected by the N1 layer builds a space charge on the N1 layer. Therefore, more holes
from the P1 region are diffused into the N1 region to neutralize the negative space charges. These holes
arrive at the junction J2 and produce the positive space charge in the P2 region, which causes more
electrons to inject into P2 from N2.

 This results a positive regeneration and finally the main current flows from MT2 to MT1 through the
regions P1- N1 – P2 – N2.

Mode 2: MT2 is Positive, Negative Gate Current

 When MT2 is positive and the gate terminal is negative with respect to MT1, gate current flows through
the P2-N4 junction. This gate current forward biases the P2-N4 junction for auxiliary P1N1P2N4
structure. This results the triac to conduct initially through the P1N1P2N4 layers.

 This further raises the potential between P2N2 towards the potential of MT2. This causes the current to
establish from left to right in the P2 layer which forward biases the junction P2N2.

 And hence the main structure P1N1P2N2 begins to conduct.

 The sensitivity to gate current is less in this mode and hence more gate current is required to turn the triac.

Mode 3: MT2 is Negative, Positive Gate Current

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 In this mode, MT2 is made negative with respect to MT1 and the device is turned ON by applying a
positive voltage between the gate and MT1 terminal. The turn ON is initiated by N2 which acts as a
remote gate control and the structure leads to turn ON the triac is P2N1P1N3.

 The external gate current forward biases the junction P2-N2. N2 layer injects the electrons into the P2
layer which are then collected by junction P2N1. This result to increases the current flow through P2N1
junction.

 As the triac is turned ON by the remote gate N2, the device is less sensitive to the positive gate current in
this mode.

Mode 4: MT2 is Negative, Negative Gate Current

 In this mode N4 acts as a remote gate and injects the electrons into the P2 region. The external gate
current forward biases the junction P2N4. The electrons from the N4 region are collected by the P2N1
junction increase the current across P1N1 junction.

 Hence the structure P2N1P1N3 turns ON by the regenerative action. The triac is more sensitive in this
mode compared with positive gate current in mode 3.

 From the above discussion, it is concluded that the modes 2 and 3 are less sensitive configuration which
needs more gate current to trigger the triac, whereas more common triggering modes of triac are 1 and 4
which have greater sensitivity.

 In practice the more sensitive mode of operation is selected such that the polarity of the gate is to match
with the polarity of the terminal MT2.

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 V-I Characteristics of TRIAC

 When the terminal MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 terminal, the traic is said to be in forward
blocking mode.

 A small leakage current flows through the device provided that voltage across the device is lower than the
breakover voltage.

 Once the breakover voltage of the device is reached, then the triac turns ON as shown in below figure.

 However, it is also possible to turn ON the triac below the VBO by applying a gate pulse in such that the
current through the device should be more than the latching current of the triac.

 Similarly, when the terminal MT2 is made negative with respect to MT1, the traic is in reverse blocking
mode. A small leakage current flows through the device until it is triggered by breakover voltage or gate
triggering method. Hence the positive or negative pulse to the gate triggers the triac in both directions.

 The supply voltage at which the triac starts conducting depends on the gate current. If the gate is current is
being greater, lesser will be the supply voltage at which the triac is turned ON. Above discussed mode -1
triggering is used in the first quadrant whereas mode-3 triggering is used in 3rd quadrant.

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Triac

o Advantages of Triac
 It can be triggered with positive or negative polarity of gate pulses.

 It requires only a single heat sink of slightly larger size, whereas for SCR, two heat sinks should be
required of smaller size.

 It requires single fuse for protection.

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  A safe breakdown in either direction is possible but for SCR protection should be given with
parallel diode.

o Disadvantages of Triac
 They are not much reliable compared to SCR.

 It has (dv/dt) rating lower than SCR.

 Lower ratings are available compared to SCR.

 We need to be careful about the triggering circuit as it can be triggered in either direction.

o Applications of Triac
 They are used in control circuits.

 It is used in High power lamp switching.

o It is used in AC power control.

Power MOSFET
 Power MOSFET is a type of MOSFET which is specially meant to handle high levels of power. These
exhibit high switching speed and can work much better in comparison with other normal MOSFETs in the
case of low voltage levels.

 Power MOSFETs are of different types

n-c hannel Enhancement-mode , p-channel Enhancement-mode, , n-channel Depletion-mode in nature. p-channel

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Structure of PMOSFET

 As compared to the simple lateral channel MOSFET for low-power signals, power MOSFET has different
structure. It has a vertical channel structure where the source and the drain are on the opposite side of the
silicon wafer

 This opposite placement of the source and the drain increases the capability of the power MOSFET to
handle larger power.

 When VGS = 0,

o ⇒ VDD makes it reverse biased and no current flows from drain to source.

 When VGS > 0,

o ⇒ Electrons form the current path. Thus, current from the drain to the source flows. Now, if we
will increase the gate-to-source voltage, drain current will also increase.

Applications

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 Power MOSFETs are extensively used

 As a part of power supplies,

 DC-DC converters and

 low-voltage motor controllers.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor(IGBT)

 IGBT is high input impedance and large bipolar current-carrying capability.

 IGBT as a device with MOS input characteristics and bipolar output characteristic as a voltage-controlled
bipolar device.

 It is integration of Power MOSFET and BJT devices in monolithic form.

 It combines the best attributes of both BJT and PMOSFET achieve optimal device characteristics.

 The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are:

1. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has superior on-state current
density. So smaller chip size is possible and the cost can be reduced.

2. Low driving power and a simple drive circ uit due to the input MOS gate structure. It can be easily
controlled as compared to current controlled devices (thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current
applications.

3. Wide SOA. It has superior current conduction capability compared with the bipolar transistor. It also
has excellent forward and reverse blocking capabilities.

 The main drawbacks are:

1. Switching speed is inferior to that of a Power MOSFET and superior to that of a BJT. The collector
current tailing due to the minority carrier causes the turnoff speed to be slow.

2. There is a possibility of latchup due to the internal PNPN thyristor structure.

 IGBT is almost identical to that of a vertical Power MOSFET except for the P+ injecting layer. It shares
similar MOS gate structure and P wells with N+ source regions. The N+ layer at the top is the source or
emitter and the P+ layer at the bottom is the drain or collector.

Applications

 IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as inverters, converters and power
supplies, such as

 AC and DC motor drives, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS),

 Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS),

 traction motor control

 induction heating, and

 inverters.

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