Unit 2.

ATMOSPHERIC
PROCESSES
• 2.1. The Atmosphere
• The Earth's atmosphere extends to
more than 560 kilometers above the
planet's surface and is divided into
four layers (Stratosphere,
Troposphere, Mesosphere and
Thermosphere), each of which has
distinct thermal, chemical, and
physical properties.
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• Many atmospheric processes take place
in a state of dynamic balance—for
example; there is an average balance
between the heat input to, and output
from, the atmosphere. Thus, the
atmosphere is a critical system that
helps to regulate Earth's climate and
distribute heat around the globe.
• In this regards, we will go through the
fundamental processes that cause
atmospheric circulation and create
climate zones and weather patterns, and
learn how carbon cycling between 2
• The earth's atmosphere is a critical
system for life on our planet. Together
with the oceans, the atmosphere shapes
Earth's climate and weather patterns and
makes some regions more habitable than
others. But Earth's climate is not static.
How variable is it, and how quickly does
it changes?
• What physical factors control climate,
and how do they interact with one
another? To see how and why climate
fluctuates, we need to learn about the
basic characteristics of the atmosphere 3
• 2.1.1. Chemical Atmospheric Composition
• We live at the bottom of a layered air
that extends upward about 500 km .The
atmosphere has four distinct zones of
contrasting temperature, due to
differences in absorption of solar energy.
• The atmosphere is composed of N2, O2,
argon, H2O vapor, & a number of trace
gases like carbon dioxide, methane. This
composition has remained relatively
constant throughout much of Earth's
history. 4
• Chemical reactions maintain the ratios
of major constituents of the
atmosphere to each other. For example,
oxygen is released into the atmosphere
by photosynthesis and consumed by
respiration. The concentration of
oxygen in the atmosphere is maintained
by a balance between these two
processes:
• Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + light
CH2O" + O2
• Respiration: CH2O + O2
CO2 + H2O + energy 5
• The Structure of Atmosphere
• Although the air is well mixed
throughout the atmosphere, it is not
itself physically uniform but has
significant variations in temperature
and pressure with altitude which define
a number of atmospheric layers. It is
composed of four layers, where the
temperature is decreasing or
increasing alternately. 6
Structure of the atmosphere (Source: Steven C et all,
2006) 7
• TROPOSPHERE
• The lowest layer of the atmosphere is
called the troposphere. It rises between 8
km at the poles and 16 km above the
equator. The boundary between the
troposphere and the stratosphere is the
tropopause, a region where the
temperature is stable. Temperature
decreases with increase in altitude of 0.60
° C per 100 m, on average. and the
progressive distancing of the substrate. 8
• The troposphere is the densest of the
four layers of the atmosphere and it
comprises up to 75% of the mass of the
atmosphere. It is mainly composed of
nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with
only small concentrations of other
gases.

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• Troposphere is the home of the
biosphere, the atmospheric layer that
supports life, and a region of principal
weather activity.

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• STRATOSPHERE
• The stratosphere is the second main
layer of the atmosphere. It is located
above the troposphere and is separated
from it by the tropopause. It occupies
the region of the atmosphere about 12
to 50 km, while its lower limit is higher
at the equator and lowest at the poles.
The stratosphere defines a layer in
which the temperature rises with
increase in altitude.
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• At the top of the stratosphere, thin air
can reach temperatures near 0 ° C. This
rise in temperature is caused by the
absorption of ultraviolet (UV) light from
the Sun by the ozone layer. some ultra
violet radiation is essential to the body
as it stimulates the production of vitamin
D, thus vitamin D has an important
function in increasing calcium and
phosphorus absorption from food and
plays a role in skeleton development.
• As a result, the stratosphere is almost12
• Ozonosphere or Ozone layer is a
portion of stratosphere that contains
an increased level of Ozone. Ozone is
highly reactive oxygen molecule made
up of three oxygen atoms (O3) instead
of the usual two atoms (O2) that make
up oxygen gas.
• Ozone absorbs ultraviolet light from
the sun.

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• The stratosphere provides some
advantages for long distance flight
because it is above the stormy weather
and strong winds, regular and
horizontal. The stratosphere is
separated from the mesosphere, which
is above it, by the stratopause.

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• MESOSPHERE
• The mesosphere is the third highest
layer in our atmosphere, occupying the
area of 50 km to 80 km above the
Earth's surface, above the troposphere
and the stratosphere, and below the
thermosphere. It is separated from the
stratosphere by the stratopause and
thermosphere by the mesopause.
• Temperature in the mesosphere drop
with increase in altitude to about -100
°C . 15
• The mesosphere is the coldest
atmospheric layers. There's cold enough
to freeze water vapor into clouds of ice.
• The mesosphere sometimes receives tiny
solid particles , dust particles, .

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• THERMOSPHERE
• This is the highest layer of the
atmosphere. The thermosphere begins
at 90-100 km and extends to 10 000 km
altitude. The pressure there becomes
almost zero .
• The temperature increases with
altitude and is maintained to a level
called thermopause (the upper limit of
thermosphere) located 250 km to 500
km, according to solar activity after
thermopause as the temperature
fluctuates, between 300 ° C and 1600 ° C
depending on the energy received from 17
• 2.2. Climate change and Global Warming
• Climate change is a significant change
in the statistical distribution of
weather patterns over periods ranging
from decades to millions of years.more
than 30 years.
• (1) Causes of Climate Change
• To understand climate change, the
cause of climate change must be
identified. Scientists divided causes of
climate change into two main
categories: anthropogenic and Natural 18
• a. Anthropogenic causes
• It has been realized beyond reasonable
doubt that the Climate change is highly
influenced by man-made activities (Burning
of fossil fuels, change in land use,
including agriculture and deforestation)
that generate out greenhouse gases.
• The industrial revolution marks the large
scale use of fossil fuels for industrial
activities. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal
and natural gases supply most of the
energy needed to run vehicles, generate
electricity for industries and
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• b. Natural Causes:
• The natural variability and the climate
fluctuations of the climate system
have always been part of the Earth’s
history & there have been changes in
concentrations of Green house gases
in the atmosphere growing at high
magnitude.
• The Climate change has been naturally
caused by volcanic eruption, ocean 20
• Volcanic Eruption: when a volcano
erupts it throws out large volumes of
Sulfur dioxide, water vapor, dust, and
ash into the atmosphere factors which
influence climatic patterns for years .
• Because they reflect solar energy back
into space they have a cooling effect
on the world. The greenhouse gas (CO2)
is also produced.
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• Ocean current: as the ocean plays an
important role in determining the
atmospheric concentration of CO2,
changes in ocean circulation may
affect the climate through the
movement of CO2 into or out of the
atmosphere. oceans absorb about a
quarter of the Carbon dioxide
emissions from human activity, this has
led to the acidification of ocean water
, and threatening marine life
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• Solar radiation: as the sun is the
fundamental source of energy that is
instrumental in our climate system, it
would be reasonable to assume that
changes in the sun’s energy output
would cause the climate to change.
• 2.2.2. Global Warming and Greenhouse
gases (GHGs)
• (1) Global Warming
• Global warming is the rise in the average
temperature of Earth's atmosphere and
oceans since the late 19th century and its
projected continuation. Since the early
20th century, Earth's mean surface
temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C
(1.4 °F), and scientists are 95-100% certain
that it is primarily caused by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases
produced by human activities such as the 24
• Many atmospheric GHGs like carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water
vapor, & chlorofluorocarbons are
judged capable of capturing the out-
going infrared radiation from the
earth.
• Infra-red radiations captured by the
earth’s surface cannot pass through
these gases & to increase thermal
energy or heat in the atmosphere. Thus,
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• Global warming therefore, results
from much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
atmosphere which acts as a blanket,
capturing heat and warming the planet.
The burning of fossil fuels like coal,
oil and natural gas for energy or cut
down and burn forests to create
pastures and plantations, carbon
dioxide accumulates and overloads
our atmosphere. 26
• (2) Green house gases (GHGs)
• Many GHGs, including water vapor (the
most important), ozone, carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide, are
naturally present in the atmosphere.
Other GHGs are synthetic chemicals
that are emitted only as a result of
human activity. Anthropogenic
activities are significantly increasing
atmospheric concentrations of many 27
• a. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• CO2 is the product of the oxidation of
carbon in organic matter, either
through combustion of carbon-based
fuels or the decay of biomass.
• Natural CO2 sources include volcanic
eruptions, respiration of organic
matter in natural ecosystems, natural
fires, and exchange of dissolved CO2
with the oceans. 28
• The main anthropogenic sources are;
fossil fuel combustion; deforestation
and land use changes (such as
converting agricultural land or
forests to urban development), which
release stored organic matter and
reduce the ability of natural
ecosystems to store carbon. All these
led to a rise in the emission of CO2.
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• b. Methane (CH4)
• CH4 is another important greenhouse
gas in the atmosphere produced by
anaerobic decay of organic material in
landfills, wetlands, and rice fields;
manure management; wastewater
treatment; fossil fuel combustion; and
leaks from natural gas transportation
and distribution systems (Pipelines
leaking), process of Oil Drilling and
abandoned coal mines.
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• c. Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• N2O is produced by fertilizer use,
animal waste management, fossil fuel
combustion and industrial activities.
• d. Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs)
• HFCs ( are primarily produced for use
in refrigeration, air- conditioning and
fire protection.

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• (3) Ozone Layer Depletion
• The stratosphere has an ozone layer
which protects the earth’s surface
from excessive ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the Sun. Chlorine from
chemicals such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used for
refrigeration, air conditioning, fire
extinguishers, cleaning solvents,
cause damage to ozone layer. 32
• Chlorine contained in the CFCs when
reaching the ozone (O3) layer break the
ozone molecules to form oxygen (O2).
The amount of ozone thus gets reduced
and cannot prevent the entry of UV
radiation.
• This permits passage of UV radiation on
earth’s atmosphere which causes in
eyes leading to blindness, skin cancer,
reduced productivity of forests, etc.

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• a. The process of O3 Layer depletion
• The ozone depletion process starts
when CFCs & other ozone-depleting
substances (ODS) are emitted into the
atmosphere (1). Winds efficiently mix
the troposphere & evenly distribute
the gases. CFCs are extremely stable,
and they do not dissolve in rain. After
a period of several years, ODS
molecules reach the stratosphere, 34
• UV light breaks apart the ODS
molecule. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon
tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, &
other gases release chlorine atoms, &
methyl bromide release bromine atoms
(3). It is these atoms that actually
destroy ozone, not the intact ODS
molecule. It is estimated that one
chlorine atom can destroy over
100,000 ozone molecules before it is35
Depletion process of ozone layer and chemicals
involved 36
• Note: Since ozone filters out harmful
UV radiation, less ozone means higher
UV levels at the surface. The more the
magnitude of Ozone Layer depletion,
the larger the increase in incoming UV
to the earth surface.
• UV has been linked to skin cancer,
cataracts, damage to materials like
plastics, and harm to certain crops
and marine organisms. Although some
UV reaches the surface even without
ozone depletion, its harmful effects 37