BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

MANUAL

B.TECH 1st YEAR

ETC DEPARTMENT
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Familiarization of electronic components and devices (Testing of semiconductor
diodes and transistors using digital multimeter)

2. Familiarization with use of Oscilloscope, signal generator to view waveforms and

measure amplitude and frequency of a given waveform.
3. Application of Op-Amp as Differentiator and Integrator.
4. Verification of V-I characteristics of semiconductor diode and determining its DC and
AC resistance.
5. Studies on half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuits without and with capacitor
filter; recording of the waveforms and measurement of average and rms values of
the rectifier output.
6. Plot the Input and Output V-I Characteristics of N-P-N Transistor in CE
Configuration.
7. Determine the frequency response of a BJT common-emitter RC coupled amplifier.
8. Design a Low pass and High pass filter and verify its performance.
9. Verify truth table of Logic gates.
10. Simplify a Boolean expression and implement the function using Logic gates.
Modify the circuit for implementation with NAND Gatesor NOR Gates only.
 EXPERIMENT N0-1

Aim Of The Experiment: Familiarization of electronic components and devices (Testing

of semiconductor diodes and transistors using digital multimeter)

Theory:

Electronic Components:
These can be classified into:

1. Passive Components: Components like resistance, capacitance and inductance fall in

this class.
2 Active Components: They can be further classified as Semiconductor Devices:
Semiconductor diode, zener diode, and varactor diode etc. Uni-junction transistor,
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) FET, silicon controlled rectifier, etc.

Resistors
SMD/SMT Resistors

SMD stand for surface mount device, SMD can be used to implement digital and analog
circuits. Perhaps its only drawback is that the power handling capacity of the devices
tends to be low, since the parts are physically small. For digital and many analog circuits,
that restriction is not a problem. In fact, traditional capacities such as the classic 1/2 watt
resistor are far more than needed for low power circuitry. Surface mount resistors can
have a rating of 1/16 watt. Because the traditional wire leads are no longer used, the parts
lose their convenient handles. Stripped of wire leads, and reduced in size and power
capacity, the physical dimensions of the board can shrink dramatically. All of these
trends are good news for considerations such as cost, packaging, portability, high
frequency operation, and power supplies.

Resistors used in computers and other devices are typically much smaller, often in
surface-mount (Surface-mount technology) packages without leads. Larger power
resistors come in more sturdy packages designed to dissipate heat efficiently, but they are
all basically the same structure. SMD resistor is of two types first is 3-digit SMD resistor
& 4- digit SMD resistor.

MFR Resistance:
The resistance element is a precisely controlled thin film of metal alloy sputtered on to a
high purity ceramic core, protected by a moisture-resistant, high dielectric strength
coating applied so that terminations remain completely clear. Metal film resistors are
used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is needed. They are much more
accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about ±0.05% tolerance. They
have about ±0.05% tolerance. Resistors that are about ±1% are more than sufficient. Ni-
Cr (Nichrome) seems to be used for the material of resistor. The metal film resistor is
used for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits.

Rough size
Rating power Thickness Length
(W) (mm) (mm)
1/8 2 3
¼ 2 6
1W 3.5 12
2 5 15

1/8W (tolerance ±1%)

1/4W (tolerance ±1%)
1W (tolerance ±5%)
2W (tolerance ±5%)

Carbon Film Resistors:

This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance
value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used. CFR 2 watt is
also used the tolerance of the resistance value is ±5%. Carbon film resistors have a
disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended for
use in analog circuits.
Ceramic Resistor:
Electrical resistor materials with nonlinear current-voltage characteristics in the form of
sintered ceramic masses are known in numerous compositional varieties. A main group
of these materials has a zinc oxide base, to which other metal oxides are added for the
formation of insulating grain boundary intermediate layers. Ceramic resistors formed of a
compound and/or a complex compound containing at least four metallic or metalloid
elements including Mg and Si have resistance against high voltage Pulses and high power
surges, and also have thermal resistance because their main constituent is ceramic. Thus,
they have particular advantages which other resistors do not have. Ceramic resistors of
doped barium titanate display relatively low electrical resistance in one temperature range
and display very sharply increased resistance when heated to an anomaly temperature, the
noted resistance levels and the anomaly temperature being characteristic of the particular
resistor composition. These resistors have found wide use as thermal sensing control
elements, as self-regulating electrical heaters, and as current limiting devices.

Wirewound:
Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome,
around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded
to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a
layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because
of the very high surface temperature these resistors can withstand temperatures of up to
+450 °C. Wire leads in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 and
0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wirewound
resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an insulating
layer is used. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to
dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink.

Variable Resistors:
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable
resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is
semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a technician. It is used
to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are
used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The
rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable
resistors must be turned many times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This
allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called "Potentiometers" or
"Trimmer Potentiometers."
In the photograph to the left, the variable resistor typically used for volume controls can
be seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to adjust.The four resistors at the center of
the photograph are the semi-fixed type. These ones are mounted on the printed circuit
board.The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers.

This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit diagram.

There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change according to the
rotation angle of its axis.When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance value
changes slowly and then in the second half of its axis, it changes very quickly. The "A"
type variable resistor is typically used for the volume control of a radio, for example. It is
well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It suits the characteristics of the ear. The ear
hears low sound changes well, but isn't as sensitive to small changes in loud sounds. A
larger change is needed as the volume is increased. These "A" type variable resistors are
sometimes called "audio taper" potentiometers.As for type "B", the rotation of the axis
and the change of the resistance value are directly related. The rate of change is the same,
or linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits a resistance value adjustment
in a circuit, a balance circuit and so on.

They are sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers.Type "C" changes exactly the
opposite way to type "A". In the early stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance
value changes rapidly, and in the second half, the change occurs more slowly. This type
isn't too much used. It is a special use.

As for the variable resistor, most are type "A" or type "B".

Light Dependent Resistor

A light dependent resistor is a small, round semiconductor. Light dependent resistors are
used to re-charge a light during different changes in the light, or they are made to turn a
light on during certain changes in lights. One of the most common uses for light
dependent resistors is in traffic lights. The light dependent resistor controls a built in
heater inside the traffic light, and causes it to recharge over night so that the light never
dies. Other common places to find light dependent resistors are in: infrared detectors,
clocks and security alarms.

Capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting
of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential
difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric
that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal
capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads.
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many
other purposes.
Electrolytic Capacitor
An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic
conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume
than other types. They are often referred to in electronics usage simply as "electrolytics".
They are used in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits, particularly
in power supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and
current fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors
in circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not. There are two types of
electrolytics; aluminum and tantalum.
Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance values of any
type of capacitor. However they have drawbacks which limit their use. The voltage
applied to them must be polarized; one specified terminal must always have positive
potential with respect to the other. Therefore they cannot be used with AC signals
without a DC bias. They also have very low breakdown voltage, higher leakage current
and inductance, poorer tolerances and temperature range, and shorter lifetimes compared
to other types of capacitors.
Surface mount technology (SMT) is a method for constructing electronic circuits in
which the components (SMC, or Surface Mounted Components) are mounted directly
onto the surface of printed circuit boards (PCBs). Electronic devices so made are called
surface mount devices or SMDs. In the industry it has largely replaced the through-hole
technology construction method of fitting components with wire leads into holes in the
circuit board.
An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has
either smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or leads of various styles,
flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the
component.
Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum Capacitors are electrolytic capacitor that is use a material called tantalum for
the electrodes. Large values of capacitance similar to aluminum electrolytic capacitors
can be obtained. Also, tantalum capacitors are superior to aluminum electrolytic
capacitors in temperature and frequency characteristics. When tantalum powder is baked
in order to solidify it, a crack forms inside. An electric charge can be stored on this crack.
These capacitors have polarity as well. Usually, the "+" symbol is used to show the
positive component lead. Do not make a mistake with the polarity on these types.
Tantalum capacitors are a little bit more expensive than aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
Capacitance can change with temperature as well as frequency, and these types are very
stable. Therefore, tantalum capacitors are used for circuits which demand high stability in
the capacitance values. Also, it is said to be common sense to use tantalum capacitors for
analog signal systems, because the current-spike noise that occurs with aluminum
electrolytic capacitors does not appear.

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are fine if you don't use them for circuits which need
the high stability characteristics of tantalum capacitors.
The photograph on the left illustrates the tantalum capacitor.
The capacitance values are as follows, from the left:
0.33 µF (35V), 0.47 µF (35V), 10 µF (35V), etc
The "+" symbol is used to show the positive lead of the component. It is written on the
body.

Button Trimmer Capacitors

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to be
mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of
adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will
slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer.
Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than
100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified
by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.
Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.

Trimmer Capacitor Symbol

Trimmer Capacitor

Multilayer Ceramic Capacitor

Ceramic capacitors are known to comprise alternating layers of inner electrodes and
ceramic dielectrics. A laminated ceramic capacitor includes a laminate formed of a
plurality of laminated dielectric ceramic layers and an internal electrode laminated
therein. Monolithic ceramic capacitors have a rectangular shape, and are provided with
external electrodes at the opposite ends thereof, respectively. The development of
integrated circuits has made it possible to place many circuit elements in a single
semiconductor chip. A multilayer ceramic capacitor has been used widely as a compact,
high power, and highly reliable electronic part and employed in a large number of
electronic circuits. The multilayer ceramic capacitor comprises a layered dielectric body
composed by alternately laminating dielectric layers and inner electrode layers and
terminal electrodes formed on the main body of the layered dielectric element. The
ceramic layers are stacked together in a manner that the internal electrodes are alternately
exposed at opposite sides of the laminated body. The external electrodes are disposed at
the end portions including the opposite sides of the laminated body and are connected to
respective sets of internal electrodes of the laminated body.

Gang Capacitor:
A combination of two or more variable capacitors mounted on a common shaft to permit
adjustment by a single control.
 Integrated Circuit (IC)
555 Timer IC

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and
multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R. Camenzind in 1970 and
brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was
the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC Time
Machine". It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name from the three 5 kΩ resistors
used in typical early implementations, but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number
was arbitrary. The part is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good
stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year.
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors, 2
diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package
(DIP-8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one
chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR
connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).
Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555.
The 7555 is designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic 555 and the
manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many
cases does not require a power supply bypass capacitor.
The 555 has three operating modes:
• Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications
include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM), etc.
• Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED
and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
pulse position modulation, etc.
• Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is
not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches,
etc.

IC 741
The 741 is the godfather of all operational amplifiers (amplifiers on a chip). Although
most up-to-date designs beat it for speed, low noise, etc, it still works well as a general
purpose device. One of its advantages is that it is compensated (its frequency response is
tailored) to ensure that under most circumstances it won't produce unwanted spurious
oscillations. This means it is easy to use, but the down-side of this is the poor speed/gain
performance compared to more modern op-amps.

The 741 is usually supplied in an 8-pin ‘DIL’ (Dual In Line) or ‘DIP’ (Dual Inline
Package, or sometimes Dual Inline Plastic) package with a pinout shown above. This has
proved so popular that many other competing op-amps have adoped the same
package/pinout. Hence for many applications the various op-amps are ‘drop in’
replacements or upgrades for one another. These days there is a large family of 741 type
devices, made by various manufacturers. Sometimes one manufacturer will make
different versions which work better than others in some respect. Each has a slightly
different part number, but it generally has “741” in it somewhere!
The values given below are ‘typical’ for an ordinary 741, better versions (more
expensive) may give better results...
Typical values of Basic Parameters:
 Rail voltages : +/- 15V DC (+/-5V min, +/-18V max)
Input impedance : Around 2MegOhms
Low Frequency voltage gain : Approx 200,000
Input bias current : 80nA
Slew rate : 0.5V per microsecond
Maximum output current : 20mA
Recommended output load : Not less than 2kilOhms
Note that, due to the frequency compensation, the 741's voltage gain falls rapidly with
increasing signal frequency. Typically down to 1000 at 1kHz, 100 at 10kHz, and unity at
about 1MHz. To make this easy to remember we can say that the 741 has a gain-
bandwidth product of around one million (i.e. 1 MHz as the units of frequency are Hz)

Diode
Optical Coupled Isolator:

An optoisolator, also known as an optical coupler or optocoupler, is a semiconductor

device that allows signals to be transferred between circuits or systems, while keeping
those circuits or systems electrically isolated from each other. Optoisolators are used in a
wide variety of communications, control, and monitoring systems.

In its simplest form, an optoisolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED), IRED

(infrared-emitting diode), or laser diode for signal transmission, and a photo sensor for
signal reception. The "transmitter" takes the electrical signal and converts it into a a beam
of modulated visible light or infrared (IR). This beam travels across a transparent gap and
is picked up by the "receiver," which converts the modulated light or IR back into an
electrical signal. The electrical output waveform is identical to the electrical input
waveform, although the input and output amplitudes (signal strengths) often differ. The
optoisolator is enclosed in a single package, and has the appearance of an integrated
circuit (IC) or a transistor with extra leads.

A common application of an optoisolator is in a specialized modem that allows a

computer to be connected to a telephone line without risk of damage from electrical
transients (also called "surges" or "spikes"). Two optoisolators are employed in the
analog section of the device: one for upstream signals and the other for downstream
signals. If a transient occurs on the telephone line (and these are common), the computer
will be unaffected because the optical gap does not conduct electric current. For this
reason, modems that use optoisolators provide superior protection against transients
compared with modems incorporating electrical surge suppressors alone. (An electrical
surge suppressor should be installed between the optoisolator and the telephone line for
optimum protection.)
Light-Emitting Diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is
often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to
shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light
sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness,
smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and
heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation
lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as
well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth,
switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of
many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic
appliances.
White Light
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. One is
to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors—red, green, and blue—and then
mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the
same way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite
different spectra that appear white.
RGB Systems
Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state
semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all
three colors.
White light can be formed by mixing differently colored lights, the most common method
is to use red, green and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-colored white
 LEDs (sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs). Because these need electronic circuits to
control the blending and diffusion of different colors, these are seldom used to produce
white lighting. Nevertheless, this method is particularly interesting in many uses because
of the flexibility of mixing different colors, and, in principle, this mechanism also has
higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.
There are several types of multi-colored white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white
LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different methods include color
stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficacy. Often higher efficiency will
mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade off between the luminous efficiency and
color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous
efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. Conversely, although
tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have

poor luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good
luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.
Multi-color LEDs offer not merely another means to form white light, but a new means to
form light of different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different
amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. As more
effort is devoted to investigating this method, multi-color LEDs should have profound
influence on the fundamental method which we use to produce and control light color.
However, before this type of LED can play a role on the market, several technical
problems need solving. These include that this type of LED's emission power decays
exponentially with rising temperature, resulting in a substantial change in color stability.
Such problems inhibit and may preclude industrial use. Thus, many new package designs
aimed at solving this problem have been proposed and their results are now being
reproduced by researchers and scientists.

Phosphor-based LEDs
Spectrum of a “white” LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by the
GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light
emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 500–700 nm.
This method involves coating an LED of one color (mostly blue LED made of InGaN)
with phosphor of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called
phosphor-based white LEDs. A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift
being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of the
original LED, phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers
of distinct colors are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively raising the
color rendering index (CRI) value of a given LED.
Phosphor based LEDs have a lower efficiency than normal LEDs due to the heat loss
from the Stokes shift and also other phosphor-related degradation issues. However, the
phosphor method is still the most popular method for making high intensity white LEDs.
The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter
with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the
majority of high intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using
phosphor light conversion.
The greatest barrier to high efficiency is the seemingly unavoidable Stokes energy loss.
However, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output
and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting
better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Philips Lumileds'
patented conformal coating process addresses the issue of varying phosphor thickness,
giving the white LEDs a more homogeneous white light. With development ongoing, the
efficiency of phosphor based LEDs generally rises with each new product announcement.
The phosphor based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor coated
epoxy. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet
(Ce3+:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a
mixture of high efficiency europium-based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green
emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al). This is a method
analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than the blue
LED with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to
heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to
the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods
offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning
light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.
Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all
and was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate which
simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the
substrate.

Bi-Color LED
A bi-color LED has two LEDs inside one lens package, usually red/green, but
green/yellow is also common. They can come in 3-pin and 2-pin packages. The
schematic below shows internal wiring differences of each type of LED. The 3-pin parts
let you apply DC to each anode to get an orangy-yellowish mixture of color. Mixing
color on 2-pin parts requires A/C at frequencies high enough that avoids noticable flicker.
A wide range of colors can be coaxed out of these bi-color LEDs, and other interesting
effects are shown with this project. A few lines of code shows colors fading between
extremes while maintaining constant brightness. The "magic" part of the project is that
both 2-pin and 3-pin bi-color LEDs work equally well in the following "world's simplest
AVR circuit", and you can connect the bi-color LED to any two adjacent PORTB pins!
Zener Diodes
Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown,
occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage
reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are
connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near
zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes
(see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package,
constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). The Zener diode is
named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Carnegie Mellon University, inventor of the
device.

Diode 1N4148
The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicon diode used in signal processing. Its name
follows the JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass
package and is very useful at high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more
than 4ns. This permits rectification and detection of radio frequency signals very
effectively, as long as their amplitude is above the forward conduction threshold of
silicon (around 0.7V) or the diode is biased.
Power Diode:
The power semiconductor diode, known simply as the Power Diode, has a much larger
PN junction area compared to its smaller signal diode cousin, resulting in a high forward
current capability of up to several hundred amps (KA) and a reverse blocking voltage of
up to several thousand volts (KV). Since the power diode has a large PN junction, it is
not suitable for high frequency applications above 1MHz, but special and expensive high
frequency, high current diodes are available. For high frequency rectifier applications
Schottky Diodes are generally used because of their short reverse recovery time and low
voltage drop in their forward bias condition.
Power diodes provide uncontrolled rectification of power and are used in applications
such as battery charging and DC power supplies as well as AC rectifiers and inverters.
Due to their high current and voltage characteristics they can also be used as
freewheeling diodes and snubber networks. Power diodes are designed to have a forward
"ON" resistance of fractions of an Ohm while their reverse blocking resistance is in the
mega-Ohms range. Some of the larger value power diodes are designed to be "stud
mounted" onto heatsinks reducing their thermal resistance to between 0.1 to 1oC/Watt.
If an alternating voltage is applied across a power diode, during the positive half cycle the
diode will conduct passing current and during the negative half cycle the diode will not
conduct blocking the flow of current. Then conduction through the power diode only
occurs during the positive half cycle and is therefore unidirectional i.e. DC as shown.
Power diodes can be used individually as above or connected together to produce a
variety of rectifier circuits such as "Half-Wave", "Full-Wave" or as "Bridge Rectifiers".
Each type of rectifier circuit can be classed as either uncontrolled, half-controlled or fully
controlled were an uncontrolled rectifier uses only power diodes, a fully controlled
rectifier uses thyristors (SCRs) and a half controlled rectifier is a mixture of both diodes
and thyristors. The most commonly used individual power diode for basic electronics
applications is the general purpose 1N400x Series Glass Passivated type rectifying diode
with standard ratings of continuous forward rectified current of 1.0 amp and reverse
blocking voltage ratings from 50v for the 1N4001 up to 1000v for the 1N4007, with the
small 1N4007GP being the most popular for general purpose mains voltage rectification.

Transistor
BC547 Transistor

The transistor is a component with 3 electric wires coming out of it. They are named
B (base), C (collector), and E (emitter).
How it is used:

• If one connects a tension source between the wires C and E, the transistor will not
let any current trough (fig. 1).

• But between B and E there is a shortcut. If one wants to make a given current go
trough B and E, one must use a tension source and a resistor (fig. 2).

• If one sends a current of IB amperes between B and E, then the resistor will allow a
current of IC = ß . IB amperes pass between C et E (fig. 3). In this case, ß is about 100.

2N3055 Transistor
The 2N3055 is a silicon NPN power transistor intended for general purpose applications.

SL100 Transistor
SL100 is a general purpose, medium power NPN transistor. It is mostly used as switch in
common emitter configuration. The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to
operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For
switching applications, SL100 is biased in such a way that it remains fully on if there is a
signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets turned off completely. The emitter
leg of SL100 is indicated by a protruding edge in the transistor case. The base is nearest
to the emitter while collector lies at other extreme of the casing.
BC107B Transistor
NPN general purpose transistors. Its features Low current (max. 100 mA) Low voltage
(max. 45 V).

Applications
General purpose switching and amplification.
 Inductor
An inductor (or reactor) is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a
magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor's ability to
store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Typically an
inductor is a conducting wire shaped as a coil; the loops help to create a strong magnetic
field inside the coil due to Ampere's Law. Due to the time-varying magnetic field inside
the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
which by Lenz's Law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of
the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time,
due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents. Inductors called
chokes are used as parts of filters in power supplies or to block AC signals from passing
through a circuit.

Crystal Oscillator
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance
of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very
precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to
stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of
piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around
them became known as "crystal oscillators."

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of
megahertz. More than two billion (2×109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are
used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell
phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as
counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes
 Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR)
Silicon Control Rectifier 2P4M
The 2P4M are p -gate plastic molded SCR graned avg. on state current 2 amp. with rated
voltage up to 600 volts.Its features is easy Installation by its miniature size and thin
electrodes leads.Less holding current & low cost.
Applications
Various temperature control, speed control of miniature type motor, light display
equipment.

Bridge Rectifier
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both
half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The
circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the
diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the
other two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas,
D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series

with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction
as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional
wave.
 EXPERIMENT 2

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Familiarization with the use of Oscilloscope, signal generator to view waveforms and measure amplitude
and frequency of a given waveform.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Oscilloscope: 30 MHz dual channel oscilloscope

2. Power cord: 2 millimeters
3. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope probe: 1 no.
4. Function generator
5. Crocodile patch cord: 1 no.

THEORY

A. FUNCTION GENERATOR:-

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different
types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms
produced by the function generator are the sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and saw tooth shapes.
These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger
source). It is a digital device from which a wave form signal and required frequency is fed to the CRO for
analysis or visualization. It is also known as digital function generator (DFG). It can measure frequency
from 1 MHz to 2 MHz

B. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:-

It is an electronic device which provides a dimensional display of the signal wave shape in a screen
enabling to see the signal in various part of it. It can display and also measured many electrical quantities
like voltage, time, phase relationship, frequency. C.R.O. (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) is the instrument
which is used to observe signal waveforms. Signals are displayed in time domain i.e. variation in
amplitude of the signal with respect to time is plotted on the CRO screen. X-axis represents time and Y-
axis represents amplitude. It is used to measure amplitude, frequency and phase of the waveforms. It is
also used to observe shape of the waveform. C.R.O. is useful for trouble shooting purpose. It helps us to
find out gain of amplifier, test oscillator circuits. We can measure amplitude and frequency of the
waveforms at the different test points in our circuit. Thus, it helps us for fault finding procedure. In dual
channel C.R.O. X-Y mode is available which is used to create lissajous patterns.
Latest digital storage oscilloscope display voltage and frequency directly on the LCD and does not require
any calculation s. It can also store waveform for further analysis. More detailed study on C.R.O. will be
covered in EMI laboratory. In this practical, we will measure amplitude and frequency of the different
waveforms like sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and ramp wave.
It consists of following parts:

1.VERTICAL AMPLIFIER:-

It amplifies the input signal, which is to be displayed on the screen of CRT.

2.DELAY LINE:-

It provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is obtained at the output of vertical
amplifier. This delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection plates of CRT.

3.TRIGGER CIRCUIT:-
It produces a triggering signal in order to synchronize both horizontal and vertical deflections of
electron beam.
4.TIME BASE GENERATOR:-
It produces a saw tooth signal, which is useful for horizontal deflection of electron beam.
5.HORIZONTAL AMPLIFIER:-
It amplifies the saw tooth signal and then connects it to the horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
6.POWER SUPPLY:-
It produces both high and low voltages. The negative high voltage and positive low voltage are
applied to CRT and other circuits respectively.
7.CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT):-
It is the major important block of CRO and mainly consists of four parts. Those are electron gun,
vertical deflection plates, horizontal deflection plates and fluorescent screen. The electron beam,
which is produced by an electron gun, gets deflected in both vertical and horizontal directions by
a pair of vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal deflection plates respectively.
Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent screen. In this way, CRO will
display the applied input signal on the screen of CRT. So, we can analyze the signals in time
domain by using CRO.
C. AMPLITUDE MEASUREMENT:-
Vertical scale is taken into consideration for the amplitude measurement. From peak voltage amplitude is
measured.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Vertical 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋 𝑋 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣
2
D. TIME PERIOD MEASUREMENT
The horizontal scale of the slope can be used to measure time in millisecond, second, and minutes. The
internal pulse when signal is repeated periodically is one cycle of waveform. It is denoted as T.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Horizontal 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣
Magnification
E. FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
Movement from the repeated wave form can be used to calculate signal frequency. Since frequency is
reciprocal of time period. It is represented as
F = 1/ T (where T= Time period)

PROCEDURE
1. Connect function generator output at the input of C.R.O. a t channel 1 or at channel 2.
2. Select proper channel i.e. if signal is connected to channel 1 select CH1 and if signal is connected to
channel 2 select CH2
3. Adjust Time / Div knob to get sufficient time period displacement of the wave on the CRO screen.
4. With fine tuning of time/ Div make the waveform steady on screen.
5. Use triggering controls if waveform is not stable
6. Keep volt/ div knob such that waveform is visible on the screen without clipping.
7. Measure P-P reading along y-axis. This reading multiplied with volt/ div gives peak to peak amplitude
of the ac i/p wave.
8. Mea s u re horizontal division of one complete cycle. This division multiplied by time/ div gives time
period of the i/p wave.
9. Calculate frequency using formula f = 1/ T.
10. Note down your readings in the observation table.
11. Draw waveforms of sine, square, ramp and triangular in the given space.
OBSERVATION TABLE

CONCLUSION
 EXPERIMENT NO -3

AIM:- Applications of Op-Amp - Op-amp as Integrator and differentiator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Trainer Kit(Op-Amp characteristic Trainer Scientech 2322)

2. Connecting wires
3. Multimeter
4. CRO

THEORY:

INTEGRATOR: The operational amplifier can be used in many applications. It

can be used as differentiator and integrator. In integrator the circuit performs the
mathematical operation of integration that is the output wave form is the integrative
of the input waveform or good integration, one must ensure that the time period of
the input signal is smaller than or equal to RfC1.the practical integrator eliminates
the problem of instability and high frequency noise.

(1) Output of the integral of the input with scale multiple of

1/RC. This Property to integrate a given signal provides the ability
to electrically solve analogs of physical system operation.

VO(t) = -1 ∫Vin(t) dt
R1Cf
(2) DIFFERENTIATOR:
The operational amplifier can be used in many applications. It can be used as
differentiator and integrator. In differentiator the circuit performs the
mathematical operation of differentiation that is the output wave form is the
derivative of the input waveform or good differentiation, one must ensure tha
the time period of the input signal is larger than or equal to RfC1.the practical
differentiator eliminates the problem of instability and high frequency noise.

Output is differential of input with a scale factor of RC

Vo (t) = -RC dvi(t)

dt
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Integrator Amplifier

Differentiator Amplifier
 Trainer Kit:

PROCEDURE:

(a) Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

(b) Check all the continuity to proper connection.
(c) Apply voltages to all input.
(d) Measure the output by the CRO.
(e) Verify this output with theoretical equation.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO-4

Aim Of The Experiment:

To verify the V-I characteristics of semiconductor diode and determining its DC and AC resistance.

Apparatus Required:

i. Trainer Kit
ii. Patch Chords
iii. Power cable
iv. Power supply

Theory:

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one

direction with greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode
in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode
technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic

diagrams as shown below :

Figure 1
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or
prevent current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied

voltage :
Figure 2
 When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow
through the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when
the battery is "backward" and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be
reverse biased. A diode may be thought of as a kind of switch: "closed"
when forward-biased and "open" when reverse-biased.
V-I Characteristic:
The static voltage-current characteristic for a P-N Junction Diode is shown in

Figure 3.
Figure 3
Forward Characteristic:

When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased

from zero, hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning. It is
so because the external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier
voltage VB whose value is 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is
neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing
applied supply voltage. It is found that as little a voltage as 1.0 V produces a
forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristic:
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a
small current (due to minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the
reverse voltage is increased from zero, the reverse current very quickly
reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is also known as leakage
current. It is of the order of nanoamperes (nA) and microamperes (A) for
Ge.
As seen from Figure 3, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called
breakdown voltage VBR, the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases,
the curve indicating zero resistance at this point.
Zener Diode:
It is the reverse-biased heavily-dopped silicon (or germanium) P-N Junction
diode which is operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by
both external resistance and power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is
 preferred to diode because of its higher temperature and current capability.
Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of covalent bonds by the strong
electric field set up in the depletion region by the reverse voltage.
It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes, which
constitute the reverse saturation current (called zener current Iz) whose value
is limited only by the external resistance in the circuit.
V-I Characteristic:
Figure 4 shows typical characteristics in the negative quadrant. The forward
characteristic is simply that of an ordinary forward-biased junction diode.
The important points of the reverse characteristic are Vz = Zener breakdown
voltage.
Iz min = Minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz max = Maximum Zener current limited by, maximum power dissipation.
Since its reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical, the diode possesses
some resistance called Zener dynamic impedance. Its value is given by Zz =
Vz / Iz.
Zener diode are available having zener voltage of 2.4V to 200V. This
voltage is temperature dependent. The product Vz, Iz, gives their power
dissipation. Maximum ratings vary from 150mV to 50W.

Figure 4

For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must
1. Be
2. reverse-biased,
3. Have voltage across it which is greater than Vz,
4. Be in a circuit where current is less than Iz maximum
Light-Emitting Diodes:
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles
described in quantum physics. One of these principles is the emission of
specific-frequency radiant energy whenever electrons fall from a higher
energy level to a lower energy level.
A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting
diode, or LED. Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium,
arsenic, and phosphorus (called gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red,
and are some of the most common LEDs manufactured. By altering the
chemical constituency of the PN junction, different colours may be obtained.
Some of the currently available colours other than red are green, blue, and
infra-red (invisible light at a frequency lower than red). Other colours may be
obtained by combining two or more primary-colours (red, green, and blue).

The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of a circle,
with two small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light).
Figure 5
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is
common to the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor
devices. Conversely, if a device is light-activated (meaning that incoming
light stimulates it), then the symbol will have two small arrows pointing
toward it. It is interesting to note, though, that LEDs are capable of acting
as light-sensing devices: they will generate a small
voltage when exposed to light, much like a solar cell on a small scale. This
property can be gainfully applied in a variety of light-sensing circuits.
Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than normal
rectifying diodes, their forward voltage drops will be different. Typically,
LEDs have much larger forward voltage drops than rectifying diodes,
anywhere from about 1.6 volts to over 3 volts, depending on the color.
Typical operating current for a standard-sized LED is around 20 mA. When
operating an LED from a DC voltage source greater than the LEDs forward
voltage, a series-connected "dropping" resistor must be included to prevent
full source voltage from damaging the LED. LED starts emitting light as its
forward voltage reaches at a particular level and its intensity will increase
further with the increase in applied forward voltage. LEDs emit no light when

reverse biased. In fact, operating LEDs in reverse direction will quickly

destroy them if the applied voltage is quite large. LEDs V-I characteristic
curve is shown in Figure 6.
Characteristics of LED
Figure 6

Procedure for calculating the forward bias current:

1. Before switch ‘On’ the supply rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter
clockwise direction).

Figure 28
1. Connect Ammeter between TP4 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) &
set Ammeter at 200mA range.
2. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
3. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
4. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from
0 to 1V (0.83V) in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode
current ID in mA and note down in the Observation Table 1.
5. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 3
(First quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 1. This
curve is the required forward characteristics of Si diode.
6. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.
Observation Table 1:

S. no. Diode Voltage (VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1. 0.0V
2. 0.1V
3. 0.2V
4. 0.3V
5. 0.4V
6. 0.5V
7. 0.6V
8. 0.7V
9. 0.8V
10. 0.9V
11. 1.0V

Procedure for calculating the reverse bias current:

• To plot Reverse Characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows:

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

 Figure 33
2. Connect Ammeter between TP9 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) &
set Ammeter at 200mA range.
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD
from zero to 6.8V in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode
current Iz in mA & note down in the Observation Table 4.

6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure 4
(third quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 4. This
curve is the required Reverse Characteristics of Zener diode.

7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

Observation Table 4:

S. no. Diode Voltage (Vz) Diode current Iz (mA)

1. 0.0V
2. 1.0V
3. 2.0V
4. 3.0V
5. 4.0V
6. 5.0V
7. 6.0V
8. 7.0V

Procedure to calculate the V-I characteristics of Light Emitting Diode :

• To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows :

1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Figure 35
2. Connect Ammeter between TP6 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA) &
set Ammeter at 200mA range.
 3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage V D & set
Voltmeter at 20V range.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of LED voltage VD from
zero to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of LED
current ID in mA & note down in the Observation Table 5.

6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 6
(first quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 5. This
curve is the required Forward Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.
Observation Table 5:

S. no. Diode Voltage(VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
• To plot Reverse Characteristics proceed as follows :
1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

Figure 35

2. Connect Ammeter between TP7 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA).

3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD.

4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.

5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD

from zero to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of
diode current ID in an Observation Table 6.

6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 6
(third quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 6.
This curve is the required Reverse Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.

7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

 Observation Table 6:

S. no. Diode Voltage(VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT-5

Aim of the Experiment:

Study on Half wave and Full wave rectifier circuits without and with filter; recording of the waveforms and
measurement of average and rms values of the rectifier output.

Apparatus Required:

1. CRO

2. Digital Multimeter (DMM)

3. Rectifier Trainer NV6503

Theory:

It is a well known fact, that all the electronic devices (i.e. diodes, transistors, integrated circuits etc.) and
circuits require a constant DC voltage for their operation. The DC voltage supplied from dry cells or
batteries. But these are expensive as compared to conventional regulated DC power supplies. The regulated
DC power supply is made by converting the domestic AC supply to DC supply. The essential elements,
which constitute a regulated DC power supply, are given below :

1. Transformer : Step-down transformer is used to step-down the high voltage domestic AC supply to low
voltage AC Secondly, AC power source is electrically isolated from the rectifier circuit. It reduces the
chances of getting a shock.

2. Rectifier : A rectifier is a circuit, which uses one or more diodes to convert AC voltage into pulsating DC
voltage. It may be broadly categorized in the following two types:

a. Half-wave Rectifier
b. Full-wave Rectifier :
Full-wave Rectifier is again subdivided into
i. Center-tapped Rectifier
ii. Bridge Rectifier

3. Filter: The output of a rectifier contains DC component as well as an AC component. The presence of an AC
component is most undesirable and therefore must be removed from the rectifier output. It is achieved by a circuit
called filter.

4. Voltage Regulator: The DC output voltage fluctuates (or changes) whenever the AC input voltage or the load
resistance varies above or below the normal values.
This fluctuating DC voltage is removed by a voltage regulator. The voltage regulator is connected between the
filter and the load.

Fig-1(Block
Diagram of a Regulated Power Supply system)

Now firstly, a brief theory of transformer is given to understand its fundamental. Transformers convert AC
electricity from one voltage level to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is
one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers
reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage
(230V in India, UK and 110V in USA) to a safer low voltage. Secondly, we require low volt DC i.e. 5, 9, 24 volt
to operate an electronic device. So, it is required to step down it into low value.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection
between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the
transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.

Fig-2(Step down Transformer)

Transformer waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is
stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio or voltage transformation ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is
connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a
low output voltage.

Turns Ratio = K= Vs/ Vp= Ns / Np

Vp = Primary (input) Voltage Vs = Secondary (output) Voltage
Np = Number of turns on Primary Coil Ns = Number of turns on Secondary Coil
Ip = Primary (input) Current Is = Secondary (output) Current

This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

i. If NS >NP i.e. K>1, then transformer is called step-up transformer.
ii. If NS <NP i.e. K<1, then transformer is called step-down transformer.
Again, for an ideal transformer,
Input Power = Output Power
VP IP = VS NS

Half-wave Rectifier:
Figure 3 (b) shows the half-wave rectifier circuit. It consists of a single diode in a series with a load resistor. The
input to the half-wave rectifier is an AC waveform as shown in Figure 3 (a). The working of a half-wave rectifier
circuit may be studied by considering separately the positive and negative half cycles of the AC input voltage.

During the positive half-cycle of the AC input voltage, the diode is forward biased and conducts for all
instantaneous voltages greater than the threshold voltage (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium diodes).
However, for all practical purposes, we assume that the diode is forward biased, whenever the AC input
voltage goes above zero. While conducting, the diode acts as a short- circuit, so that the circuit current flows
and produces a voltage across the load resistor (RL). The voltage produced across the load resistor has the
same shape as that of the positive input half cycle of
AC input voltage as shown in Figure 3 (c). The waveform of diode current (which is equal to load current) is
also shown in Figure 3 (c).

During negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct. Thus, there is no
current flow or voltage drop across load resistor (RL) i.e. iD = 0 and VO=0. The net result is that only the
positive half cycle of the AC input voltage appears across RL. It means that only the positive half cycle of
the AC input voltage is utilized for delivering AC power. It is evident that output voltage (VO) is not a
steady DC But it is pulsating DC wave having a ripple frequency equal to the input voltage frequency. The
waveform of output voltage can be seen on an cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) connected across RL. If we
measure the output voltage (or output current) by a multimeter, it will indicate some average positive value
for both voltage and current.

It is evident from the above discussion that as the circuit uses only one-half cycle of
the AC input voltage, therefore it is popularly known as a half-wave rectifier.
Full - wave Rectifier :
A full-wave rectifier is a circuit, which allows a unidirectional current to flow through
the load during the entire input cycle as shown in Figure 4. The result of full-wave
rectification is a DC output voltage that pulsates every half-cycle of the input. On the
other hand, a half-wave rectifier allows the current to flow through the load during
positive half-cycle only.
There are two types of full-wave rectifiers namely center-tapped and bridge rectifier.
These are discussed in detail as follows
.
Center-tapped Full-wave Rectifier:
The circuit uses two diodes, which are connected to the center-tapped secondary winding of the
transformer. The input signal is applied to the primary winding of the transformer. The center-tap on the
secondary winding of a transformer is, usually, taken as the ground or zero voltage reference point. It may be
noted that the voltage between the center tap and either end of the secondary winding is half of the secondary
voltage

Full-wave Bridge Rectifier :

It uses four diodes connected across the main supply, as shown in Figure. The
operation of the circuit may be studied as follows
Procedure:

1.Half-wave Rectifier

1. Make the connections on the Rectifier Trainer NV6503 as shown in Figure

a. Connect output of transformer (0-9 Vrms) to the input of half-wave rectifier

i.e. connect TP1 and TP2 across TP4 and TP5 using 2mm patch cords.
b. Directly connect the output of rectifier to load i.e. connect TP6 and TP7
across TP19 and TP20
For using Filter, make the connections as shown in Figure

c. For using filter, connect output of half-wave rectifier to the input of filter i.e.
connect TP6 to TP15 and TP7 to TP16.
d. Now connect the output of filter to the load i.e.connect TP17 and TP18
across TP19 and TP20.
2. Connect the mains cord to the Rectifier Trainer and switch on the mains supply.
3. Now switch ‘On’ the power switch of the trainer.
4. Connect CRO across TP1 and TP2 and observe the step down output of transformer
5. Connect CRO across TP19 and TP20 and observe the output which is a rectified
voltage waveform or pulsating DC.

6. Measure output frequency on CRO and you will observe that in half-wave
rectifier, the output frequency is same as that of input.
fout = fin (50 Hz)
Calculation of Vdc:
7. With the help of CRO, you can also measure the maximum value of AC input
voltage,Vm.
Vm for half-wave rectifier can also be calculated by the formula,
Vm =Vrms x 2
(Note here Vrms is just half of Vm for the half wave rectifier case.)
8. Now calculate the average or DC value of the output voltage ,Vdc which is given
by

V = 0.318V m
The above expression indicates that the average or DC value of the output voltage is 31.8 percent of the
maximum AC input voltage.
9. To measure DC output voltage(Vdc), you can also connect Digital
multimeter(DMM) across TP19 and TP20. 9. To measure DC output voltage(Vdc), you can also connect
Digital multimeter(DMM) across TP19 and TP20.
Calculation of I dc:
10. Now you can calculate the average or DC value of load current, Idc which is
given by
Idc =0.318 Im
11. To measure Idc you can also connect Digital multimeter (DMM) at TP6 or TP7
and TP19 or TP20.

2.(a) Full-wave Center-tapped Rectifier

1. Make the connections on the Rectifier Trainer NV6503 as shown in Figure

a. Connect output of transformer (9-0-9 Vrms) to the input of center-tapped
full-wave rectifier i.e. connect TP1 and TP3 across TP8 and TP9 using
2mm patch cords.
b. Directly connect output of center-tapped rectifier, TP10 and center-tap of
transformer TP2 across load i.e. TP19 and TP20.
For using Filter, make the connections as shown in Figure.

c. For using filter, connect output of center-tapped rectifier to the input of

filter i.e. connect TP10 to TP15 and TP2 to TP16.
d. Now connect the output of filter to the load i.e. connect TP17 and TP18
across TP19 and TP20.
2. Connect the mains cord to the Rectifier Trainer and switch on the mains supply.
3. Now switch ‘On’ the power switch of the trainer.
4. Connect CRO across TP19 and TP20 and observe the output which is a rectified
voltage waveform or pulsating DC.

5. Measure output frequency on CRO and you will observe that in center-tapped
rectifier, the output frequency is double as that of input.
fout = 2fin (100 Hz approximately)
Calculation of Vdc:
6. With the help of CRO, you can also measure the maximum value of AC input
voltage,Vm.
 Vm for full-wave rectifier can also be calculated by the formula,
Vm = Vrms x 2
7.Now calculate the average or DC value of the output voltage ,Vdc which is given
by

V dc = 0.636V m

It may be noted that this value is twice that of a half-wave rectifier.

8. To measure DC output voltage(Vdc), you can also connect Digital
Multimeter(DMM) across TP19 and TP20. Note that it is half of the secondary
voltage(which is around 18V).
Calculation of I dc :
9. Now you can calculate the average or DC value of load current, Idc which is
given by
I dc = 0.636I m
It may be noted that this value is twice that of a half-wave rectifier.
The above expression indicates that the average or DC value of the output
current is 63.6 percent of the maximum load current.
10. To measure Idc you can also connect Digital multimeter(DMM) at TP2 or TP10
and TP19 or TP20.

2.(b) Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

1. Make the connections on the Rectifier Trainer NV6503 as shown in Figure

a. Connect output of transformer (0-9 Vrms) to the input of bridge rectifier

i.e.connect TP1 and TP2 across TP11 and TP14 using 2mm patch cords.
b. Connect the output of rectifier to the load i.e. connect TP13 and TP12
across TP19 and TP20.
For using Filter, make the connections as shown in Figure

c. For using filter, connect output of bridge rectifier to the input of filter i.e.,
connect TP13 to TP15 and TP12 to TP16.
d. Now connect the output of filter to the load i.e.connect TP17 and TP18
across TP19 and TP20.
2. Connect the mains cord to the Rectifier Trainer and switch ‘On’ the mains
supply.
3. Now switch ‘On’ the power switch of the trainer.
4. Connect CRO across TP19 and TP20 and observe the output which is a rectified
voltage waveform or pulsating DC.

5. Measure output frequency on CRO and you will observe that in bridge rectifier,
the output frequency is double as that of input.
fout = 2fin (100 Hz approximately)

Calculation of Vdc :
6. With the help of CRO, you can also measure the maximum value of AC input
voltage,Vm.
Vm for full-wave rectifier can also be calculated by the formula,
Vm = Vrms x 2
7. Now calculate the average or DC value of the output voltage ,Vdc which is given
Vdc= 0.636Vm
8. To measure DC output voltage(Vdc), you can also connect Digital
multimeter(DMM) across TP19 and TP20.

Calculation of I dc:
9. Now you can calculate the average or DC value of load current, Idc which is
given by
Idc= 0.636Im
10. To measure Idc, you can also connect Digital multimeter(DMM) at TP12 or
TP13 and TP19 or TP20.

Conclusion :

The Study on Half wave and Full wave rectifier circuits without and with filter; recording of the waveforms
and measurement of average and rms values of the rectifier output are measured successfully.
 EXPERIMENT NO-6

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To study the V-I characteristics of NPN transistor in common emitter configuration and to evaluate: Input
resistance, Output resistance and Current gain.

Apparatus required:

1. NV6502 Transistor Characteristics Trainer kit

2. 2mm patch cord.

Theory :

Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent relationship between different dc currents and
voltages of a transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation of a transistor when connected in a
circuit.

The three important characteristics of a transistor are:

1. Input characteristic.

2. Output characteristic.

3. Constant current transfer characteristic.

Input Characteristic:

In common emitter configuration, it is the curve plotted between the input current (IB) versus

input voltage (VBE) for various constant values of output voltage (VCE). The approximated plot for input
characteristic is shown in Fig. 1. This characteristic reveal that for fixed value of output voltage VCE, as the
base to emitter voltage increases, the emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles the diode
characteristics.
 Fig:1

Output Characteristic:

This is the curve plotted between the output current IC versus output voltage VCE for various constant
values of input current IB. The output characteristic has three basic region of interest as indicated in fig.2 the
active region, cutoff region and saturation region. In active region the collector base junction is reverse
biased while the base emitter junction is forward biased. This region is normally employed for linear
(undistorted) amplifier. In cutoff region the collector base junction and base emitter junction of the transistor
both are reverse biased. In this region transistor acts as an Off switch. In saturation region the collector base
junction and base emitter junction of the transistor both are forward biased. In this region transistor acts as
an On switch.

Fig:2

Constant current transfer Characteristics:

This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC versus input base current IB for constant value
of output voltage VCE. The approximated plot for this characteristic is shown in Fig 3.
 Fig:3

Procedure:

To plot input characteristics proceed as follows:

Fig:4

1. Connect +5V and variable positive DC supplies at TP25 and TP19 resp.

2. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in above diagram.

3. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P3 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

4. Connect Ammeter between test point 18 and 5 to measure input base current IB (µA).

5. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 20.

6. Connect voltmeter between test point 19 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.

7. Switch On the power supply.

8. Vary pot P3 and set a value of output voltage VCE at some constant value (2V, 3V...).

9. Now Connect voltmeter between test point 18 and ground to measure input voltage VBE.

10. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input voltage VBE from zero to
0.8V in steps and measure the corresponding values of input current IB for different constant value of
output voltage VCE in an observation Table 1.

11. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.

12. Repeat the above procedure for different sets of output voltage VCE.

13. Plot a curve between input voltage VBE and input current IB as shown in Fig 1 using suitable scale with
the help of Observation Table l. This curve is the required input characteristic.

Observation Table 1:

Input voltage
S. no. Input current IB(µA) at constant value of output
VBE
voltage
VCE = 2V VCE = 3V VCE =4V
1. 0.0V
2. 0.1V
3. 0.2V
4. 0.3V
5. 0.4V
6. 0.5V
7. 0.6V
8. 0.7V
9. 0.8V

To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

Fig:5

1. Switch Off the power supply.

2. Connect +12 and positive variable DC supply to TP25 and TP15 resp.

3. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in above diagram.

4. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P3 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

5. Connect voltmeter between test point 19 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.

6. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 20.

7. Connect Ammeter between test point 16 and 5 to measure input current IB (µA).

8. Switch On the power supply.

9. Vary pot P3 and set a value of input current IB at some constant value (10µA, 20µA...50µA).

10. Now remove the patch cord between TP4 & TP20 and connect Ammeter between same test point to
measure output current IC (mA).

11. Short terminal TP16 & TP5.

12. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of output voltage VCE from zero to maximum
value in step and measure the corresponding values of output current IC for different constant value of input
current IB in an observation table 2.

13. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.

14. Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of input current IB.

15. Plot a curve between output voltage VCE and output current IC as shown in Fig 2 using suitable scale
with the help of observation.

Observation Table 2: This curve is the required output characteristic.

S. Output Output current IC (mA) at constant value of input

No. voltage current
VCE IB = IB IB =30µA IB IB =50µA
10µA =20µA =40µA
1. 0.0V
2. 0.5V
3. 1.0V
4. 2.0V
5. 3.0V
6. 4.0V
7. 5.0V
8. 6.0V
9. 7.0V
10. 8.0V

To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as follows:

 Fig:6

1. Switch Off the power supply.

2. Connect +5V and positive variable DC supply to TP25 and TP19 resp.

3. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in above diagram.

4. Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P3 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).

5. Connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4 and 20.

6. Connect voltmeter between test point 19 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.

7. Connect Ammeter between test point 18 and 5 to measure input current IB (mA)

8. Switch On the power supply.

9. Vary potentiometer P3 and set a value of output voltage VCE at 10 V.

10. Now remove the patch cord between TP4 & TP20 connect one external Ammeter between

same test point to measure output current IC (mA).

11. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of input current IB from zero to 100 micro amper
in steps and measure the corresponding values of output current IC in an observation Table 3.

12. Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IB as shown in Fig 3 using suitable scale with
the help of Observation Table 3. This curve is the required Transfer characteristic.

Observation Table 3:

Output current IC (mA) at constant

S. No. Input current IB
output voltage VCE = 10 V
(µA)
1. 00.0µA
2. 10.0µA
3. 20.0µA
4. 30.0µA
5. 40.0µA
 6. 50.0µA
7. 60.0µA
8. 70.0µA
9. 80.0µA
10. 90.0µA
11. 100.0µA

Calculations:

1. Input resistance: It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change in the input

current IB at constant value of output voltage VCE or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.

Mathematically:

Rin = 1/ Slope from Input charecteristics = ΔVBE / ΔIB At constant VCE

To calculate input resistance determine the slope from the input characteristic curve obtained from
Observation Table 1. Reciprocal of this slope will give the required input resistance.

2. Output resistance: It is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCE to change in the output current IC at
constant value of input current IB or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the output characteristic.

Rin = 1/ Slope from output charecteristics = ΔVCE / ΔIC At constant IB

To calculate output resistance determine the slope from the output characteristic curve obtained from
Observation Table 2. Reciprocal of this slope will give the required output resistance.

3. Current gain: It is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change in the input current IB at constant
value of output voltage VCE or it is the slope obtained from the constant current transfer characteristic. It is
denoted by beta ac.

Mathematically:

B (beta )ac = Slope of constant current transfer characteristic = ΔIC / ΔIB

To calculate current gain, determine the slope from the constant current transfer characteristic curve obtained
from Observation Table 3. This slope is the required current gain.

Results:

Input resistance Rin = __________

Output resistance Rout __________

Current Gain B (beta )ac = ------------

Conclusion:
BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Experiment No: 8

Common Emitter BJT Amplifier

Aim:

1. To plot the frequency response of a Common Emitter BJT amplifier.

2. To find the cut off frequencies, Bandwidth and calculate its gain.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC547 1
Resistor 74K , 15K , 4.7K , 1K , 2.2K , 8.2K 1,1,1,1,1,1
Capacitor 10µF,100µF, 1 KPF 2, 1,1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Dual DC power supply 0-30V 1
Function Generator (0-1)MHz 1
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0- 1
20V]
CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes, Connecting
Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 547:

 Max Collector Current= 0.1A

 Vceo max= 50V
 VEB0 = 6V
 VCB0 = 50V
 Collector power dissipation = 500mW
 Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
 hfe = 110 - 220

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 54

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Theory:

An amplifier is an electronic circuit that can increase the strength of a weak input signal
without distorting its shape. The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic
amplifier as it has both voltage and current amplification with 1800 phase shift.

The factor by which the input signal gets multiplied after passing through the amplifier
circuit is called the gain of the amplifier. It is given by the ratio of the output and input signals.
Gain = output signal / input signal

A self bias circuit is used in the amplifier circuit because it provides highest Q-point
stability among all the biasing circuits. Resistors R1 and R2 forms a voltage divider across the
base of the transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and
ensure that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region.

In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, the biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point should be in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the
load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design it is always set to Vcc/2. This will confirm
that the Q-point always swings within the active region. Output is produced without any clipping
or distortion for the maximum input signal. If not reduce the input signal magnitude.

The Bypass Capacitor:

The emitter resistor is required to obtain the DC quiescent stability. However the
inclusion of it in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification. In order to avoid such a condition,
it is bypassed by capacitor so that it acts as a short circuit for AC and contributes stability for DC
quiescent condition. Hence capacitor is connected in parallel with emitter resistance which
increases the A.C gain.

The Coupling capacitor:

An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In order to have noiseless transmission of a

signal (without DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct current should not enter the

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 55

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

amplifier or load. This is usually accomplished by inserting a coupling capacitor between two
stages.

Frequency response :

The plot of gain versus frequency is called as frequency response. The coupling and
bypass capacitors causes the gain to fall at low frequency region and internal parasitic
capacitance and shunt capacitor causes the gain to fall at high frequency region. In the mid
frequency range large capacitors are effectively short circuits and the stray capacitors are open
circuits, so that no capacitance appear in the mid frequency range. Hence the mid band frequency
gain is maximum. Hence we get a Band Pass frequency response

Characteristics of CE Amplifier:

 Large current gain.

 Large voltage gain.
 Large power gain.
 Current and voltage phase shift of 180°.
 Moderate output resistance.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: CE BJT Amplifier

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 56

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1, Set source voltage as 50mV P-P at 1 KHz
frequency using the function generator.
2. Keeping the input voltage as constant, vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in
regular steps and note down the corresponding output P-P voltage.
3. Plot the graph for gain in (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
4. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

Observations:

Frequency Vs (Volts) Vo(Volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain(dB) = 20 log(Vo/Vs)

Graph:

In the usual application, mid band frequency range is defined as those frequencies at
which the response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as f L,
fH and are called as the 3dB frequencies or simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies
respectively. The difference between the higher cut off and lower cut off frequency is referred to
as the bandwidth (fH - fL).

Fig. 2: Frequency Response Curve of RC coupled BJT CE Amplifier

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 57

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect signal generator in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Results:

1. The BJT CE amplifier is studied

2. The frequency response curve of the BJT CE amplifier is plotted.
3. Lower cutoff frequency, fL = …………….
Higher cutoff frequency, fH = ……………

Bandwidth = fH – fL = ……………………

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 58

 EXPERIMENT NO- 8

Aim: To design and test the low pass filter and high pass filter using op-amp

Apparatus Required:
1) Op-Amp (µA - 74 1 ) - 2 No’s
2) DC Power Supply ( 1 2 - 0 - 12 ) V
3) CRO (0-20MHz range)
4) Signal Generator (0 to 1MHz range)
5) Bread board
6) Resistors and capacitors

Theory:
(a) Low pass filter:

(a)frequency response

(b)Low pass filter using op-amp

Lowpass filter experimental procedure:
1) Vary the input frequency at regular intervals and note down the output response from the
CRO.
2) Calculate the gain in dB.
3) Verify practical and theoretical cutoff frequency
4) Plot the frequency response on semi-log sheet.
High Pass Filter:
 Highpass filter experimental procedure:

1) Vary the input frequency at regular intervals and note down the output response from the
CRO.
2) Calculate the gain in dB.
3) Verify practical and theoretical cutoff frequency
4) Plot the frequency response on semi-log sheet
Calculation:

Practical values
Cut-off Frequency of low pass filter = Cut-off
Frequency of high pass filter =

Theoretical values:
Cut-off Frequency of low pass filter = Cut-off
Frequency of high pass filter =
Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO- 9

AIM: To study and verify the truth table of logic gates.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• Logic gates (IC) trainer kit.
• Connecting patch chords.
• TTL ICs as follows
Gates IC NO.

AND 7408

OR 7432

NAND 7400

NOR 7402

NOT 7404

XOR 74136

THEORY:
The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic
gates perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion,
Exclusive-OR, Exclusive-NOR. Fig. below shows the circuit symbol, Boolean function, and
truth. It is seen from the Fig that each gate has one or two binary inputs, A and B, and one
binary output, C. The small circle on the output of the circuit symbols designates the logic
complement. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates can be extended to have more than two
inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary operation it represents is
commutative and associative.

These basic logic gates are implemented as small-scale integrated circuits (SSICs) or as part
of more complex medium scale (MSI) or very large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Digital
IC gates are classified not only by their logic operation, but also the specific logic-circuit
family to which they belong. Each logic family has its own basic electronic circuit upon
which more complex digital circuits and functions are developed. The following logic
families are the most frequently used.
TTL -Transistor-transistor logic
ECL-Emitter-coupled logic
MOS-Metal-oxide semiconductor
CMOS -Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor

TTL and ECL are based upon bipolar transistors. TTL has a well established popularity
among logic families. ECL is used only in systems requiring high-speed operation. MOS and
CMOS, are based on field effect transistors. They are widely used in large scale integrated
circuits because of their high component density and relatively low power consumption.
CMOS logic consumes far less power than MOS logic. There are various commercial
integrated circuit chips available. TTL ICs are usually distinguished by numerical designation
as the 5400 and 7400 series. The main hierarchy of logic gates are as follows:-
 1. Basic Gates

2. Universal Gates

3. Advanced Gates
Basic Gates
1. AND gate: - Function of AND gate is to give the output true when both the inputs are
true. In all the other remaining cases output becomes false. Following table justifies the
statement:-

Input Input Output

A B
0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

IC 7408

2. OR gate: - Function of OR gate is to give output true when one of the either inputs are
true .In the remaining case output becomes false. Following table justify the statement:-

InputA Input B Output

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 IC 7432

3. NOT gate: - Function of NOR gate is to reverse the nature of the input .It converts true
input to false and vice versa. Following table justifies the statement :-

Input Output
0 1
1 0

IC 7404
Universal Gates
1. NAND gate: - Function of NAND gate is to give true output when one of the two
provided input are false. In the remaining output is true case. Following table justifies the
statement :-

Input A Input B Output

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

IC 7400

2. NOR gate: - NOR gate gives the output true when both the two provided input are false.
In all the other cases output remains false. Following table justifies the statement:-

Input A Input B Output

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
IC-7402
Advanced Gate

XOR gate: - The function of XOR gate is to give output true only when both the inputs are true. Following table
explains this:-

Input A Input B Output

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

IC 74136

Procedure:-
• Place the breadboard gently on the observation table.
• Fix the IC which is under observation between the half shadow line of
breadboard, so there is no shortage of voltage.
• Connect the wire to the main voltage source (Vcc) whose other end is connected to last pin
of the IC (14 place from the notch).
• Connect the ground of IC (7th place from the notch) to the ground terminal provided
on the digital lab kit.
• Give the input at any one of the gate of the ICs i.e. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th gate by using connecting
wires.(In accordance to IC provided).

• Connect output pins to the led on digital lab kit.

• Switch on the power supply.

• If led glows red then output is true, if it glows green output is false, which is numerically
denoted as 1 and 0 respectively. The Color can change based on the IC manufacturer it’s
just verification of the Truth Table not the color change.

Conclusion:
 EXPERIMENT NO-10

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

Simplify a Boolean expression and implement the function using Logic gates. Modify the circuit for
Implementation with NAND Gates or NOR Gates only.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
IC 7400, IC 7408, IC 7432, IC 7406, IC 7402, Patch Cords & IC TrainerKit.

THEORY:
Canonical Forms (Normal Forms):Any Boolean function can be written in disjunctive
normalform(sumofmin-terms)orconjunctivenormalform(productofmax-terms).
A Boolean function can be represented by a Karnaugh map in which each cell corresponds to a
minterm. The cells are arranged in such a way that any two immediately adjacent cells
correspond to two minterms of distance 1. There is more than one way to construct a map with
thisproperty.

Karnaugh Maps

For a function of two variables, say, f(x, y):

For a function of three variables, say, f(x, y, z):

For a function of four variables: f(w, x, y, z):

 Realization of Boolean expression:

AB

CD
1
_ _ _ _ _ 1 _ _ _ _ _ _

1
1 1 1 1
_ _ _

_ _

After simplifying using K-Map method weget Y =A B + CD

Realization usingBasicgates TRUTHTABLE

INPUTS OUTPUT
A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
Realization using NAND gates 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
 Realization using NOR gates

PROCEDURE:
1.Check the components for
their working.
2.Insert the appropriate IC into
the IC base.
3.Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
4.Plug in the 5V DC adaptor into the trainer and switch on the power supply.
5.Provide the input data via the input switches and observe the output
on output LEDs 6.Verify the Truth Table

CONCLUSION: