Relations

Definition: A relation on a set A is a subset

R(., .) ⊆ A × A. We often abbreviate the statement
(x, y ) ∈ R(., .) as R(x, y ). In symbols,
R(x, y ) = {(x, y ) : x, y ∈ A}⊆A×A.
For example, Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and consider the
following set: R(x, y ) =
{(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (4, 4), (4, 3),
(4,2),(4,1)}⊆A×A.
Here, the set R(x, y ) is the relation on A.

2 / 71
Properties of Relations [1]

Suppose R(., .) is a relation on a set A. Then

properties of relations are given below:
Reflexive: Relation R(., .) is reflexive if R(x, x) for
every x ∈ A. That is, R(., .) is reflexive if ∀x ∈ A,
R(x, x).
Symmetric: Relation R(., .) is symmetric if
R(x, y ) ⇒ R(y , x), ∀x, y ∈ A. That is, R(., .) is
symmetric if ∀x, y ∈ A, R(x, y ) ⇒ R(y , x).

3 / 71
Properties of Relations [2]
Transitive: Relation R(., .) is transitive if whenever
R(x, y ) and R(y , z), then also R(x, z). That is,
R(., .) is transitive if ∀x, y , z ∈ A, R(x, y ) ∧ R(y , z)
⇒R(x,z).
Complete: Relation R(., .) is complete if either
R(x, y ) or R(y , x) holds for each x, y ∈ A.
Anti-symmetric: Relation R(., .) is anti-symmetric
if for any x, y ∈ A, R(x, y ) ∧ R(y , x)⇒x=y.
Also, either ⌝R(x, y ) or ⌝R(y , x) whenever x ̸= y .
Asymmetric: Relation R(., .) is asymmetric if for
any x, y ∈ A, R(x, y ) holds but not R(y , x) at the
same time.
4 / 71
Equivalence Relation

A relation R(., .) on a set A is an equivalence relation

if it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

5 / 71
Example-1

Here, A = {b, c, d, e} and R(x, y ) is the following

relation on A:
R(x, y ) =
{(b, b), (b, c), (c, b), (c, c), (d, d), (b, d), (d, b),
(c,d),(d,c)}
Required:
(i) Is the relation reflexive?
(ii) Is the relation symmetric?
(iii) Is the relation transitive?

6 / 71
Solution

(i) The relation is not reflexive because we do not

have R(x, x) for all the elements of A. Here, we have
(b, b), (c, c), and(d, d). But we do not have (e, e).
(ii) The relation is symmetric because whenever we
take R(x, y ) it follows R(y , x).
(iii) The relation is transitive. To prove the relation is
transitive, we do some steps more.

7 / 71
Solution [cont..]

▶ R(b, b) ∧ R(b, c) ⇒ R(b, c)

▶ R(b, e) ∧ R(e, d) ⇒ R(b, d)
▶ R(b, d) ∧ R(d, c) ⇒ R(b, c) .........[we can
check more].
Note: For transitivity, use these conditions: (i)
True ∧ True ⇒ True, and (ii) False ∧ False ⇒ True.

8 / 71
Example-2

Let us assume a set, A = {−1, 1, 2, 3, 4} and a

relation on this set has been defined as follows:
R(x, y ) = {(−1, −1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
Required:
(i) Is the relation reflexive?
(ii) Is the relation symmetric?
(iii) Is the relation transitive?
(iv) Is this an equivalence relation?

9 / 71
Solution

(i) The relation is reflexive because all

(−1, −1), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), and (4, 4) are in the
relation.
(ii) The relation is symmetric because whenever we
take R(x, y ) it follows R(y , x).
(iii) The relation is transitive. We do some steps to
prove.

10 / 71
Solution [cont..]

(i) R(−1, 2) ∧ R(2, −1)⇒R(-1,-1)

(ii) R(1, 2) ∧ R(2, 1)⇒R(1,1)
............[we can continue more].
Note: For transitivity, use these conditions: (i)
True ∧ True ⇒ True, and (ii) False ∧ False ⇒ True.
Note: Since the relation is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive, it is an equivalence relation.

11 / 71
Example-3

Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and a relation is defined as

R(x, y ) =
{(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (5, 4), (2, 4),
(5,2),(3,5),(4,3),(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5)}
Required:
(i) Is the relation complete?
(ii) Is the relation reflexive?
(iii) Is the relation symmetric?
(iv) Is the relation transitive?

12 / 71
Example-4

Let X = {1, 2, 3} and relation is defined as

R(x, y ) = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3)}
Required:
(i) Is the relation asymmetric ?
(ii) What if the relation is defined as R(x, y )
= {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3)}

13 / 71
Example-5

Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Required:
(i) If R(x, y ) = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}, then is the relation
anti-symmetric?
(ii) What if R(x, y ) = {(1, 1), (1, 2)}?
(iii) What if R(x, y ) = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)
, (3, 4), (4, 4)}?
(iV) What if R(x, y ) = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}?

14 / 71
Term we kept disguised!

▶ So far we talked about the binary relation.

▶ In binary relation, we talked about two things x
and y .
▶ Next we will more formalize the binary relation.

15 / 71
Binary Relation

Informal Definition: A binary relation on a set is

a collection of ordered pairs of elements of that set.
Heuristic Definition: Let A and B are two sets. If
x ∈ A and y ∈ B, then R(x, y ) ⊆ A × B is a binary
relation from A to B.
***If A = B, then we can say R(x, y ) is a binary
relation on A.

16 / 71
Function

Informal Definition: A function is a binary

relation!
Heuristic Definition: Suppose A and B are two
sets. A function f from A to B (denoted as
f : A → B) is a binary relation f ⊆ A × B from A to
B, satisfying the property that for each x ∈ A the
relation f contains exactly one ordered pair of form
(x, y ). The statement (x, y ) ∈ f is abbreviated as
f (x) = y .

17 / 71
Example
Let A = {p, q, r , s} and B = {0, 1, 2}, then
f = {(p, 0), (q, 1), (r , 2), (s, 2)} ⊆ A × B is a
function which is a relation from A to B.

Figure: Relation from A to B

18 / 71
Domain, Co-Domain, and Range

Domain: For a function f : A → B, the set A is

called the domain of f (Think domain as the set of
possible "input values" for f ).
Co-Domain: For a function f : A → B, the set B
is called the domain of f (Think co-domain as a sort
of "target" for the output).
Range: The range of f is the set {f (x) : x ∈ A}
= {y : (x, y ) ∈ f } (Think range as the set of all
possible "output values" of f ).

19 / 71
Example-1

Let A = {p, q, r , s} and B = {0, 1, 2}, then

f = {(p, 0), (q, 1), (r , 2), (s, 2)} ⊆ A × B is a
function which is a relation from A to B.
Required:
(i) Find Domain of f .
(ii) Find Co-Domain of f .
(iii) Find Range of f .

20 / 71
Solution

(i) Domain is A = {p, q, r , s}.

(ii) Co-Domain is B = {0, 1, 2}.
(iii) Range is B = {0, 1, 2}.
Note: Here, Codomain = Range. This is not
necessarily true always (why??).

21 / 71
Example-2

Required: Find Domain, Co-Domain, and Range.

22 / 71
Lemma

Two functions f : A → B and g : A → D are equal if

f = g . Equivalently, f = g iff f (x) = g (x) for every
x ∈ A.

23 / 71
Injective, Surjective, and Bijective
Functions

Let a function f is defined as f : A → B.

Injective (One to One): If ∀a, a′ ∈ A,
a ̸= a′ ⇒f(a)̸= f (a′ ).
Surjective (Onto): If for every b ∈ B, there is an
a ∈ A with f (a) = b.
Bijective: If f is both injective and surjective.

24 / 71
Example-1

Let a function is defined as f (x) = x 2 . The domain

of this function is a set defined as {x : x ∈ R}. The
range is defined as {y : y ∈ R+ }.
Here the function is not injective. Let’s take two
values 2 and −2 of x. Then −2 ̸= 2 but
f (−2) = f (2). The function is not surjective as well.
If we take −1 as a value of b, then there is no a ∈ R
with f (a) = b.
Note: For a surjective function, Codomain = Range
(why??).

25 / 71
Example-2

Let a function is defined as g (x) = x 3 . The domain

of this function is a set defined as {x : x ∈ R}. The
range is defined as {y : y ∈ R}. Here, the function is
both injective and surjective (hence the function is
bijective).

26 / 71
Composition

Definition: Suppose three sets- A, B, and C .

Assume that f : A → B and g : B → C are
functions with the property that the co-domain of f
equals the domain of g . The composition of f with g
is another function, denoted as g ◦ f and defined as
follows: if x ∈ A, then g ◦ f (x) = g (f (x)).
Therefore, g ◦ f sends elements of A to elements of
C , so g ◦ f : A → C .

27 / 71
Composition-Mapping

Figure: Composition of Two Functions

28 / 71
Example-1

Suppose A = {a, b, c}, B = {0, 1}, C = {1, 2, 3}.

Let f : A → B be the function
f = {(a, 0), (b, 1), (c, 0)}, and let g : B → C be
g = {(0, 3), (1, 1)}.
Therefore, g ◦ f = {(a, 3), (b, 1), (c, 3)}.

29 / 71
Example-2

Suppose A = {a, b, c}, B = {0, 1},

C = {1, 2, 3}.Let f : A → B be the function
f = {(a, 0), (b, 1), (c, 0)}, and let g : C → B be the
function g = {(1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1)}. In this situation,
the composition g ◦ f is not defined since the
co-domain of f is not same as the domain of g .

30 / 71
Example-3

Let f : R → R be defined as f (x) = x 2 + x, and

g : R → R be defined as g (x) = x + 1. Then,
g ◦ f : R → R is the function defined by the formula,
g ◦ f (x) = g (f (x)) = g (x 2 + x) = x 2 + x + 1.

31 / 71
Lemma

Suppose f : A → B and g : B → C .
(i) If both f and g are injective, then g ◦ f is
injective.
(ii) If both f and g are surjective, then g ◦ f is
surjective.

32 / 71
Inverse Relation

Given a relation R(x, y ) from A to B, the inverse

relation of R(x, y ) is the relation from B to A
defined as R −1 (x, y ) = {(y , x) : (x, y ) ∈ R(x, y )}.In
other words, the inverse of R(x, y ) is the relation
R −1 (x, y ) obtained by interchanging the elements in
every ordered pair in R(x, y ).

33 / 71
Inverse Function

If a function f is both injective and surjective

(bijective), then it has an inverse function f −1 that
"undoes" the effect of f in the sense that
f −1 (f (x)) = x for every x in the domain.

34 / 71
Example-1

For example, let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3},

and suppose f is the relation,
f = {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 1)} from A to B.
Then f −1 = {(2, a), (3, b), (1, c)} and this is a
relation from B to A. Notice that f is equally a
function from A to B, and f −1 is a function from B
to A.

35 / 71
Example-1 [Mapping]

36 / 71
Example-2

For example, let A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3},

and suppose g is the relation,
g = {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 3)} from A to B. Then,
g −1 = {(2, a), (3, b), (3, c)} is a relation from B to
A. Here, g is a function but g −1 is not a function.

37 / 71
Example-2 [Mapping]

38 / 71
Example-3

The function f : R → R defined as f (x) = x 3 + 1 is

bijective (why??).
Now write y = x 3 + 1.
Now interchange the variables
√ to obtain x = y 3 + 1.
Solving for√y produces y = 3 x − 1. Thus,
f −1 (x) = 3 x − 1.
Checking Answer:
p √
f −1 (f (x)) = 3 f (x) − 1 = 3 x 3 + 1 − 1 = x

39 / 71
Identity Function

Let us assume a set A. The identity function on set

A is the function iA : A → A defined as iA (x) = x for
every x ∈ A.
Note: For any set A, the identity function iA is
bijective.

40 / 71
Lemma

If f : A → B is bijective then its inverse is the

function f −1 : B → A. The functions f and f −1 obey
the following equations:
(i) f −1 ◦ f = iA
(ii) f ◦ f −1 = iB

41 / 71
Common Functions in Economics and
Business

▶ Linear Function
▶ Polynomial Function of Degree n
▶ Logarithmic Function
▶ Exponential Function
▶ Monotonic versus Non-monotonic Functions
▶ Rational Function

42 / 71
Linear Function

This function takes two forms:

(i) Common Form: y = f (x) = mx + b; where,
b = y − intercept and m = Slope. Here slope means
the rate of change in f (x) with respect to change in
x.
(ii) Passes Through Origin: y = f (x) = mx

43 / 71
Common Form: y = f (x) = mx + b

(i) Case-1: Positive Intercept and Positive Slope

(ii) Case-2: Negative Intercept and Positive Slope
(iii) Case-3: Positive Intercept and Negative Slope
(iv) Case-4: Negative Intercept and Negative Slope

44 / 71
Case-1:Positive Intercept and Positive
Slope

45 / 71
Case-2:Negative Intercept and Positive
Slope

46 / 71
Case-3:Positive Intercept and Negative
Slope

47 / 71
Case-4:Negative Intercept and Negative
Slope

48 / 71
Common Form: y = f (x) = mx

(i) Case-1: Negative Slope (m < 0)

(ii) Case-2: Positive Slope (m > 0)
(iii) Case-3: Unitary Slope (m = 1)

49 / 71
Case-1: m > 0

50 / 71
Case-2: m < 0

51 / 71
Case-3: y = f (x) = x where m = 1

52 / 71
Special Form: y = f (x) = c where m = 0

53 / 71
Slope of a Linear Function

Definition: Slope = ∆y∆x

***Lemma: For a linear function, slope will remain
fixed throughout the entire straight line.

54 / 71
Polynomial Function: General Form

y = f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + ... + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

55 / 71
Polynomial with n = 2: Quadratic
Function

y = f (x) = a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

56 / 71
Graph of Quadratic Functions

(i) Case-1: y = f (x) = x 2

(ii) Case-2: y = f (x) = −x 2

57 / 71
Graphs [1]: Parabola

58 / 71
Graphs [2]: Parabola Shapes

(i) Parabola Opens Up if a2 > 0.

(ii) Parabola Opens Down if a2 < 0.

59 / 71
Exponential Function [1]

Definition: An exponential function is one of the

form f (x) = ax , where a is a positive constant
(a > 0), called the base of the exponential function.
For example, f (x) = 2x is an exponential function.

60 / 71
Exponential Function [2]

Figure: Exponential Function

61 / 71
Exponential Function [3]

Figure: Exponential Function with Different Base 62 / 71

Logarithmic Function [1]

Definition: The inverse of exponential function is

the logarithmic function. Suppose a > 0 and a ̸= 1.
Then, the logarithm to base a is the function,
y = loga (x) for which ay = x. It is the inverse of
f (x) = ax .

63 / 71
Logarithmic Function [2]

64 / 71
Monotonic vs Non-monotonic Functions

Monotonic: Functions are known as monotonic if

they are entirely non-increasing or non-decreasing in
their entire domain. For example, f (x) = 2x is
monotone because it is strictly increasing.
Non-Monotonic:Functions which are increasing as
well as decreasing in their domain are known as
non-monotonic functions. For example,
f (x) = Sin(x).

65 / 71
Non-decreasing [Monotonic]

66 / 71
Non-increasing [Monotonic]

67 / 71
Rational Function

Definition: A rational function is a fraction of

polynomials. That is, if p(x) and q(x) are
p(x)
polynomials, then y = f (x) = q(x) is a rational
function where, q(x) ̸= 0.

68 / 71
Rational Function-Examples

(i) y = 3(x−5)
(x−1)
(ii) y = x1
3
(iii) y = 2x1 = 2x 3
Note: The last example is both a polynomial and a
rational function. In a similar way, any polynomial is
a rational function.

69 / 71
Explicit vs Implicit Function

Explicit Function: The function we have worked

with so far have all been given by equations of the
form y = f (x) in which the dependent variable y on
the left is given explicitly by an expression on the
right involving the independent variable x. A
function in this form is said to be in explicit form.
4
For example, y = x 2 + 4x ; y = xx 2 +3+1 .
Implicit Function: There is no separation of
dependent and independent variables.

70 / 71