Assyrians and Babylonians were perhaps the first to use clay as cementing material.

In ancient
monu ments, e.g. forts, places of worship and defence structures, stones have been invariably
used as a construction material with lime as the binder. Records show that Egyptians have
used lime an d gypsu m as cementing materials in the famous pyramids. Vitruvius, a Roman
scientist, is believed to be the first to have the know how about the chemistry of the cementitious
lime. One of the most notable exam ples of Roman work is the Pantheon. It consists of a concrete
dome 43.43m in span. The calcareous cements used by the Romans were either com posed of
suitable limestones burned in kilns or were mixtures of lime and p uzzolanic materials (volcanic
ash, tuff) combining into a hard concrete. Vitruvius’s work was followed by the researches
made by M. Vicat of France. Joseph Aspedin of Yorkshire (U.K.) was the first to introd uce
Portlan d cement in 1824 formed by heating a mixture of limestone an d finely divided clay in
a furnace to a tem perature high enough to d rive off the carbonic acid gas. In 1845, Issac C.
Johnson invented the cement by increasing the tem perature at w hich the mixture of limestone
an d clay were burned to form clinker. This cement was the prototype of the modern Portland
cement. From then on wards, a grad ual im provement in the properties and qualities of cement
has been made possible by researchers in U.S.A., U.K., France an d Germany.
Cements in a general sense are ad hesive an d cohesive materials which are capable of
bonding together particles of solid matter into a com pact d urable mass. For civil engineering
works, they are restricted to calcareous cements containing com poun ds of lime as their chief
constituent, its primary function being to bind the fine (sand) and coarse (grits) aggregate
particles together.
Cements used in construction ind ustry may be classified as hydraulic an d non hydraulic.
The latter does not set an d harden in water such as non-hyd raulic lime or which are unstable
in water, e g. Plaster of Paris. The hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give a prod uct
w hich is stable. Portlan d cement is one such.
Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or artificially by using
calcareous and argillaceous materials. The exam ples of natural cements are Roman cement,
Puzzolana cement an d Medina cement and those of artificial cement are Portlan d cement and
special cements.
Today cement fin ds extensive use in all types of construction works; in structures w here
high strength is required e.g. brid ge piers, light houses, lofty towers, and large structures such
as bridges, silos, chimneys. An d also in structures exposed to the action of water, e.g. reservoirs,
dams, dock yards etc. Cement mortar, concrete, reinforced brick work, artificial stones, plastering,
pointing an d partition walls are routinely used in buildings.

It is a cementing material resembling a natural stone quarried from Portland in U.K. Portlan d
cement may be defined as a prod uct obtained by finely p ulverizing clinker prod uced by
calcining to incipient fusion, an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of argillaceous
an d calcareous materials. Care m ust be exercised in proportioning the raw materials so that the
clinker of proper constitution may be obtained after burning.
The ordinary Portlan d cement has been classified as 33 Grade (IS269:1989), 43 Grade
(IS 8112:1989), an d 53 Grade (IS 12669-1987). The physical requirements of all these three types
of cement are almost same except for com pressive strength and are as follows:
Physical Method Grade
requirement of testing 33 43 53
1. Fineness Blaine's air
(Sp. surface permissibility 225 225 225
in m 2 / kg)
2. Sou n dness Le Chatelier 10m m 10m m 10m m
ap paratus
Autoclave 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%
3. Setting time Vicat ap paratus
Initial (min) 30 30 30
Final (max) 600 600 600
4. Com pressive strength
(MPa) not less than
72 ± 1 hr 16 23 27
168 ± 2 hr 22 33 37
672 ± 4 hr 33 43 53
 IS:10262 has classified the OPC grade-wise from A to F based on 28 day com pressive
strength as follows.
Category Strength (MPa)
A 32.5 – 37.5
B 37.5 – 42.5
C 42.5 – 47.5
D 47.5 – 52.5
E 52.5 – 57.5
F 57.5 – 62.5
Accordingly the 33, 43 an d 53 grades of cement correspond to categories A, C and E,
respectively. However, most of the 43-grade cements available in the market fall in category D
and that 53-grade cements in category F.

The three constituents of hyd raulic cements are lime, silica and alu mina. In ad dition, most
cements contain small proportions of iron oxide, magnesia, sulphur trioxide and alkalis. There
has been a change in the com position of Portland cement over the years, mainly reflected in the
increase in lime content an d in a slight decrease in silica content. An increase in lime content
beyond a certain value makes it difficult to combine com pletely with other com pou nds.
Consequently, free lime will exist in the clinker and will result in an unsound cement. An
increase in silica content at the expense of alu mina an d ferric oxide makes the cement difficult
to fuse an d form clinker. The ap proximate limits of chemical com position in cement are given
in Table 5.1.
 The oxides in fusion interact with each other to form a series of more com plex prod ucts an d
form the cement clinker.

The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The com pounds formed
in the burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence of water.
They are known as Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue w ho identified them. Le-Chatelier
an d Tornebohm have referred these com poun ds as Alite (C3S), Belite (C2S), Celite (C3 A) an d
Felite (C4 AF). The following Bogue com poun ds are formed d uring clinkering process.
The principal mineral Formula Name Symbol
compounds in Portland cement
1. Tricalciu m silicate 3CaO SiO 2 Alite C 3S
2. Dicalciu m silicate 2CaO SiO 2 Belite C 2S
3. Tricalciu m alu minate 3CaO Al2 O 3 Celite C3 A
4. Tetracalciu m alumino ferrite 4CaO Al2 O3 Fe2 O 3 Felite C4 AF
The properties of Portland cement varies markedly with the proportions of the above four
com pou nds, reflecting substantial difference between their individ ual behaviour.
is su p posed to be the best cementing material and is well burnt cement.
It is about 25-50% (normally about 40 per cent) of cement. It ren ders the clinker easier to grind,
increases resistance to freezing and thawing, hydrates rapidly generating high heat and develops
an early hardness an d strength. However, raising of C3S content beyon d the specified limits
increases the heat of hyd ration and solubility of cement in water. The hyd rolysis of C3S is
mainly responsible for 7 day strength and hard ness. The rate of hydrolysis of C3S an d the
character of gel developed are the main causes of the hard ness an d early strength of cement
paste. The heat of hydration is 500 J / g.
is about 25-40% (normally about 32 per cent) of cement. It hydrates an d
hardens slowly an d takes long time to ad d to the strength (after a year or more). It im parts
resistance to chemical attack. Raising of C2S content renders clinker harder to grin d, red uces
early strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages an d decreases heat of
hydration. The hydrolysis of C2S proceeds slowly. At early ages, less than a month, C2S has
little influence on strength an d hardness. While after one year, its contribution to the strength
an d hardness is proportionately almost equal to C3S. The heat of hydration is 260 J / g.
is about 5-11% (normally about 10.5 per cent) of cement. It rapidly
reacts with water an d is responsible for flash set of finely grounded clinker. The rapidity of
action is regulated by the ad dition of 2-3% of gypsu m at the time of grinding cement. Tricalciu m
alu minate is responsible for the initial set, high heat of hydration and has greater tendency to
volu me changes causing cracking. Raising the C3A content red uces the setting time, weakens
resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the ultimate strength, heat of hydration and contraction
d uring air hardening. The heat of hydration of 865 J / g.
is about 8–14% (normally about 9 per cent) of cement. It is
responsible for flash set but generates less heat. It has poorest cementing value. Raising the
C4 AF content red uces the strength slightly. The heat of hydration is 420 J / g.
Bogue developed a method for
calculating the com pou n d com position from the oxide analysis of a cement. This method is
based upon cooling of the clinker at such rate that equilibriu m is maintained. Although
equilibriu m does not usually obtain in com mercial operations, valuable information can be
derived from such calculations. The method is su m marized in the following steps and in Table
5.2. An accurate chemical analysis is entered in the first colu mn of the table as shown.

Since the ratio of the atomic weight of CaO : SO 3 = 56.07 : 80.065 = 0.70:1, each percentage of
SO 3 combines with 0.70 per cent of Cao to form 1.70 per cent of CaSO4. Hence, the percentage
of lime required to satisfy SO 3 (= 0.7 × per cent SO 3) is recorded as c1 in colu mn 4 of the table,
op posite CaO; the percentage of SO 3 is also entered in colu mn 4; and the CaSO 4 content is
su m med and entered at the bottom of colu mn 4.
Similarly, since the atomic ratios Al2 O 3 : Fe2 O 3 = 101.92 : 159.68 = 0.64 : 1 an d 4CaO : Fe2O 3
= 224.28 : 159.68 = 1.40 : 1, it is evident that each percentage of Fe2 O3 enters into combination
with 0.64 per cent of Al2 O 3 and 1.40 per cent of CaO to form 3.04 per cent of 4CaO Al2 O 3
Fe2 O 3. Therefore 0.64 × percentage of Fe 2 O3 is entered as a1, op posite Al2 O3 in colu m n 5, an d
1.4 × percentage of Fe2 O 3 is entered as c2, op posite CaO in colum n 5; the percentage of Fe2O 3
is re-entered in the same colu mn; and the percentage of C4 AF is su m med at the bottom.
Since practically none of the magnesia is combined, it is entered as free at the bottom of
colu m n 2.
The total alu mina min us a1, entered as a2 in colu m n 6, is available to combine with lime to
form C3 A in the ratio 3CaO : Al2 O 3 = 168.21 : 101.92 is 1.65 : 1. Hence, each percentage of this
available alumina × 1.65 is the percentage of CaO required for C3A, and it is entered op posite
CaO as c3 in colu m n 6. Su m ming quantities in colu m n 6 gives percentage of C3 A.
 The CaO available to combine with SiO 2 is total CaO minus (free CaO + c1 + c2 + c3); call this
difference c. Then the total silica (s) is calculated first to combine with CaO to form C2S. Since
the ratio 2CaO SiO 2 : SiO 2 = 172.20 : 60.06 = 2.87:1, each percentage of s × 2.87 is the percentage
of C2S. This first approximation of C 2S is entered in colu mn 8, opposite SiO 2. By subtracting this
value of C2S from the su m s + c, the amount of CaO (called c4) available for combination with
2CaO SiO 2 to form 3CaO SiO 2 is determined. Since the ratio 3CaO SiO 2:CaO = 228.27:56.07
= 4.07:1, m ultiplying c4 by 4.07 gives the amount of C3S which is entered at the foot of colu mn
7. By subtracting this value of C3S from c + s, the true percentage of C2S is found and entered
in colu m n 8.
Should the com puted percentage of C 3S be greater than c + s, no C2S is present. In that case
the content of C3S is foun d from the ratio 3CaO SiO 2 : SiO 2 = 228.27 : 60.06 = 3.8 : 1. Hence, the
percentage of C3S is obtained by m ultiplying the percentage of SiO 2 by 3.8. This latter value of
C3S, subtracted from c + s, gives the percentage of uncombined lime. This last condition can
only be obtained w hen lime is in excess of the amount required for equilibriu m an d the free
lime has not been ded ucted.
Since errors in chemical analysis of 0.2 per cent in determinations of lime, alu mina, silica, or
iron oxide will make errors up to 1.5 per cent in certain com poun ds, percentages for the
com pou n ds should be rou nded off to w hole nu mbers. If the ignition loss is high, the analysis
should be reduced to a clinker basis prior to com pound calculations.
As previously mentioned, Bogue's method of calculation is based on the assum ption that the
clinker is slowly cooled at such rate that equilibriu m is maintained and the crystallization is
com plete. Lea and Parker have show n that values calculated by the bogue method may be
considerably in error if the clinker liquid crystallizes independently o f the solids formed, or if
cooling is so su d den that no crystallization takes place and glass is formed. For the case of
indepen dent crystallization and a clinkering tem perature of 1400°C, they show that Bogue's
method is correct for cements with Al2 O 3 / Fe2 O 3 ratios between 0.9 and 1.7, but for ratios
between 1.7 and 6.1 their corrections to be ad ded are :
C3S, + (1.8Al2 O3 – 2.8Fe2 O 3)
C2S, + (2.1Fe2 O 3 – 1.4Al2 O 3)
C3 A, + (2.5Fe2 O 3 – 1.6Al2O 3)
C4 AF, Nil
Thus for a cement with Al2 O 3 = 7 an d Fe2 O 3 = 3 per cent, the correction to C3S = 4.2, to
C2S = –3.5, an d to C3 A = –3.7 per cent.
For very rapid cooling of the clinker, the liquid is formed into glass an d they show that no
C3 A or C4 AF ap pear but the amount of glass is + (2.95Al2 O3 + 2.2Fe2 O 3). For this case their
corrections to Bogue's values for C 3S and C2S are: C3S, + (1.8Al2 O3 – 2.8Fe2 O 3); C2S + (1.9Fe2 O3
– 2.1Al2 O 3).

The chemical reaction between cement and water is know n as hydration of cement. The reaction
takes place between the active com ponents of cement (C 4AF, C3 A, C3S an d C2S) an d water. The
factors responsible for the p hysical properties of concrete are the extent of hydration of cement
an d the resultant microstructure of the hydrated cement.
When the cement comes in contact with water, the hydration prod ucts start depositing on
the outer periphery of the nucleus of hyd rated cement. This reaction proceeds slowly for 2-5
hours an d is called induction or dormant period. As the hydration proceeds, the deposit of
hydration prod ucts on the original cement grain makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated
nucleus more an d more difficult, consequently red ucing the rate of hydration with time. At any
stage of hydration, the cement paste consists of gel (a fine-grained prod uct of hydration having
large surface area collectively), the unreacted cement, calciu m hyd roxide, water an d some
minor com poun ds.
The crystals of the various resulting com poun ds grad ually fill the space originally occu pied
by water, resulting in the stiffening of the mass and subsequent develop ment of the strength.
The reactions of the com poun ds an d their prod ucts are as follows:
C 3S + H 2 O C–S–H* + Ca (OH)2
C 2S + H 2 O C–S–H + Ca (OH)2 H* is H 2O
C3 A + H 2 O C3 AH 6 S is SO 3

C3 A + H 2 O + CaSO 4 CA C S H 12
Calciu m sulp ho-alu minate
C4 AF + H 2 O C3 AH 6 + CFH
The prod uct C–S–H gel represents the calciu m silicate hyd rate also know n as tobermorite gel
w hich is the gel structure. The hydrated crystals are extremely small, fibrous, platey or tubular
in shape varying from less than 2 m m to 10 m m or more. The C–S–H phase makes up 50–60%
of the volu me of solids in a com pletely hyderated Portlan d cement paste and is, therefore, the
most im portant in determining the properties of the paste. The proposed surface area for C–S–
H is of the order of 100–700 m 2 / g and the solid to solid distance being about 18 Å. The Ca(OH)2
liberated d uring the silicate p hase crystallizes in the available free space. The calcium hydroxide
crystals also know n as portlan dite consists of 20-25% volu me of the solids in the hydrated
paste. These have lower surface area and their strength contributing potential is limited. The
gel m ust be saturated with water if hydration is to contin ue. The calciu m hydroxide crystals
formed in the process dissolve in water providing hydroxyl (OH –) ions, w hich are im portant
for the protection of reinforcement in concrete. As hydration proceeds, the two crystal types
become more heavily interlocked increasing the strength, though the main cementing action is
provided by the gel w hich occupies two-thirds of the total mass of hydrate.
chemical reaction. The general belief that a water / cement ratio less than 0.38 should not be
used in concrete because for the process of hydration, the gel pores should saturated – is not
valid. This is because as even if excess water is present, com plete hydration of cement never
takes place d ue to deposition of hydration prod ucts. As a matter of fact water / cement ratio less
than 0.38 is very com mon for high strength concretes. If excess water is present, it will lead to
capillary cavities.

Calcareous an d argillaceous raw materials are used in the manufacture of Portland cement.
The calcareous materials used are cement rock, limestone, marl, chalk and marine shell. The
argillaceous materials consist of silicates of alu mina in the form of clay, shale, slate and blast
furnace slag.
From the above materials, others like lime, silica, alu mina, iron oxide and small quantities
of other chemicals are obtained. Cement can be man ufactu red either by dry process or wet
process.

The dry process is adopted w hen the

ra w m aterials are q uite hard. The
process is slow an d the prod uct is
costly. Limestone and clay are groun d
to fine po w der separately an d are
mixed. Water is added to make a thick
paste. The cakes of this paste, which
contain about 14 per cent of moisture,
are dried an d are charged into rotary
kiln (Fig. 5.3). The prod uct obtained
after calcination in rotary kiln is called
clinker. The clinker is obtained as a
result of incipient fusion and sintering
at a te m perat u re of abo u t 1400°-
1500°C. Because ferric oxide has lower
melting point than the other oxides, it
acts as a flux. Aeration of cem ent
clinker, which is com monly practised
to slake free lime, also ca u ses an
absor p tio n of so me m oist u re a n d
ca r b o n d i oxi d e. A b s o r p ti o n of
moisture ten ds to decrease the setting
w h e r e a s t h a t o f ca r b o n d io xi d e
accelerates setting. The clin ker is
co o le d r a p i d l y t o p r es e r ve t h e
metastable com poun ds and their solid solutions — dispersion of one solid in another — which
are made as the clinker is heated. Clinker is then cooled and ground in tube mills (Fig. 5.4),
w here 2-3% of gypsu m is ad ded. Generally, cement is stored in bags of 50 kg. A flow diagram
of dry process is show n in Fig. 5.5. The p urpose of ad ding gypsu m is to coat the cement
particles by interfering with the process of hydration of the cement particles. This retards the
setting of cement.
The degree of fineness of cement is the measure of the mean size of the grains in it. There are
three methods for testing fineness: the sieve method—using 90 micron (9 No.) sieve, the air
permeability method— N urse and Blains method an d the sedimentation method— Wagner
turbidimeter method. The last two methods measure the surface area, whereas the first measures
grain size. Since cement grains are finer than 90 micron, the sieve analysis method does not
represent true mean size of cement grains. Also, the tiny cement grains ten d to conglomerate
into lu m ps resulting in distortion in the final grain size distribution curves. Considering these
demerits, fineness is generally expressed in terms of specific area, which is the total surface
area of the particles in u nit weight of material.
The chemical composition and the degree of calcination influence
the hardness of the clinker an d consequently the fineness to which the cement is ground.
Clinker, high in iron or silica, is apt to be hard an d difficult to grin d. The same is true with a
hard-burned clinker. Fineness is also influenced by the time of grinding an d the character of the
p ulverizing machinery. It has been foun d that cement becomes finer with age provided it does
not absorb too m uch moisture. This is probably d ue to the decrepitation of the coarser grains
resulting from the hydration of the embed ded lime particles.
Finer the cement, more is the strength since surface area for hydration will be
large. With increase in fineness, the early develop ment of strength is enhanced but the ultimate
strength is not affected. An increase in the fineness of the cement increases the cohesiveness of
the concrete mix and th us red uces the amou nt of water which separates to the top of a lift
(bleeding), particularly while com pacting with vibrators. However, if the cement is grou n d
beyon d a certain limit, its cementative properties are affected d ue to the prehydration by
atmospheric moisture. Finer cement reacts more strongly in alkali reactive aggregate. Also, the
water requirement an d workability will be more leading to higher drying shrinkage an d
cracking.
: 100 g of cement sam ple is taken and air-set lu m ps, if any, in the sam ple are
broken with fingers. The sam ple is placed on a 90 micron sieve and continuously sieved for 15
minutes. The resid ue should not exceed the limits specified below:

Type of cement Percentage of residue Specific surface (m2/kg)

by weight not less than
1. Ordinary Portlan d Cement (OPC) 10 225
2. Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC) 5 325
3. Portlan d Puzzolana Cement (PPC) 5 300

The fineness of cement is represented by specific surface, i.e. total

surface area in cm 2 per gram or m 2 per kilogram of cement and is measured by Lea an d N urse
ap paratus or by wagner turbidimeter..
The Lea an d N urse ap paratus show n in Fig. 5.8 essentially consists of a permeability test
cell—where cement is placed and air pressure is ap plied, flow meter—to determine the quantity
of air passing per secon d through its capillary tube per unit difference of pressure, an d
manometer—to measure the air pressure.
 V P p
=
t P
w here P = atmosp heric pressure
p = vapour pressure of water at room tem perature
The minim u m specific surface for various cements should be as specified in Table 5.3.

L.A.Wagner developed a turbidimeter to estimate the surface

area of one gram of cement. The cement is dispersed uniformly in a rectangular glass tank filled
with kerosene. Then, parallel light rays are passed through the solution which strike the
sensitivity plate of a p hotoelectric cell. The turbidity of the solution at a given instant is
measured by taking readings of the current generated by the cell. By recording the readings at
regular intervals while the particles are falling in the solution, it is possible to secure information
regarding the grading in surface area an d in size of particle. Readings are expressed in sq. cm
per gram.

This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form a paste of normal consistency
defined as that percentage water requirement of the cement paste, the viscosity of which will
be such that the Vicat’s plunger penetrates u p to a point 5 to 7 m m from the bottom of the
Vicat’s mould.
The water requirement for various tests of cement depends on the normal
consistency of the cement, which itself depen ds u pon the com pound com position an d fineness
of the cement.
300 g of cement is mixed with 25 per cent water. The paste is filled in the
mould of Vicat’s ap paratus (Fig. 5.9) and the surface of the filled paste is smoothened and
levelled. A square needle 10 m m x 10 m m attached to the plunger is then lowered gently over
the cement paste surface an d is released quickly. The plunger pierces the cement paste. The
reading on the attached scale is recorded. When the reading is 5-7 m m from the bottom of the
mould, the amou nt of water ad ded is considered to be the correct percentage of water for
normal consistency.

When water is ad ded to cement, the resulting paste starts to stiffen and gain strength and lose
the consistency sim ultaneously. The term setting im plies solidification of the plastic cement
paste. Initial and final setting times may be regarded as the two
stiffening states of the cement. The beginning of solidification,
called the initial set, marks the point in time w hen the paste has
become un workable. The time taken to solidify com pletely marks
the final set, w hich should not be too long in order to resu me
construction activity within a reasonable time after the placement
of concrete. Vicat’s ap paratus used for the p urpose is shown in
Fig. 5.9. The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken
by the paste to stiffen to such an extent that the Vicat’s needle is
not permitted to move down through the paste to within 5 ± 0.5
m m measured from the bottom of the mould. The final setting
time is the time after w hich the paste becomes so hard that the
angular attachment to the needle, un der stan dard weight, fails to
leave any mark on the hardened concrete. Initial and final setting
times are the rheological properties of cement.
It is im portant to know the initial setting time, because of loss of useful properties
of cement if the cement mortar or concrete is placed in moulds after this time. The im portance
of final setting time lies in the fact that the moulds can be removed after this time. The former
defines the limit of han dling an d the latter defines the beginning of development of machanical
strength.
The factors influencing the setting properties of cement
are its com position, the percentage of retardant, degree of calcination, fineness of grin ding,
aeration subsequent to grin ding clinker, percentage of water used to make cement paste, the
tem perature of the mixing water, cement and the atmosp here where the cement paste is placed,
an d the amou nt of manip ulation the paste receives.
The effect of lime, silica an d alu mina in controlling the set have been discussed in Sec. 5.3.
The effect of gypsu m is to increase the setting time of freshly groun d cement. It is usually
mixed with the clinker before final grin ding, or just after the clinker has received preliminary
grin ding. The ad dition of gypsu m before calcination causes it to decom pose into lime an d
sulph ur trioxide. Since the latter is liberated in the kiln, there is resulting effect on the setting
time. Often, an un derlimed cement becomes quick setting after seasoning. This can be avoided
by ad ding to the cement 1 or 2 per cent of hydrated lime or the fraction of a per cent of Plaster
of Paris. Setting time of cement is rapid with the increase in the fineness of cement. When the
mixing water used in testing cement paste is increased by 1 per cent above that required for
normal consistency, an increase of about 30 min utes or more is observed in the initial or final
set.
Cements stored in warm rooms will, in general, be quick setting than those stored in cold
places. Cold mixing water retards set w hile warm water accelerates it. Cement exposed to
thoroughly saturated atmosphere will set m uch more slowly than those exposed to a d ry
atmosp here. If, however, a considerable proportion of moist CO 2 is present in the air, the
setting time is fou nd to red uce greatly. By lengthening the time of mixing and by prolonged
troweling of the surface mortars, it is also possible to considerably delay the setting time.
 A neat cement paste is prepared by gauging cement with 0.85 times the water
required to give a paste of stan dard consistency. The stop watch is started at the instant water
is ad ded to the cement. The mould resting on a nonporous plate is filled com pletely with
cement paste an d the surface of filled paste is levelled smooth with the top of the mould. The
test is cond ucted at room tem perature of 27± 2°C. The mould with the cement paste is placed
in the Vicat’s ap paratus as shown in Fig. 5.9 and the needle is lowered gently in contact with
the test block an d is then quickly released. The needle th us penetrates the test block and the
reading on the Vicat’s apparatus grad uated scale is recorded. The proced ure is repeated until
the needle fails to pierce the block by about 5 m m measured from the bottom of the mould. The
stop watch is p ushed off an d the time is recorded w hich gives the initial setting time.
The cement is considered to be finally set w hen u pon ap plying the needle gently to the
surface of test block, the needle makes an im pression, but the attachment fails to do so.

It is essential that the cement concrete does not undergo large change in volume after setting.
This is ensured by limiting the quantities of free lime and magnesia w hich slake slowly causing
change in volu me of cement (known as unsound). Sou nd ness of cement may be tested by Le-
Chatelier method or by autoclave method. For OPC, RHC, LHC and PPC it is limited to 10 m m,
w hereas for HAC an d SSC it should not exceed 5 m m.
It is a very im portant test to assure the quality of cement since an u nsound cement
prod uces cracks, distortion an d disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.
The main cause for unsou ndness in Portlan d cement is the
hydration of the uncombined lime encased within the cement particles. Exposed, finely ground,
free lime in small percentages, hydrates before the cement sets and produces no injurious
effect. The u ncombined lime in cement is a result of either un derburning the clinker or of excess
lime in the raw materials. Freshly grou nd cement is often unsou nd d ue to the presence of
uncombined lime. Cement is th us allowed to aerate for two to three weeks, allowing the lime
to hydrate, to overcome u nsou n d ness.
Fine grin ding of the raw material an d clinker help to prod uce a soun d cement. By grin ding
fine the raw materials, it is possible to prod uce a homogeneous mixture before burning where
the lime is u niformly distributed. The coarse grains of cement may im prison minute particles
of u ncom bined lime which do not hyd rate. These lime particles on hyd ralion prod uce
disintegration.
The ap paratus is show n in Fig. 5.10. The mould is placed on a glass sheet
an d is filled with neat cement paste formed by gauging 100 g cement with 0.78 times the water
required to give a paste of stan dard consistency. The mould is covered with a glass sheet and
a small weight is placed on the covering glass sheet. The mould is then submerged in the water
at tem perature of 27°-32°C. After 24 hours, the mould is taken out and the distance separating
the indicator points is measured. The mould is again submerged in water. The water is now
boiled for 3 hours. The mould is removed from water and is cooled down. The distance
between the indicator points is measured again. The difference between the two measurements
represents the u nsound ness of cement.
 The test specimens are 70.6 m m cubes having face area of about 5000 sq. m m. Large size
specimen cubes cannot be made since cement shrinks and cracks may develop. The tem perature
of water an d test room should be 27°± 2°C. A mixture of cement and stand ard sand in the
proportion 1:3 by weight is mixed dry with a trowel for one minute and then with water until
the mixture is of u niform colour. Three specimen cubes are prepared. The m aterial for each
cube is mixed separately. The quantities of cement, stan dard sand an d water are 185 g, 555 g an d
(P / 4) + 3.5, respectively w here P = percentage of water required to prod uce a paste of standard
consistency. The mould is filled com pletely with the cement paste and is placed on the vibration
table. Vibrations are im parted for about 2 minutes at a speed of 12000±400 per minute.
The cubes are then removed from the moulds an d submerged in clean fresh water and are
taken out just prior to testing in a com pression testing machine. Com pressive strength is taken
to be the average of the results of the three cubes. The load is ap plied starting from zero at a rate
of 35 N / sq m m / min ute. The com pressive strength is calculated from the crushing load divided
by the average area over which the load is ap plied.The result is expressed in N / m m 2. The
minim u m specified strength for some of the cements is given in Table 5.4.

The tensile strength m ay be determined by Briquette test method or by split

tensile strength test.
The tensile strength of cement affords quicker in dications of defects in the cement
than any other test. Also, the test is more conveniently made than the com pressive strength
test. Moreover, since the flexural strength, is directly related to the tensile strength this test is
ideally fitted to give information both with regard to tensile and com pressive strengths w hen
the su pply for material testing is small.
A mixture of cement an d san d is gauged in the proportion of 1:3 by weight.
The percentage of water to be used is calculated from the form ula (P / 5) + 2.5, w here P =
percentage of water required to prod uce a paste of standard consistency. The tem perature of
the water and the test room should be 27° ± 2°C. The mix is filled in the moulds of the shape
show n in Fig. 5.11.
After filling the mould, an ad ditional heap of mix is placed on the mould and is pushed
dow n with the stan dard spatula, until the mixture is level with the top of the mould. This
operation is repeated on the other side of the mould also. The briquettes in the mould are
finished by smoothing the surface with the blade of a trowel. They are then kept for 24 hours
at a tem perature of 27° ± 2°C an d in an atmosp here having 90 per cent hu midity. The briquettes
are then kept in clean fresh water and are taken out before testing. Six briquettes are tested and
the average tensile strength is calculated. Load is ap plied steadily and u niformly, starting from
zero and increasing at the rate of 0.7 N / sq m m of section in 12 seconds.
 Ordinary Portland cement should have a tensile strength of not less than 2.0 N / m m 2 after
3 days an d not less than 2.5 N / m m 2 after 7 days.

Heat is evolved d uring hydration of cement, the amount being depen dent on the relative
quantities of the clinker com poun ds.
The evolution of heat causes an increase in tem perature of the concrete, being
greatest in mass concreting. Since the cooling of a mass of concrete can only occur from surfaces
exposed to atmosp here the tem perature of the interior is higher than that at the surface and also
there is a rapid increase in strength in the interior than at the surface. Shrinkage cracks may
result from stresses, in d uced by cooling of the surface while the interior of concrete is still at
higher tem perature. However, in practice, the heat evolution may be taken to its advantage in
cold weather provided the concrete is warm at the time of placing an d excessive heat loss is
prevented by suitable lagging.
The ap paratus used to determine the heat of hydration of cement is known as
calorimeter an d is shown in Fig. 5.12. 60 g of cement an d 24 ml of distilled water are mixed for
4 min utes at tem perature 15°–25°C. Three specimen glass vials 100 × 20 m m are filled with this
mixture, corked an d sealed with wax. The vials are then stored with the mixture in a vertical
position at 27°±2° C. The heat of hydration is obtained by subtracting the respective heat of
solution of u nhyrated cement calculated nearest to 0.1 calorie.
For determining the heat of solution of unhydrated cement, weigh a sam ple of about 3 g. At
the same time, weigh out 7.0 g of cement for the loss on ignition. The heat of solution is
calculated as
 Heat of solution (Cal / g) of u nhydrated cement
Heat capacity × corrected tem peratu re rise
= 0.2( 0 )
Weight of sam ple corrected for ignition loss

w here 0.2 is the specific heat of u nhydrated cement.

For determining heat of solution of the hydrated cement, one of the glass vials is opened an d
the adherent wax is removed. The cement is groun d rapidly, to avoid carbonation, to pass an
850 micron sieve. From this weigh out 4.2 g an d 7.0 g of cement sam ples for heat of solution and
loss on ignition.
The heat of solution of hydrated cement (Cal / g ignited weight)
Heat capacity × corrected tem perature rise
= 0.4( 0 )
Weight of sam ple corrected for ignition loss
The ignition loss can be obtained by placing the sam ple in a cool furnace and raising the
tem perature of the furnace to 900°C over a period of 1 hour. The sam ple is kept at 900° ± 50°C
for 3-4 hours an d then cooled in a desiccator containing anhydrous calciu m chloride. Weigh
after half an hour. The difference in the two weighings give the loss on ignition.
To determine the heat capacity sufficient quantity of zinc oxide is ignited for one hour at 900°
± 50°C. It is cooled in a desiccator containing anhydrous calciu m chloride and grou nd to pass
250 micron sieve. About 7 g of this ignited oxide is reheated to 900° ± 50°C for 5 min utes and
then cooled for about 2½ hours (not more than 5 hours). The calorimeter is assembled and
tem perature reading correct to 0.001°C is recorded to determine the initial heating or cooling
correction. The zinc oxide is then introduced. The tem perature readings are recorded at one
minute intervals u ntil the solution is com plete. The recording of readings is continued for next
5 minutes to determine the final heating or cooling correction. The initial and final heating or
cooling rates against the correspon ding calorimeter tem perature are plotted. The two points
th us obtained are joined by a straight line. From this graph the corrections are read off for each
tem perature reading d uring the solution period. Heat capacity is calculated from the expression.
Weight of ZnO
Heat capcity (Cal / °C) = [256.1 0.1 (30.0 0) 0.1( 0 )]
Corrected temperature rise

Weight of ZnO (259.1 0.2 0.1 0)

=
Corrected tem peratu re rise
w here, 256.1 is the heat of solution of zinc oxide at 30°C and 0.2 the negative tem perature
coefficient of the heat of solution, is the final tem perature of the calorimeter, 0.1 is the specific
heat of zinc oxide and is the room tem perature in °C.

The specific gravity of hydraulic cement is obtained using Le-Chatelier flask show n in Fig. 5.13.

Long seasonig is the chief cause of a low specific

gravity in u nad ulterated cement. This is because the freshly ground cement when exposed to
air rapidly absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide. Cements with high contents of iron oxide
have a higher specific gravity. The effect of fineness of grinding u pon specific gravity is slight.
Very finely groun d cements are likely to have lower specific gravities.
The flask is filled with either kerosene free of water, or naphtha having a
specific gravity not less than 0.7313 to a point on the stem between zero and 1-ml mark. The
flask is im mersed in a constant tem perature water bath an d the reading is recorded. A weighed
quantity of cement (about 64 g of Portland cement) is then introd uced in small amou nts at the
same tem perature as that of the liquid. After introd ucing all the cement, the stop per is placed
in the flask and the flask rolled in an inclined position, or gently whirled in a horizontal circle,
so as to free the cement from air u ntil no further air bubbles rise to the surface of the liquid. The
flask is again im mersed in the water-bath an d the final reading is recorded. The difference
between the first an d the final reading represents the volu me of liquid displaced by the weight
of the cement used in the test.
Weight of cement
Specific gravity =
Displaced volu me of liquid in ml

1.00 g of the sam ple is heated for 15 minutes in a weighed and covered
platinu m crucible of 20 to 25 ml capacity by placing it in a m uffle furnace at any tem perature
between 900° and 1000°C. It is then cooled and weighed. Thereafter, the loss in weight is
checked by a second heating for 5 minutes and reweighing. The loss in the weight is recorded
as the loss on ignition and the percentage of loss on ignition to the nearest 0.1 is calculated (loss
in weight × 100). The percentage loss on ignition should not exceed 4 per cent.
0.5 g of the sam ple is kept in an evaporating dish, moistened with 10 ml of distilled
water at room tem perature to prevent lum ping. To this 5 to 10 ml of hyd rochloric acid is ad ded,
an d digested with the aid of gentle heat an d agitation until solution is com plete. Dissolution
may be aided by light pressure with the flattened end of a glass rod. The solution is evaporated
to dryness on a steam bath. Without heating the resid ue any further, it is treated with 5 to 10
ml of hydrochloric acid and then with an equal amount of water. The dish is covered an d
digested for 10 minutes on a water bath. The solution with an equal volu me of hot water is
diluted and is im mediately filtered through an ashless filter paper, and the separated silica
(SiO 2) is washed thoroughly with hot water and the resid ue is reserved.
The filtrate is again evaporated to dryness, baking the resid ue in an oven for one hour at
105°C to 110°C. Then the resid ue is ad ded with 10 to 15 ml of hydrochloric acid (1:1) and is
heated on a water bath. This solution is then diluted with an equal volu me of hot water and the
small amount of silica it contains is filtered and washed on another filter paper. The filtrate an d
washings are reserved for the determination of combined alumina an d the ferric oxide.
The papers containing the resid ues are transferred to a weighed platinu m crucible. The
papers are dried and ignited, first at a low heat until the carbon of the filter papers is com pletely
consu med without inflaming, and finally at 1100°C to 1200°C until the weight remains constant
(say W 1).
The ignited resid ue thus obtained, w hich will contain small amounts of im p urities is treated
in the crucible with a few drops of distilled water, about 10 ml of hydrofluoric acid and one
drop of sulp huric acid an d evaporated cautiously to dryness. Finally, the small resid ue is
heated at 1050°C to 1100°C for a minute or two: cooled an d weighed (say W 2). The difference
between this weight an d the weight of the ignited resid ue represents the amount of silica (W).
Silica (%) = 200 (W 1 – W 2)
200 ml of the sam ple from the filtrate reserved in silica
test is heated to a boil. A few drops of bromine water or concentrated nitric acid is ad ded
d uring boiling in order to oxidize any ferrous ion to the ferric condition. It is then treated with
am moniu m hyd roxide (1:1), drop by drop, u ntil the solution smells of am monia. The solution
containing the precipitates of alu miniu m an d ferric hyd roxides is boiled for one minute. The
precipitate is allowed to settle, filtered through an ashless filter paper and washed with two per
cent hot am moniu m nitrate solution. The filtrate and washings are set aside.
The precipitate an d the filter paper is transferred to the same beaker in w hich the first
precipitation was effected. The precipitate is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid (1:3). The
solution is diluted to about 100 ml and the hydroxides are reprecipitated. The solution is
filtered an d precipitated with two 10 ml portions of hot am moniu m nitrate solution. The
filtrate and washings are then combined with the filtrate set aside and is reserved for the
determination of calciu m oxide.
The precipitate is placed in a weighed platin u m crucible, heated slowly until the papers are
charred, an d finally ignited to constant weight at 1050°C to 1100°C with care to prevent
red uction, an d weighed (W 1) as combined alu mina an d ferric oxide.
If silica is suspected to be carried into the filtrate used for this estimation, the resid ue in the
crucible is treated with a drop of water, about 5 ml of hyd rofluoric acid an d a drop of sulph uric
acid an d is evaporated cautiously to dryness. Finally, the crucible is heated at 1050°C to 1100°C
for one or two min utes; cooled an d weighed (W 2). The difference between this weight and the
weight (W1), represents the amou nt of resid ue silica. This amount is subtracted from the
weight of ferric oxide an d alu mina fou nd as W 1 an d the same amou nt is ad ded to the amount
of silica (W). The ratio of percentages of alu mina to iron oxide should not exceed 0.66.
Combined ferric oxide an d alumina (%) = weight of resid ue × 200
40 ml of cold water is ad ded to 1 g of the sam ple an d while the mixture is stirred
vigorously, 50 ml of hydrochloric acid is ad ded. If necessary, the solution is heated an d cement
is groun d with flattened en d of a glass rod u ntil it is evident that cement is com pletely
decom posed. The solution is heated to a boil and is treated with stannous chloride solution
ad ded drop by drop while stirring, until the solution is dicolourized. A few drops of stannous
chloride solution is ad ded in excess an d the solution is cooled to room tem perature. Then, 15
ml of a saturated solution of mercuric chloride and 25 ml of manganese sulp hate solution are
ad ded and titrated with standard solution of potassiu m permanganate until the permanent
pink colour is obtained. Iron as ferric oxide is calculated.
The calculated weight of ferric oxide an d the small amount of silica is subtracted
from the total weight of oxides (W l). The remain der is the weight of alumina and of small
amou nts of other oxides reported as alu mina.
The combined filtrate reserved in the combined ferric oxide and alu mina test
is acidified with hydrochloric acid and evaporated to a volume of about 100 ml. 40 ml of
saturated bromine water is ad ded to the hot solution an d am moniu m hydroxide is ad ded until
the solution is distinctly alkaline. The solution is boiled for 5 min utes or more, making certain
that the solution is at all times distinctly alkaline. Then the precipitate is allowed to settle,
filtered and washed with hot water. The beaker and filter is washed once with nitric acid (1:33)
an d finally with hot water. Any precipitate (of manganese dioxide) that may be left on the
tunnel is discarded. The filtrate is mixed with hydrochloric acid an d boiled u ntil all the
bromine is expelled. 25 ml of boiling am moniu m oxalate solution is ad ded to the boiling
solution. The solution is made alkaline with am moniu m hydroxide and brought to boiling, the
boiling being contin ued until the precipitated calciu m oxalate assu mes a well-defined, gran ular
form. The precipitate is allowed to stan d for about 20 minutes or until it has settled, filtered an d
washed moderately with am moniu m oxalate solution (one gram per litre). The filtrate an d
washings (W 3) are set aside for estimating magnesia.
The precipitated lime after ignition and heating at 1100°C-1200°C is weighed. The percentage
of CaO = weight of resid ue × 200. Also,
CaO 0.7SO 3
2.8 SiO 2 1.2 Al 2 O 3 0.65 Fe 2 O 3
in per cent should not be less than 0.66.
The filtrate (W3) is acidified with hydrochloric acid an d is concentrated to about l50
ml. To this solution, about 10 ml of am moniu m hydrogen phosphate solution (250 g per litre)
is ad ded and the solution is cooled by placing in a beaker of ice water. After cooling, am moniu m
hydroxide is ad ded d rop by d rop, w hile stirring constantly, until the crystalline magnesium
am moniu m p hosp hate begins to form, an d then the reagent is ad ded in moderate excess (5 to
10 per cent of the volu me of the solution), the stirring being continued for several minutes. The
solution is set aside for at least 16 hours in a cool atmosphere and then filtered. The precipitate
is washed with am moniu m nitrate wash solution (100 g of am moniu m nitrate dissolved in
water, 200 ml of am moniu m hydroxide ad ded and diluted to one litre). It is then charred slowly
and the resulting carbon is burnt carefully. The precipitate is ignited at 1100°C to 1200°C to
constant weight, taking care to avoid bringing the pyrophosphate to melting.
From the weight of the magnesiu m pyrophosphate obtained, the magnesia content of the
material taken for the test is calculated.
The percentage of MgO = weight of resid ue × 72.4.
Free magnesia in cement should be less than 4 per cent.
To one gram of the sam ple, 25 ml of cold water is ad ded and while the
mixture is stirred vigorously 5 ml of hydrochloric acid is ad ded. If necessary, the solution is
heated an d the material is ground with the flattened end of a glass rod u ntil it is evident that
the decom position of cement is com plete. The solution is diluted to 50 ml and digested for 15
minutes. The resid ue is filtered and washed thoroughly with hot water. The filter paper with
the resid ue (W 4) is set aside. The filtrate is diluted to 250 ml an d heated to boiling. 10 ml of hot
bariu m chloride (100 g per litre) solution is ad ded drop by drop an d the boiling is continued
until the precipitate is well formed. The solution is digested on steam bath for 4 hours or
preferably overnight. The precipitate is filtered and the precipitate is washed thoroughly. The
filter paper and the contents are placed in a weighed platin u m or porcelain crucible and slowly
the paper is incinerated without inflaming. Then it is ignited at 800°C to 900°C, cooled in a
desiccator an d the bariu m sulphate is weighed. From the weight of the bariu m sulp hate
obtained, the sulphuric anhydride content of the material taken for the test is calculated. The
percentage of SO 3 = weight of resid ue × 34.3. Sulphur in cement should be less than 2.5 per cent.
The filter paper containing the resid ue (W 4) is digested in 30 ml of hot water
an d 30 ml of 2 N sodiu m carbonate solution maintaining constant volu me, the solution being
held for 10 minutes at a tem perature just short of boiling. It is then filtered an d washed with
dilute hydrochloric acid (1:99) an d finally with hot water till free from chlorides. The residue
is ignited in a crucible at 900°C to 1000°C, cooled in a desiccator an d weighed. The insoluble
resid ues should not exceed 1.5 per cent.
Cements of unique characteristics for desired performance in a given environment are being
man ufactured by changing the chemical com position of OPC or by using ad ditives, or by using
different raw materials. Some of the cements available in the market are as follows.
(IS: 8041) has high lime content an d can be obtained by
increasing the C3S content but is normally obtained from OPC clinker by finer grinding (450
m 2 / kg). The basis of ap plication of rapid hardening cement (RHC) is hardening properties and
heat emission rather than setting rate. This permits ad dition of a little more gypsu m d uring
man ufacture to control the rate of setting. RHC attains same strength in one day which an
ordinary cement may attain in 3 days. However, it is subjected to large shrinkage an d water
requirement for workability is more. The cost of rapid hardening cement is about 10 per cent
more than the ordinary cement. Concrete made with RHC can be safely exposed to frost, since
it matures more quickly.
Initial setting time 30 minutes (minim u m)
Final setting time l0 hours (maxim u m)
Com pressive strength
1 day 16.0 N / m m 2
3 day 27.5 N / m m 2
It is suitable for repair of roads and bridges an d w hen load is applied in a short period
of time.
This is not a type of Portlan d cement and is manufactured
by fusing 40 per cent bauxite, 40 per cent lime, 15 per iron oxide with a little of ferric oxide an d
silica, magnesia, etc. (Table 5.5) at a very high tem perature. The alu mina content should not be
less than 32%. The resultant p ro d uct is grou n d finely. The m ain cement ingredient is
monocalciu m alu minate CA w hich interacts with water and forms dicalciu m octahydrate
hy droalu minate and alu miniu m oxide hydrate.
2(CaO.AL2 O 3.10H 2 O) + H 2 O = 2CaO.Al2 O 3.8H 2 O + 2Al(OH)2
The dicalciu m hydroalu minate gel consolidates and the hydration prod ucts crystallise. The
rate of consolidation an d crystallisation is high leading to a rapid gain of strength. Since C3 A
is not present, the cement has good sulphate resistance.
 It is not quick setting: initial setting time (minim u m) is 30 minutes, even u p to 2
hours. The final setting time should not exceed 600 minutes. It attains strength in 24 hours, high
early strength, high heat of hyd ration an d resistance to chemical attack. Com pressive strength
after one day is 30.0 N / m m 2 an d after 3 days it is 35.0 N / m m 2. After setting and hardening,
there is no free hydrated lime as in the case of ordinary Portland cement. The fineness of the
cement should not be less than 225 m 2 / kg. The cement should not have expansion more than 5 mm.
It is resistant to the action of fire, sea water, acidic water and sulphates and is used as
refractory concrete, in in d ustries and is used widely for precasting. It should not be used in
places w here tem perature exceeds 18°C.
is manufactured by intergrin ding or intimately
blending a mixture of granulated blast furnace slag not less than 70 per cent, calciu m sulphate
an d small quantity of 33 grade Portland cement. In this cement tricalciu m alu minate which is
susceptible to sulp hates is limited to less than 3.5 per cent. Sulphate resisting cement may also
be prod uced by the ad dition of extra iron oxide before firing; this combines with alu mina
w hich would otherwise form C3 A, instead forming C4 AF which is not affected by sulphates. It
is used only in places with tem perature below 40°C.
Water resistance of concretes from su persulphate Portlan d cements is higher than that of
com mon Portland cements because of the absence of free calcium oxide hydrate. In supersulphate
Portlan d cements the latter is bou nd by slag into calciu m hydroalu minates of low solubility
an d calciu m hydrosilicates of low basicity, whereas concretes from Portland cement carry a
large amou nt of free calciu m oxide hydrate w hich may wash out and thus weaken them.
Su persulphate Portland cement has satisfactory frost and air resistances, but it is less resistant
than concrete from Portlan d cement d ue to the fact that hydrosilicates of low basicity show
greater ten dency to deformation from humidity fluctuations and resist the combined action of
water and frost less effectively.
It has low heat of hydration and is resistant to chemical attacks an d in particular
to sulphates. Com pressive strength should be as follows:
72 ± 1 hour 15 N / m m 2
168 ± 2 hours 22 N / m m 2
672 ± 4 hours 30 N / m m 2
It should have a fineness of 400 m 2 / kg. The expansion of cement is limited to 5 m m. The
initial setting time of the cement should not be less than 30 min utes, and the final setting time
should not be more than 600 min utes.
Su persulp hated Portlan d cement is used for similar p urpose as com mon Portland
cement. But owing to its higher water-resisting property, it should be preferred in hyd raulic
engineering installations and also in constructions inten ded for service in moist media. RCC
pipes in groun d water, concrete structures in sulphate bearing soils, sewers carrying in d ustrial
effluents, concrete exposed to concentrated sulphates of weak mineral acids are some of the
exam ples of this cement. This cement should not be used in constructions exposed to frequent
freezing-an d-thawing or moistening-an d-drying conditions.
In this cement the amount of tricalciu m
alu minate is restricted to on acceptably low value(< 5). It should not be mistaken for super-
sulphated cement. It is man ufactured by grin ding and intimately mixing together calcareous
and argillaceous and / or other silica, alumina and iron oxide bearing materials. The Materials are
burnt to clinkering tem perature. The resultant clinker is ground to produce the cement. No material
is added after burning except gypsu m and not more than one per cent of air-entraining agents are
ad ded.
The specific surface of the cement should not be less than 225 m 2 / kg. The expansion
of cement is limited to 10 m m an d 0.8 per cent, w hen tested by Le-chatelier method and
autoclave test, respectively. The setting times are same as that for ordinary Portland cement.
The com pressive strength of the cubes should be as follows.
72 ± 1 hour 10 N / m m 2
168 ± 2 hours 16 N / m m 2
672 ± 4 hours 33 N / m m 2
It should have a fineness of 400 m 2 / kg. The expansion of cement is limited to 5 m m. The
initial setting line of the cement should not be less than 30 m m and the final setting time should
not be more than 600 m m.
This cement can be used as an alternative to order Portland cement or Portland pozzolana
cement or Portland slag cement under normal conditions. Its use however is restricted w here
the prevailing tem perature is below 40°C. Use of sulphate resisting cement is particularly
beneficial in con ditions w here the concrete is exposed to the risk of deterioration d ue to
sulphate attack; concrete in contact with soils or ground waters containing excessive sulphate
as well as concrete in sea water or exposed directly to sea coast.
It is manufactured either by intimately intergrin ding a mixture
of Portlan d cement clinker and granulated slag with ad dition of gypsu m or calcium sulphate,
or by an intimate an d u niform blending of Portlan d cement and finely grou n d gran ulated slag.
Slag is a non-metallic prod uct consisting essentially of glass containing silicates an d alu mino-
silicates of lime an d other bases, as in the case of blast-furnace slag, which is developed
sim ultaneously with iron in blast furnace or electric pig iron furnace. Granulated slag is
obtained by further processing the molten slag by rapid chilling or quenching it with water or
steam and air. The slag constituent in the cement varies between 25 to 65 per cent.
The chemical requirements of Portland slag cement are same as that of 33 grade
Portlan d cement. The specific surface of slag cement should not be less than 225 m 2 / kg. The
expansion of the cement should not be more than 10 m m and 0.8 per cent w hen tested be
Le Chatelier method an d autoclave test, respectively. The initial an d final setting times and
com pressive strength requirements are same as that for 33 grade ordinary Portlan d cement.
This cement can be used in all places where OPC is used. However, because of its low
heat of hydration it can also be used for mass concreting, e.g., dams, foundations, etc.
To limit the heat of hydration of low heat Portlan d
cement (LHC), the tricalciu m alu minate com ponent in cement is minimised and a high
percentage of dicalcium silicate and tetracalcium alu mino ferrite is ad ded. The heat of hydration
should not be more than 272 and 314 J / g at the end of 7 and 28 days respectively. The rate of
develop ment of strength is slow but the ultimate strength is same as that of OPC. To meet this
requirement, specific surface of cement is increased to about 3200 cm 2 / g.
 Less heat is evolved d uring setting low heat Portlan d cement. When tested by Le
Chatelier method and autoclave test the expansion should not be more than 10 m m and 0.8%,
respectively. The minim u m initial setting time should not be less than 60 minutes, and the final
setting should not be more than 600 minutes.
The com pressive strength should be as follows.
72 ± 1 hour 10 N / m m 2
168 ± 2 hours 16 N / m m 2
672 ± 4 hours 35 N / m m 2

It is most suitable for large mass concrete works such as dams, large raft foun dations, etc.
is manufactured by grinding Portland
cement clinker an d p uzzolana (usually fly ash 10-25% by mass of PPC) or by intimately and
uniformly blen ding Portlan d cement an d fine puzzolana. Puzzolana (burnt clay, shale, or fly
ash) has no cementing value itself but has the property of combining with lime to prod uce a
stable lime-puzzolana com pou nd which has definite cementitious properties. Free lime present
in the cement is thus removed. Consequently, the resistance to chemical attack increases
making it suitable for marine works. The hardening of Portland p uzzolana cement consists in
hy dration of Portlan d cement clinker com pou nds an d then in interaction of the p uzzolana with
calcium hydroxide released during the hardening of clinker. At the same time, calcium hydroxide
is bou nd into a water-soluble calciu m hydrosilicate according to the reaction
Ca(OH)2 + SiO 2 + (n – 1) H 2 O = CaO.SiO 2.n H 2 O
with the effect that p uzzolana Portlan d cement acquires greater water-resisting property than
ordinary Portlan d cement.
These have lower rate of development of strength but ultimate strength is com parable
with ordinary Portlan d cement.
Com pressive Strength 72 ± 1 hr 16.0 N / m m 2
168 ± 2 hrs 22.0 N / m m 2
672 ± 4 hrs 33.0 N / m m 2
The initial an d the final setting times are 30 minutes (minim u m) and 600 minutes (maxim u m),
respectively. The drying shrinkage should not be more than 0.15% and the fineness should not
be less than 300 m 2 / kg.
It has low heat evolution an d is used in the places of mass concrete such as dams an d in
places of high tem perature.
The quantity of gypsu m is reduced and small percentage of
alu miniu m sulphate is ad ded. It is grou nd m uch finer than ordinary Portland cement.
Initial setting time = 5 min utes
Final setting time = 30 minutes
It is used w hen concrete is to be laid under water or in ru nning water.
 The Portland cement clinker is ground and mixed intim ately
with pozzolanic m aterial (flyash or calcined clay), or non-pozzolanic (inert) materials (lime-
stone, conglomrates, dolomite, granulated slag) and waste materials (carbonated slu dge, mine
tailings) an d gypsu m an d air entraining plasticizer in suitable proportions. The physical
requirements of masonry cement are as follows.
1. Fineness: Resid ue on 45-micron IS Sieve, Max, Percent (by wet sieving) 15
2. Setting Time (by Vicat Ap paratus):
(a) Initial, Min 90 min
(b) Final, Max 24 h
3. Soun d ness:
(a) Le-Chatelier expansion, Max 10 m m
(b) Autoclave expansion, Max 1 per cent
4. Com pressive Strength: Average strength of not less than 3
mortar cubes of 50 m m size, com posed of 1 part masonry cement and 3
parts stan dard san d by volu me, Min
7 days 2.5 MPa
28 days 5 MPa
5. Air Content: Air content of mortar com posed of 1 part masonry cement 6 per cent
and 3 parts stan dard san d by volu me, Min
6. Water Retention: Flow after suction of mortar com posed of 1 part 60 per cent of
masonry cement an d 3 parts standard sand by volu me, Min original flow
It is manufactured from p ure white chalk
and clay free from iron oxide. Greyish colour of cement is due to iron oxide. So, the iron oxide
is red uced and limited below 1 per cent. Coloured cements are made by ad ding 5 to 10 per cent
colouring pigments before grinding. These cements have same properties as that of ordinary
Portlan d cement an d are non-staining because of low amount of soluble alkalis. Sodiu m
alu mino fluoride is ad ded d uring burning which acts as a catalyst in place of iron.
Loss on ignition of white cement is nil. The com pressive and transverse strength
of this cement is 90 per cent of that of 33 grade ordinary Portland cement.
These cements are used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls (stucco),
ornamental works, and casting stones.
Vinsol resin or vegetable fats and oils and fatty acids are grou nd with
ordinary cement. These materials have the property to entrain air in the form of fine tiny air
bubbles in concrete.
Min ute voids are formed w hile setting of cement which increases resistance against
freezing and scaling action of salts. Air entrain ment im proves workability an d water / cement
ratio can be red uced w hich in turn red uces shrinkage, etc.
Air entraining cements are used for the same p urposes as that of OPC.
It is also know n as extra rapid hardening cement an d is made by
ad ding 2 per cent of calciu m chloride. Since it is deliquescent, it is stored un der dry conditions
and should be consu med within a month of its dispatch from the factory.
 The rate of strength develop ment is accelerated; a higher percentage of calciu m
chloride causes excessive shrinkage. Strength gained after 1 day is 25 per cent more an d after
7 days about 20 per cent more than the ordinary Portlan d cement.
It is very suitable for cold weathers.
It is also called hydrophobic cement. A small amou nt of
hydrophobic surfactants such as stearic acid, boric acid or oleic acid is mixed with the ordinary
Portlan d cement d uring grin ding of clinker. These substances are ad ded in amounts of 0.1 to
0.5% of t h e w eig h t of ce m en t in ter m s of d ry a d mixt u res. These acid s for m a t hin
(monomolecular) film aroun d the cement particles w hich prevent the entry of atmospheric
moisture. The film breaks down when the concrete is mixed, and the normal hydration takes place.
When concrete is being prepared, hydrop hobic ad mixtures plasticize the mix an d contribute
to the formation of u niformly distributed fine pores in concrete as it hardens an d thus enhance
its frost resistance. Hyd rophobic cement also features greater water resistance an d water
im permeability.
The specific surface of hydrophobic cement should not be less than 350 m 2 / kg. The average
com pressive strength should not be less than
72 ± 1 hour 15.69 N / m m 2
168 ± 2 hours 21.57 N / m m 2
672 ± 4 hours 30.40 N / m m 2
The weak points of hydrop hobic cement are its small strength gain d uring the initial period
because of the hyd rophobic films on cement grains w hich prevent the interaction with water,
but its 28-day strength is equal to that of ordinary Portlan d cement.
It is most suitable for basements and for making water tight concrete.
It is man ufactured by adding strearates of Ca an d Al and gypsu m
treated with tannic acid, etc. at the time of grin ding.
It is resistant to penetration of water.
Water retaining structures like tanks, reservoirs, retaining walls, swim ming pools,
bridge piers, etc.

Portlan d cement is kept in sacks of 0.035 m 3 (50 kg) capacity for local use. These are stored for
short period of time in air tight room avoiding moisture an d dam pness, at some distance from
walls and at some height from floors. The stack should be covered with suitable coverings to
avoid circulation of air through the stack and not more than ten bags should be stacked one over
another.
 1. (a) What are the ingredients of Portlan d cement? State the function an d limits of each of
them.
(b) What tests would you specify to ensure if the cement su p plied at the site is of good
quality?
2. Describe with flow diagrams the dry and wet process of manufacture of cement.
3. (a) Describe the setting an d hardening of cement.
(b) Describe how the com pou nds of clinker affect the properties of cement.
4. (a) When will you recom men d high alumina cement in preference to low heat cement?
(b) Describe the properties of blast furnace slag cement and sulphate resisting cement.
5. What is rapid hardening cement? What is responsible for its high early strength? How does
it differ from ordinary Portlan d cement?
6. (a) What are the initial and final setting times of cement? What is their im portance?
(b) What do you mean by normal consistency? What is its significance? How is it tested?
7. (a) What is the effect of grinding on cement? Describe the method of determining fineness
by air permeability method?
(b) How is the specific gravity of cement determined?
8. (a) What precautions should be taken w hile storing cement?
(b) What is the p urpose of ad ding gypsu m w hile manufacturing cement?
9. (a) Differentiate between rapid hardening and slow setting cements.
(b) What is the effect of mixing lime in cement?
(c) Explain how cement gains strength.
10. Write short notes on
(a) Hydration of cement (b) Clinkering
(c) Grin ding of cement (d) Use of gypsu m in cement
11. Write short notes on
(a) Com pressive strength test of cement
(b) Sou n dness test of cement
(c) Split-cylinder test of cement
12. State the con ditions under which you will recom mend the following cements. Give also the
reasons.
(a) Puzzolana cement (b) Low heat Portlan d cement
(c) High alu mina cement (d) Rapid hardening cement
(e) Quick setting cement
13. How is the cement classified? Describe the wet process of manufacturing cement.

1. Pick out the incorrect statement

(a) Cement is adhesive as well as cohesive material
(b) Portlan d cement is of hydraulic type
(c) For civil engineering works generally calcareous cements are used
(d) Portlan d cement is an exam ple of natural cement
2. Match List-I with List-II an d select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists:
List-I List-II
(Oxide of cement) (Function)
A. CaO 1. deficiency, causes slow setting
B. SiO 2 2. deficiency, red uces setting time
C. Al2 O 3 3. excess, causes cracks
4. excess, lowers the strenghth
Codes:
(a) A B C (b) A B C
2 1 4 1 2 4
(c) A B C (d) A B C
2 3 1 2 1 3
3. The tem perature range in a cement kiln is
(a) 500 to 1000° C (b) 1000 to 1200° C (c) 1300 to l500°C (d) 1600 to 2000°C
4. Consider the following statements:
When cement is tested for setting time; on gauging its shows quick setting. This
phenomenon known as “Flash set” of cement is d ue to the presence of high
1. tricalciu m Alu minate (C3 A) in cement
2. alkalis in cement
3. tricalcium silicate (C3S) in cement
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 an d 3 (b) 2 an d 3 (c) l and 2 (d) l and 3
5. Pick out the incorrect statement.
(a) For hyd raulic structures, a cement with small percentage of C3S an d more C2S is
recom men ded.
(b) Setting an d hardening of cement stop as soon as the concrete becomes dry.
(c) The prod uct C-S-H gel is know n as tobermorite gel.
(d) The stiffening of cement without strength development is caused because of C4 AF
6. The rate of heat evolution of the following four com pou n ds in decen ding order is
1. C3S 2. C2S 3. C 3A 4. C 4AF
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 3, 1 ,4, 2 (c) 3, 4, 1, 2 (d) 3, 4, 2, 1
7. The rate of heat of hydration of the four Bogue com poun ds in decen ding order is
(a) C3S, C2S, C3 A, C4 AF (b) C3S, C3 A, C2S, C4 AF
(c) C4 AF, C3 A, C2S, C3S (d) C4 AF, C3S, C3 A, C2S
8. The bound water (by weight) % required for com plete hydration of cement is about
(a) 15 (b) 23 (c) 38 (d) 40
9. Which of the following pairs is not matched correctly?
(Cement test) (Apparatus)
(a) Fineness Nurse and Blains
(b) Consistency Vicat
(c) Soun d ness Le-Chatelier
(d) Sp. gravity Lea an d N urse
10. Ordinary Portland cement should have surface area not less than (in m m 2 / g x 102)
(a) 2250 (b) 3000 (c) 3250 (d) 4000
11. To prod uce low heat cements, it is necessary to red uct the com pou n d
(a) C3S (b) C2S (c) C3 A (d) C4 AF
12. For com plete hydration of cement the w / c ratio needed is
(a) less than 0.25
(b) more than 0.25 but less than 0.35
(c) more than 0.35 but less than 0.45
(b) more than 0.45 but less than 0.60
13. High alu mina cement is prod uced by fusing together a mixture of
(a) limestone an d bauxite
(b) limestone, bauxite and gypsu m
(c) limestone, gypsu m and clay
(d) limestone, gypsu m, bauxite, clay and chalk
14. Consider the following statements:
High early strength of cement is obtained as a result of
1. fine grin ding
2. decreasing the lime content
3. burning at higher tem peratures
4. increasing the quantity of gypsum
Of these statements
(a) 1 an d 2 are correct (b) 1 and 3 are correct
(c) 2, 3 an d 4 are correct (d) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
15. Four main oxides present in ordinary Portlan d cement are: CaO, A12 O3 , SiO 2 and Fe2 O 3.
Identify the correct ascending order of their proportions in a typical com position of OPC
(a) Al2 O 3, Fe2 O3, CaO, SiO 2 (b) A12O 3, CaO, Fe2 O 3, SiO 2
(c) Fe2 O3, Al2 O3, SiO 2, CaO (d) Fe2 O3, SiO 2, Al2 O3, CaO
16. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists:
List-I List-II
(Type of cement) (Characteristics)
A. Air entraining Portlan d cement 1. Suitable for very large structures
B. Low heat Portlan d cement 2. Unsuitable for very large masses of
concrete
C. Hydrop hobic Portlan d cement 3. Greater resistance to frost attack
D. Rapid hardening Portland cement 4. Safe storage un der u nfavourable
con ditions of hu midity
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
4 2 1 3 3 4 1 2
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
3 1 4 2 4 1 2 3
17. Match List-I (Type of cement) with List-II (Chracteristics) an d select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Type of cement) (Characteristics)
A. Ordinary Portlan d cement 1. The percentage of C3S is a maxim u m
an d is of the order of 50%
B. Rapid hardening cement 2. The percentage of C2S and C3S are
the same and of the order of 40%
C. Low heat cement 3. Reacts with silica d uring burning an d
causes particles to unite together and
develop ment of strength
D. Sulphate resistant cement 4. Preserves the form of brick at high
tem perature and prevents shrinkage
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
2 4 1 3 3 1 4 2
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
2 1 4 3 3 4 1 2
18. Consider the following oxides:
1. Al2 O3 2. CaO 3. SiO 2
The correct sequence in increasing order of their percentage in an ordinary Portland
cement is
(a) 2, 1, 3 (b) 1, 3, 2 (c) 3, 1, 2 (d) 1, 2, 3
19. Consider the following statements:
High Alu mina Cement
1. has highly early com pressive strength and high heat of hydration than OPC 43 grade
2. is not suitable to be used in cold regions
Which of these statements is / are correct?
(a) 1 alone (b) 2 alone
(c) both 1 an d 2 (d) neither 1 nor 2
20. Match List-1 (Type of cement) with List-II (Property / characteristics) an d select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Type of cement) (Property/characteristics)
A. High strength Portlan d cement 1. Should not be used with any ad mixture
B. Su per sulphated cement 2. Is extremely resistant to chemical attack
C. High alu mina cement 3. Gives a higher rate of heat development
d uring hydration of cement
D. Rapid hardening Portlan d cement 4. Has a higher content of tricalcium silicate
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
3 2 1 4 4 1 2 3
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
3 1 2 4 4 2 1 3
21. If p is the standard consistency of cement, the amount of water used in con d ucting the
initial setting time test on cement is
(a) 0.65 p (b) 0.85 p (c) 0.6 p (d) 0.8 p
22. Increase in fineness of cement
(a) red uces the rate of strength develop ment an d leads to higher shrinkage.
(b) increases the rate of strength develop ment an d red uces the rate of deterioration.
(c) decreases the rate of strength develop ment and increases the rate of diterioration.
(d) increases the rate of strength develop ment an d leads to higher shrinkage.
23. Consider the following statements:
1. Tests on cement paste to determine initial and final setting times are done at normal
consistency con dition.
2. Low heat cement has a high percentage of tri-calciu m alu minate.
3. High early strength Portlan d cement contains a large percentage of tricalciu m
silicate an d lower percentage of dicalciu m silicate.
w hich of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 an d 2 (b) 1 an d 3 (c) 2 an d 3 (d) l, 2 an d 3
24. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given bellow the lists:
List-I List-II
(Laboratory tests) (Property)
A. Vicat ap paratus 1. Soun dness of cement
B. Le-Chatelier ap paratus 2. Initial setting time of cement
C. Slu m p test 3. Workability of cement concrete
D. Fineness mod ulus 4. Relative size of aggregates
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
1 2 3 4 1 4 3 2
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
3 4 2 1 2 1 3 4
25. Match List-I (Property of cement) with List-II (Testing ap paratus) an d select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Property of Cement) (Apparatus)
A. Specific gravity 1. Blain’s ap pratus
B. Setting time 2. Le-Chatelier’s flask
C. Soun d ness 3. Com pressometer
D. Fineness 4. Autoclave
5. Vicat’s ap paratus
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
3 5 1 2 2 5 1 4
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
2 5 4 1 5 3 4 1
26. Before testing setting time of cement one should test cement for
(a) sou nd ness (b) strength (c) fineness (d) consistency
27. Which one of the following statement regarding the cement fineness is NOT correct?
(a) Fine cement is more liable to suffer from shrinkage craking than a coarse cement.
(b) Fine cement will show faster rate of hardening than coarse cement.
(c) Fine cement shows faster rate of heat evolution and total quantity of heat evolved is
m uch larger than coarse cement.
(d) Fine cement shows the same setting time as coarse cement.
28. For marine works, the best suited cement is
(a) low heat Portland cement (b) rapid hardening cement
(c) ordinary Portlan d cement (d) blast furnace slag cement
29. Match List-I with List-II an d select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Apparatus) (Property)
A. Vicat’s needless 1. Setting time
B. Michaeli’s com pou n d lever 2. Specific surface
C. Le-Chatelier ’s ap paratus 3. Tensile strength
D. Turbidimeter 4. Sou nd ness
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
1 2 3 4 1 3 4 2
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
2 4 3 1 3 4 1 2
30. Match List-I with List-II an d select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists:
List-I List-II
(Type of cement) (Uses)
A. Rapid hardening 1. Refractory concrete in in d ustries
B. Quick setting 2. Dams
C. High Alumina 3. Concrete u nder water
D. Low heat 4. Concrete for cold weather
5. Repair of bridges
Codes:
(a) A B C D (b) A B C D
1 3 5 4 5 3 1 2
(c) A B C D (d) A B C D
5 1 3 2 3 2 5 4

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b)

7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (c)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b)
19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (d)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (b)