gosonics INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTIC: Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 4.1 Brief History the word "ROBOT" came into English language in 1923 from the translation of a play -possum’s Universal Robot", originally a Czechoslovakian play written by Karel Capek in yg2l. It is derived from the Czech word "robota” meaning “slave labourer” or “forced labourer’. In the play robots are designed to replace human workers and are depicted as very efficient workers indistinguishable from humans except for their lack of emotions. In the play, the robots rebel against their human masters and destroy the entire human race, except one man, so that he can continue making robots. 1.2 Three Laws of Robotics (w-11) On the contrary, to avoid dangers of mechanization, a science fiction writer Issac Asimov" used word “robotics” to describe “study of robots" (in fact, robot ethics) in his story *Runaround!” in 1942 and gave three laws of robotics, as below. 1, Arobot may not injure a human being or allow a human to be harmed through in action. 2. A robot must obey orders given by humans, except when those conflicts with the First law. 3. Arobot must protect its own existence unless that conflicts with the first or Second law. Although the words “robot” and "robotics" came into existence after 1920s the actual robot- like machine were invented, built and used quite before. The documented evidence of use of human-sized mechanical dolls for playing music is found in mid of 18" century. 13 Definition and Basic Concepts The robot in modern science is an automatic, servo-controlled, freely programmable, multi- Purpose manipulator, with several areas, for handling of work pieces, tools or special devices y on of Issac Asimov's short stories wntten in 1950 Chp 1] 11 ove “I Robot” is pictursed usingINTRODUCTION 70 ROBO. ROBOTICS R 1 f Hand, t f T Human : feature ; Feature ‘ ine! similarity i 1.1: Similarity in Robot and Human i 1 Robot is a machine that looks and works like a human being. The industrial robots of today can replace human beings as regards to physical work and decision-making to some extent , All the research is directed to provide more and more anthropomorphic and human like features and super-human capabilities. | An industrial robot, also called as robotic manipulator or robotic arm is a general purpose , “computer-controlled manipulator, which consists of several rigid links connected in series by ; revolute or prismatic joints, one end of the kinematic chain is attached to a supporting base, | while the other end is free and equipped with an end-effector, which may be a tool or | gripper. The motion of the joint results in relative motion of the links. The links correspond to such features of the human anatomy as the chest, upper arm, and forearm, while the , joints correspond to the shoulder, elbow and wrist. | There are numerous applications of robots, some of which are listed below, I 1. They are commonly employed in hostile environment. e.g, in an atomic plant for | handling radioactive materials : They are being employed to construc ‘t and repair space stations and satellites. Ng a patient,poBorics. = INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 1.4 Robots and Robotic Mechanisms according to a very generalised definition, the Webster dictionary “robot is a mechanism that can move automatically”. Or its detailed definition is “an automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans”, in other words “machine in the form of human", if we strictly follow these definitions then today's robots cannot be called as robots at all, because they are not fully automatic or autonomous in the sense of making decisions. further, there will not be any such robot into existence, if every robot manufacturer strictly adheres to the laws of robotics (i.e. robot ethics), written by Issac Asimov in his sciencefiction story “Runaround”. 44.1 What is a Robot? Later, in this chapter we will see definition of an industrial robot which includes reprogrammable, multi-functional manipulators designed to move materials parts, tools for performance of a variety of tasks. Thus, all industrial robots now fall under the category as “what is a robot?”. 14.2 What is not a Robot? on Nevertheless, there are many mechanisms, in industry or otherwise, required to complete specified tasks but they fall under category “What is not a robot?" These mechanisms although look like industrial robots are neither automatic in any sense nor reprogrammable, but are designed to perform various tasks under a continuous human control. These robots like devices may be classified in four groups as under: - 1. Prosthesis: This is an artificial device used to replace a missing or removed part of human body, like arm, leg. These parts are not simply designed for appearance as part of human body, but for performing the tasks that would have been otherwise performed by the original part. 2. Telecheric: This is a device that allows the robot operator to control the robot like mechanism situated at a distance. The word comes from the telerobotics technology. An example of telecheric May be a wearable dataglove with force sensors attached to it, which the operator can wear on his hand. The movements and forces exerted by the operator's fingers are sensed by the sensors and fed to the mechanism which may be located remotely, to grip or release an object, This may find applications in the hazardous areas where human cannot enter, such as handling of explosive chemicals, automatic fuel. Chp 1] 13INTRODUCTION TO RoBgy, ROBOTICS Mes e relationship between automation, programmable automatig, Fig. 1.2 shows th fe and product variety e and flexible automation as a function of production volum« cost-effective robots. ® Fixed automation (hard automation) © Fiexible automation © Programable automation (soft automation) 15000 | High é & 2000 & Medium § 3 600: 8 & 400. Low 25 10 | - 2 9 15 30 50 100 800 10004000 Low Medium High Product variety Fig. 1.2: Industrial Automation and Robotics Relative cost effectiveness of Programmable/Soft automation: Fixed/Hard automation Unit cost Manual labour Programable/soft automation Cost effective robots v7 Production volume —_, Fig. 1.3: Relative Cost-effectiveness of Soft Automation Chp 1] 18») 1.6 Need for Industrial Robots _ ee INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS For very low production volumes, such as those occurring in small batch processing, manual labour is most cost effective. As the production volume increases, there comes a more cost-effective than manual labour, As the production volume increases still further, where hard automation surpasses both manu: effectiveness, The curves as shown in Fi with the exact data de; produced As the robots become more sophisticated and less expensive, the range of production volume (V,, Vy), over which they are cost-effective continues to expand at both ends of the production spectrum. point Vy where robots become it eventually reaches a point Vy al labour and robots in cost- iJ. 13 are representative of general qualitative trends, Pendent upon the characteristics of the unit being Robots are superior in many aspects as compared to human being. The features which can be taken for comparative study are as below: 1 won Robots are capable of delivering a job of consistent quality, with reduction in rejection. They can increase productivity, safety and efficiency of process. They can work in hazardous environments without the need for life support, comfort or concern about safety, They do not need environmental comfort e.g, lighting, and noise protection. They work continuously without experiencing fatigue or boredom, have hangovers and do not demand for any incentives, They have repeatable precision at all times unless somethi them, They give better control over wastage. Robots, their accessories and sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans. They can process multiple tasks simultaneously which is not possible for human, Due to their high load lifting capacity, they are suitable where heavy material handling is required, air-conditioning, ventilation and do not ng wrong happens to Disadvantages: 1 Robots replace human workers, creating individuals economic problems, such as lost salaries, and social problems. Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies. Hence, safety measures are needed to ensure that they do not injure operators and other machines working with them. Chp 1] 19w ROBOTICS INTRODUCTION TO agg, - ~Y 3. Robots have limited capabilities in: (i) The degrees of freedom (ii) Sensing (v) Real-time response. 4, Robots are costly due to: (i) Higher initial cost of equipments. (ii) Need for peripherals. (iv) Need for training, (v) Need for programming. (i) Dexterity (iv) Visioning (ii) Higher installation costs. \“17 Robot Generations In early 1960s, the growth rate in the capabilities of robots has been taking rapid str, since the introduction of robots in the industry. The growth of robots can be grouped ‘robot generations’ based on characteristic break throughs in robots capabilities. » Japanese Government is known to be working on the fifth generation of electry computers, in which thousands of microcomputers will work in parallel. Most of the , companies are also working on the fifth generation computers. Once, such comp, designs come in reality will lead to more-intelligent robots, the fifth generation robots. The five generations of robot controllers are described as follows: | Fifth generation 5: — Fourth generation 4 Third generation Generations Second generation First generation 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Year ——+ Development WZZ1 continues Usage Fig. 1.4: Development of Robot Generations Chp 2ROBOTICS INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS 4, First Generation: The first generation robots are repeating robots, non-servo, pick and_place_or_point-to- point, with mechanical sequences defining stop points. These robots were pneumatically owered. To reprogram the robot, a new precision CAM was installed. At this stage about 90% of early robots belong to this category. It is general prediction that these will continue to be in use for a long time. 2. Second Generation: The second generation starts with the addition of sensing devices and enabling the robot to. alter its movements in response to sensory feedback. Hardwired controllers provided the first programmable units. In ‘pick and place’ robots signals were derived from limit switches, proximity switches are similar devices. These controllers were also applicable to servo control. These robots exhibit path-control capabilities. 3. Third Generation: Development of robots having human-like intelligence marked the beginning of third generation. The growth in computers led to high-speed processing of information and thus, robots acquired artificial intelligence, self-learning. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC), introduced into the industry, provided a microprocessor-based robotic controller that is easy to reprogram. The controller primarily serves to direct the sequence of robot motions, stop points, gripper actions and velocity. 4. Fourth Generation: For the control beyond a PLC a microcomputer may control the entire system, including other programmable machinery in a robot ‘workcell. Whereas, PLCs are limited in their programming, minicomputer may use a special robot programming language or standard language for more advanced off-line programming or CAD/CAM and CIM interface, Minicomputer-type robots based on artificial intelligence became commercially available at the end of 1980. These controllers now allow integration with vision or tactile sensors. 5. Fifth Generation: Prediction about its features is difficult, though not impossible. It may be a true android or an artificial biological robot or a super humanoid capable of producing its own clones. Robot controllers will involve complete ‘Artificial Intelligence’ (Al), miniaturized sensors, and decision-making capabilities. An artificial biological robot might provide the impetus for sixth and higher generation robots. Apictorial visualization of these overlapping generations of robots is given in Fig. 1.4 eae tesees assSandgT TTENTEOTEEEEEEE Robot workcell: The robot alongwith associated workcells. There are three basic workcell layouts ~ 1 -Robot-centered workcell 2 In-line robot cel ——3_ Mobile robot cell equipments like conveyors, production machines, fixtures and tools; is called as Chp 1] 111Roots. 1.8 Robot Anatomy Robot anatomy is the study of skeleton of robot i manipulator structure where the mechanical structure 0! human body. _ INTRODUCTION 10 Pope e. the physical construction of y, a robot is like the skeleton in 4, on of body, arm and wrist of 1, Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical constructi h is fastened to the floor. In fe, machine. Most of the robots are mounted on a base whicl cases, base is attached to mobile platform and so the robot is called as mobile robot. Th body is attached to the base, and the arm assembly is attached to the body. Wrist attached at the end of the arm. The wrist consists of many components that allow it to b oriented in a variety of positions, Relative movements between the various components ¢ the body, arm and wrist are provided by a series of either sliding or rotating joints. Thy body, arm and wrist assembly is also called as manipulator. A detachable attachmer connected to the wrist is called as end effector, which may be a tool or gripper, ¢ mentioned earlier. It is important to remember that, end effector is not considered to be part of robot anatomy. Fig. 1.5 explains robot anatomy. Arm End effector (gripper) ——— 2 Wrist + —Bods TT av «Base TITTTTTTTTTTTT TTT Fig. 1.5: Robot Anatomy Robot is designed to reach a work piece within its work volume. Work volume is the te” that refers to the space within which the robot can manipulate its wrist end. It is also cal as work space. The surface of work space is termed as work envelop Robot anatomy can be explained with the following points: (a) Links. (b) Joints. Chp 11.12INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS ones roc osoT (@ Robot motion and physical configuration. () Arm configuration and related work volume. (ji) Wrist configuration and related work volume. six-degrees of freedom. (i) DoFs associated with arm and body motion. (ii) DoFs associated with the robot wrist. (e) Joint notation scheme. () End effector. a (a) Links: The mechanical structure of a robotic manipulator is a mechanism, whose members are rigid links. And the link that can be connected, at most, with two other links is referred to as a binary link. Fig. 1.6 shows two rigid binary links with holes at their ends to join to other links Fig. 1.6: Rigid Binary Links (b) Joints: (s-11) * Two links are connected together by a joint by using pin, if two links are joined by inserting pin through two joints, an open kinematic chain is formed and the corresponding joint formed is called pin joint or revolute or rotary joint. Fig. 1.7: An Open Kinematic Chain formed by joining Two Links Unks i “S are represented by Straight lines and rotary joint by a small circle. IANS and rotary joint by a small circ Chp 1] 113 aINTRODUCTION TO Ro} Roporics ~ ~ ~ ABT Different types of joint can be made between two links. However, only two basic types ay ROE commonly used in industrial robots. These are: () Linear or Prismatic Joint (L or P). (1) Rotating joint. (i) Type-R joint (R for rotational) or Rotary joint. (i) Type-T joint (T for twisting). (iii) Type-V joint (V for revolving) or Revolute. (2) Linear or Prismatic Joint (L or P): These joints involve a sliding or translational motion of connecting links. This type of motig, can be achieved in a number of ways. e.g. Screw and nut, rack and pinion, a piston and cylinder, telescopic mechanism. Output link = La l y y+ [bor] _— _ Input link Fig. 1.8: Linear or Prismatic joint °) Thus, from above Fig. 18, itis clear that prismatic joint allows a pure translation of one lin relative to the connecting link. (1) Rotating Joint: A rotating joint allows a pure rotation of one link relative to the connecting link. There are three types of rotating joint as: (i) Type-R or Rotary joint: In this type of joint, the axis of rotation is perpendicuy to the axes of the two connecting links. It is designated as Type-R joint where R fol) rotational motion. It is shown in Fig. 1.9. he mi pa on ==}. _A on Input link r Output link Fig. 1.9: Type-R or Rotary Joint Chp 1] 114ones: a . INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS (ii) Type-T joint or Twist joint: In this type of joint, there is twisting motion between the input and output links, The axis of rotation of the twisting joint is parallel to the axes of both inks. Rather, they coincide with each other. It is designated as Type-T joint where T for twisting motion. £ 3 —_-—_ (71 Input link Output link Fig. 1.10: Type-T Joint (ii) Type-V joint or Revolving joint: In this type of joint, the input link is parallel to the axis of rotation and the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The output link revolves about input link. It is designated as a type V joint where V for revolving. Output link — 0) _ 4 tv] Input link Fig. 1.11: Type-V Joint or Revolving Joint (©) Robot motion: Industrial robots are designed to perform specific task. The work is accomplished by enabling the robot to move its body, arm and wrist through a series of motions and positions. End effector, attached to the wrist, is used by the robot to perform a specific work task. The robot's movements can be divided into two general categories: (i) Arm and body motions. (ii) Wrist motions. ; (i) Arm and body motions and the configuration: The arm mechanics with three degrees of freedom depends on the type of three joints employed and their arrangement. The purpose of the arm is to position the wrist in the 3D space. config According to joint movements and arrangements of links, five distinguished structural jurations are possible for the arm which are: Cartesian (rectangular) configuration. Cylindrical (post-type) configuration. Spherical (polar) configuration. Jointed arm or revolute (articulated) configuration. Lo Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA). Chp 1/115—Workspace /—Work envelope Fig. 1.12 or envelope is cuboid as the arm is capable of operating in a cuboid space (Rectangula - This is simplest with all three linear or prismatic joints. ~ __ Itis constructed by three perpendicular slides to construct the x, y and z axes. Also called as xyz - robot or rectilinear robot or gantry-robot. ~ _ Itgives large work volume but has low dexterity. - eg. 18M RS-1 (Model 7565), + Cylindrical (Post-type): Workspace Fig. 1.13 By rotating the column, the robot is capable of achieving a cylindrical work envelop. - It uses two perpendicular prismatic joints and a revolute joint. - It uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up and down along th column. - The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can be moved radially with respe to the column. - €.g. versatran 600 robot. - It offers good mechanical stiffness and the wrist Positioning accuracy decreases: the horizontal stroke increases, Chp 1] 116INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS «Spherical (Polar): Workspace RRP configuration gives the capability of Moving the arm end-point within a Partial spherical shell as work envelop. - The construction is slight complex. - It consists of a telescopic link (prismatic joint) that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal revolute joint. These two links are mounted on a rotating base. This arrangement of joints is known as RRP configuration. ~ __ This configuration allows manipulation of objects on the floor. ~ Its mechanical stiffness is lower than Cartesian and cylindrical configuration and the wrist positioning accuracy decreases with the increasing radial stroke. ~ These are employed for industrial applications as machining, spray painting, e.g. Unimate 2000 series, maker 110 (usa robots). + Joint arm or Revolute (Articulated): — Fig. 1.15 Chp 1] 1.17INTRODUCTION TO Fogo, RC Ukosomics _ = therefore termeg _ oa human arm, ‘ The work volume is spherical shaper to thot of the ni Its _configuratiot < anthropomorphic eae am and UP It consists of two straight fo - two rotary lc components are connected by several addition, ee eee the end of the fore arm, thus providing " - Awrist is attached to the ts, a oo, PUMA, Cincinnati Milacron of Unimation Inc. RA): Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCAI er arm, mounted on the very. p , joints corresponding to y, Workspace Fig. 1.16 The work envelope is cylindrical and much larger than all other configurations. ~ It is a special version of the jointed arm robot, whose shoulder and elbow joints rotate about vertical axes, ~ It can also be derived from the cylindrical configurations, his configuration provides high stiffness to the arm in the vertical direction, and 1 high compliance in the horizontal plane. Thus, SCARA is ee Suitable for most of the combination of characteristics of articulated and (ii) Wrist motions and the configuration: 'Y and position the wrist which ji Manipulator that is attached to t Ch isthe second part of he end point Of the arm, lovements enable Kk properly, Chp 1} iis The wrist subassembly m th effector to perform the tas * ™Anipulator to orient the end —gos01ics_ DDUCTION TO ROBOTICS + _ For arbitrary orientation in 3D space, the wrist must possess atleast 3 DoF to give three rotations about the three principal axes. (i) Wrist roll .e. motion in a plane perpendicular to the end of the arm. (ii) Wrist pitch ie. motion in a vertical plane passing through the arm. (iii) Wrist yaw ie. motion in a horizontal plane that also passes through the arm. + This type of unit is called roll-pitch-yaw or RPY wrist. » oA wrist with the highest dexterity is one where three rotary joint axes intersect at a point. (d) Degrees of Freedom (DoF): Face plate to attach end effector 3 DoF associated with the robot 3 DoFs associated arm with the robot wrist Fig. 1.17: Six degrees of freedom associated with arm body and robot wrist + The number of independent movements that an object can perform in a 3D space is termed as the number of degrees of freedom (DoF). Thus, a rigid body free in space has six degrees of freedom - three for position and three for orientation. + Six degrees of freedom can be categorised into: (i) 3 DoFs associated with arm and body of the robot. (ii) 3 DoFs associated with the robot wrist. Chp 1/119Le 7 INTRODUCTION TO REO», ROBOTICS — (i) 3 DoFs associated with arm and body of the robot: / sow The arm and body joints are designed to enable the robot to move ween ae to. desired position within the limits of the robots size and joint a we fer se { polar, cylindrical or jointed arm configuration, the 3 DoF associated wi og motions are: eh d Vertical traverse: It is the movement of the arm in oa ens lownwa, ; : itude. direction about the horizontal axis to provide the desired vertical a (2) Radial traverse: It is the extension or retraction (in or out movement) of the ar from the vertical centre of the robot. Thus, it enables robot to move its arm , radial direction. (3) Rotational traverse: It is the rotation of the arm about the vertical axis. 1.18: Three DoF of Body and Arm (ii) 3 DoF associated with the robot wrist: The wrist movement is designed to enable the robot to orient the end e: respect to the task to be performed. To achieve the specific orie normally provided with upto three degrees of freedom ( configuration). ffector properly wit ntation in space, the wrist the following is a typics 1. Wrist roll: It is the rotation of the wrist mechanism about the known as wrist swivel, 2. Wrist pitch: It is the up and down rotation of the bend. arm axis. It is als wrist. It is also known as wis Wrist yaw: It is the right or left rotation of the wristINTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS Joint Notation Scheme: e + The physical configuration of the robot manipulator can be described by means of a joint notation scheme. + — Considering the arm and body joints first, the letters can be used to designate the particular robot configuration starting with the joint closest to the base and proceeding to the joint that connects to the wrist. + Thus, 2 jointed arm robot (excluding the wrist assembly) would have three rotational joints and would be designed as either TRR or VVR. Notations for the four basic configurations are given in Table 1.1. + The rotation scheme can be expanded to include wrist motions by designating the two or three (or move) types of wrist joints. o Wri t joints are predominantly rotating joints of type R and T. Hence, a typical wrist mechanism with three rotational joints would be indicated by TRR. This rotation is simply added to the rotation for the arm and the body configuration. eg. A polar co-ordinate robot with a three-axis wrist might be designated as TRL TRT. + L-TRL TRT: Means TRL TRT robot fastened to a platform on wheels that can be driven along a track between several machine tools, where motion of robot is linear. Table 1.1: Notation scheme for robot configuration Robot Configuration Symbol L__ Armand body motion: (2) Polar configuration TRL (b) Cylindrical configuration TUL LTL LVL (©) Cartesian configuration uu (@) Jointed arm configuration TRR, WR IL Wrist motion: (2) Two-axis wrist RT (b)_Three-axis wrist TRT (f) End Effector: The term end-effector is used to describe the hand or tool that is attached to the wrist. The end effector represents the special tooling that permits the general purpose robot to perform 3 particular application. This special tooling must usually be designed specifically or the application. Chp 1121Us INTRODUCTION TO Rog ROBOTICS End effectors can be categorised into: (i) Grippers (ii) Tools ae ji lly the work + Grippers are end effectors, utilized to grasp an object, usually the Part, a, hold it during the robot work cycle. / + There are a variety of holding methods, ie. the use of suction cups, Magne, hooks and scoops. , + The proper shape and size of the gripper and the method of holding ., determined by the object to be grasped and the task to be performed. * The applications include material handling, machine loading, unloadin, palletizing, and other similar operations. (ii) Tools: * A tool would be used as an end effector in applications where the robot required to perform some operation on the work part. The tool is usually direct attached to the end of the wrist. + These applications include splot welding, arc welding, spray painting, and drilling, + In each case, particular tool is attached to the robot's wrist to accomplish th: application. 1.9 Classification of Robots (5-11 It is very difficult to classify robots, because of the variety of their sizes, technology involved applications. Still they may be broadly classified by: 1. Basic configuration. 2. Drive systems. 3. Control systems 1.9.1 Classification based on their basic configuration includes + Cartesian configuration * Cylindrical configuration + Spherical configuration * Jointed arm configuration = After deciding the required number of de configuration of joints must be chosen to get th ~ For serial kinematic linkages, the number of DoF. ~ __Pesign of most of the manipulator is such that the last (n ~ 3) joints orient the ent effector and have axes that intersect at is the wrist point, a ints position this wrist point, tea grees of freedom, a particule’ ‘ose freedoms, joints equals the required number 0 Chp 1] 1.22ROBOTICS _ s INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS This type of manipulator could be said to be composed to a positioning structure followed by an orienting structure or wrist. These manipulators always possess closed form kinematic solutions. Almost every industrial manipulator belongs to this wrist partitioned class of mechanisms. Also the positioning structure is designed to be kinematically simple, with link twists equal to 0° or 90°, and many of the link lengths and/or offsets equal to zero. Therefore, manipulators of the wrist partitioned, kinematically simple class can be classified according to the design of their first three joints (ie. the Positioning structure). (i) Cartesian manipulator (ii) SCARA manipulator () Cylindrical configuration (ii) Articulated manipulator (iv) Spherical configuration (vi) Wrist configuration 1.9.1 (i) Cartesian Manipulator {tis most straight-forward configuration with prismatic joints. Fig. 120 shows joints 1 through 3 - (prismatic joints). They are mutually AA oA orthogonal, and correspond to x, y and z cartesian directions. Rectangular work space 4,] Side view Fig. 1.20: Cartesian manipulator This configuration provides a rectangular work envelope. The three major axes of the manipulator are tectilinear_and provide the movements along these axes. No rotational movement is available. The inverse kinematic solution for this confi Produces robots with very stiff structures. These robot are of two categories: (a) Gantry robots : It is the class of gantry cranes wherein the arm is suspended from a gantry moving with a rectangular frame and (b) The sideways mounted arm. guration is trivial. This configuration Chp 1} 1.23PODUCTION To ROBOTICS it ¥ = Advantages : The first three joints are decoupled, that make ther simpler to design. The size of the robots support structure lirnits the size and placement of fis, and sensors, This can a too difficult ~ These are also applicable for a operations, 0 make retrofitting cartesian robots into e7isting worke,, nbly, palletizing and machine tool load), 1.9.1 (ii) Articulated Manipulator = Itis also called as jointed, elbow or anthropomorphic manipulator. These types of manipulator consist of two shoulder joints, one for rotation abo, a vertical axis and one for elevation out 6f the horizontal plane, an elbow join axis of which is usually parallel to the shoulder elevation joint, and two or thre wrist joints at the end of the manipulator. Side view \ Plan Hollow sphencal work space Fig. 1.21: Articulated configuration - Articulated robots provide an ability to reach its manipulator into confined spact easily. They require much less overall structure than cartesian robots, making ther less expensive for applications needing smaller workspaces 1.9.1 (iii) SCARA Manipulator ~ __ Itis selectively complaint assembly robot (SCARA) configuration It is shown in Fig. 1.22, where it has three parallel revolute joints allow it to move and orient in a plane, and a fourth prismatic joint for moving the end-effecto” normal to the plane. Chp 141.24 _IITODUCTION TO POBOTICS Side view Fig, 1.22: SCARA configuration - Advantage : The first three joints do not have to support any of the weight of the manipulator or the load, Also base link can easily house the actuators for the first two joints. The actuators can be made very large, so that robot can move very fast. eg. Adept-l SCARA - moves 10 times faster than most articulated industrial robots. This configuration is best suitable for planar tasks. 1.9.1 (iv) Spherical Configuration = Itis almost similar to articulated configuration, but the elbow joint is replaced by a prismatic joint, Fig. 1.23 shows spherical configuration. Fig. 1.23: Spherical configuration Chp 1] 1.25It gives partial sphere as a work envelope. This configuration is better suited t some applications than the configuration. i is and move - It has rotation about horizontal as well as vertical axis Ment Of arn, a its axis is in linear manner. i: ions. ~ eg. these are used for spot welding, palletizing operatio 1.9.1 (v) Cylindrical Configuration t for translating the arm vertically, a revolute j. ~ It consists of a prismatic join' matic joint orthogonal to the revolute Joint , with a vertical axis, another prist followed by a wrist of some type. ral pillar that can rotate about its axis on the base; — This robot possesses a cen is the only rotational movement available along with two linear movements, = It gives cylindrical work envelope. Fig. 1.24 shows cylindrical configuration. ll > envelope Cylindrical Fig. 1.24: Cylindrical configuration — eg, it is suitable for loading and unloadi i Is palletizing, ling operation on machine to Chp 1] 1.26‘ROBOTICS INTRODUCTION 10 ROBOTICS 1.9.1 (vi) Wrist Configuration - The wrist configuration consists of either two or three revolute joints with orthogonal, intersecting axes. Fig. 125 shows an orthogonal configuration wrist driven by actuators via three concentric shafts. Any orientation can be achieved with this configuration. A three orthogonal axis wrist can be located at the end of the manipulator in any desired orientation. It consists of several sets of bevel gears to drive the mechanism from remotely located actuators. Us 1. A WIT. = yy — Gt | Ra 1 [ce as] TO = Fig. 1.25: An orthogonal axis wrist - Most of the wrist employs three intersecting but non-orthogonal axes. Here, all three joints of the wrist can rotate continuously without limits. The non-orthogonality of the axes creates a set of orientations which are impossible to reach with this wrist. It is described by a cone which the third axis of the wrist cannot lie. It is shown in Fig. 1.26. Fig. 1.26: Wrist with non-orthogonal axes - Some industrial robots have wrists which do not have intersecting axes. It shows that a closed form kinematic solution may not exist. hp 1] 1.27ROBOTICS rticulated manipulator such that the joint 4 a, articul t The wrist is mounted on an nin Fig, 1.27. ow! parallel to the joint 2 and joint 3 axes. It isassh There will be a closed form kinematic sol a ez A non-intersecting axis wrist mounted of form solvable manipulator. Cartesian robot also yields a g 1.27: Non-intersecting axes manipulator wrist 1.9.2 Classification based on their drive system includes 1.9.3 Classification based on their ¢ Hydraulic drive Pneumatic drive Electric drive Ontrol system includes Limited sequence robots Playback robots Intelligent robots Limited sequence robots: These robots do not use Servo control to indicat! Inst relative positions of joint. lead i : they use limit switches, it F 0 establish end points of travel of each joint NC meshes ss Chp 1) 1.28—_ RoBotics ATWO AIC HONIG BE + Playback robots: These robots are trained by programe tay attual wall throat 4 After completion of training, the robot is run for it’s use It is commanded by the method, wherein relative positions af each joint are recorded and merint recorded data of positions of each joint It is just like recoding @ song of speech using tape recorder and play it back using # 4 the player Playback robots are further classified as (a) Point-to-Point (PTP) (b) Continuow rath (CH) Point-to-point robots are those which are applications normally used for piden place Continuous path robots are those which are generally used for welding, spray painting applications. + Intelligent robots: These robots not only have playback capacity but also decision-making capacity to some extent. They have controlling unit cor sisting of digital computer or programmable controller, Unlike playback robots, they store multiple paths in the training mode, And in operationferecution, after interacting with environment take decision to select the path which is already stored and also most appropriate. Here it must be made clear that, they do not generate their paths at their own. Hf they can do 40, they would be robots from fifth generation. Modern Industrial Robots For a non-engineering person, the popular concept of a robot is that it looks and acts like a human being. This humanoid concept has been inspired and encouraged by a number of sciencefiction stories. The modern industrial robot, as it first appeared, bore little nario too, most of resemblance to the sciencefiction inspired vision of a robot. In today's sce the industrial robots simulate only human hand. Research is still going on for wheeled mobile robots, legged robots and humanoids. Although a robotic systern is usually tailor- made for specified operations, there are some standard industrial robots in market like PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly), Unimate 2000, SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm), Stanford, Cincinatti Milacron T3 Robot (The Tomorrow's Tool), Yasukawa Motoman L-3. chp 1[ 129INTRODUCTION TO I eee mance A erties. °: 1.10 Robot Perfo measured by its Dynamic Pro. n be ° ae ve the positioning capability, of thie used to define the Por end of its wrist ya ir are nd ori ‘ Following dynamic properties sition al i manipulators ie. the capacity of a robot to P : accuracy and repeatability. (i) Stability / (i) Resolution — (@) Control resolution : (b) Spatial resolution é (ii) Accuracy - (@) Global accuracy ; (b) Local accuracy idirecti bil (iv) Repeatability- (a) Unidirectional repeatability (b)_ Bidirectional repeatability () Compliance. (i) Stability: ‘ool ir i Oo! i.e. eng It is associated with the oscillations which occur in the motion of the robot eng effector. Less the number of oscillations in the system, more stable the operation of the robot Following are some of the effects of oscillations: * Additional wear is imposed on the robot systems as mechanical, hydraulic anc other parts of the robot arm. * The tool will follow different paths in s same movement, thus, requiring more and surrounding objects. pace during successive Tepetitions of the distance between the intended trajectory The time required for the tool to sto} The tool may overshoot the Collision with some object in the P at a precise position wi intended stoppin system. ll be increased 9 position, Possibly causing ¢ These oscillations May be damped or undamped, Damped oscillations will degrade and cease with i Persist or may grow in magnitude and are ae time_while they may cause to the surroun 95 OF equipm, ie ousib ent chp a] : undamped Oscillations ma) ‘CAUSE Of the Potential damagéROBOTICS INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS Variations in inertial and gravitational loads on the individual joint servos results in oscillations during the operation of the robot. Sometimes, when the load accidentially slips out of the end effector. This causes a step change in the gravity loading on one or more joints and can cause oscillations. Motion of a joint can also exert various combinations of inertial, centrifugal, and coriolis forces on the other joint. The reactions of the other joints to these forces can exert force on the original joint, and this is another potential source of oscillation. Finally, the gain of a controller also determines very important characteristics ie. the type of damping or instability that the system displays in response to a disturbance. Four general conditions are shown in Fig. 1.28. As the gain of the controller is increased, the response changes in the following order a [Overdamped response b [Critically damped response ) c [Underdamped response | d [Slightly underdamped response! Altitude Altitude Time ———> (b) Altitude Altitude Time ——> Time ——> (c) (a) Fig. 1.28: Dynamic behaviours Chp 1] 131INE RODHC HON TO ROKGp, vse nor the overdamped satistes: the Objective | 1 futher critically damped oF stighy Here. neither the underdamped tes Thus the aptimunr fesperse bs minimizing etrot underdamp oscillations Two wavs are suagested to eliminate: “ “ me serve designs like onunuously 60 8 sporate (By using joint servos which open aay eee NC machines. oscillations are ehmmnated: by avoiding P Motig, regardless of the load carried ) By having the robot controller lock each joint independently the first time i) BY having the robot controle , Joint The joint in this type fof robot may lock inany order reaches its set p (Sy ach positions close enough duriy robot can make which affects t, as cartesian co-ordinates. The, (ii) Resolution: t defines the ability of the It » manipulator to be able to te, tial training or it defines the smallest move that the i ability of the manipulator to move in Non-joint spaces suc h are two kinds of resolution, (a) Control resolution. (b) Spatial resolution. (a) Control resolution: Control resolution is defined as the smallest incremental. chane that the control system can distinguish, It is a function of the design of a robot contr system and specifies the smallest increment of motion by which the system can divide; working space Robot end of Distribution of wrist shown mechanical inaccuracies cone as point | Addressible point A,B.C,D —* Addrossible points TP - Target point CR - Control resolution SR - Spatial resolution A- Accuracy = AL = LB A.L.N,O — Target points Fig. 1.29: Two kinds of resolution Chp 14132poBorics, INTRODUCTION TO Fig. 1.29 shows a series of equally spaced points representing where our mechanism may be commanded to go the distance between these points is the control resolution. The control resolution can be computed by dividing the total distance that can be travelled by the total numbeF of discrete positions that the mechanism can resolve Thus, the control résolution is determined by the robot's position control system and its feedback measurement system. It is the controller's ability to divide the total range of movement for the particular joint into individual increments that can be addressed in the controller. The increments are sometimes referred to as ‘addressable points’, The ability to divide the joint range into increments depends on the bit storage capacity in the control memory. Number of increments = 2" where, n = the number of bits in the control memory. (b) Spatial resolution: The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its work volume. Spatial resolution is the control resolution combined with mechanical inaccuracy, as shown in Fig. 1.29. In order to determine the spatial resolution, the range of each joint on the manipulator is divided by the number of control increments. Spatial resolution depends on following factors: (i) The systems control resolution and (ii) The robot's mechanical inaccuracies. Mechanical inaccuracies come from elastic deflection in the structural members, gear back-lash, stretching of pulley cords, leakage of hydraulic fluids, and other imperfections in the mechanical system. Thus, the mechanical inaccuracies of the system become the dominant component in the spatial resolution conversely, the spatial resolution of the robot is the control resolution degraded by these mechanical inaccuracies. (iii) Accuracy: (S-11) It is a measure of ability of robot to position and orient its wrist end at a desired target point within the work volume. In other words, accuracy of a robot is the difference between where its control point goes and where it is instructed or programmed to go. Thus, the accuracy of a robot can be defined in terms of spatial resolution because the ability to achieve a given target point depends on how closely the robot can define the control increments of reach of its joint motions. Chp 1] 133INTRODUCTION TO ROR A Accuracy ‘RO AP - Addressable Point TP - Target Point CR - Control Resolution SR - Spatial Resolution MI - Mechanical Inaccuracy ACR- Accuracy in Relation tg Control Resolution. ASR — Accuracy in Relation to Spat Resolution. Fig. 1.30: Accuracy and Resolutions * The mechanical inaccuracies would affect the ability to reach the target position Our definition of accuracy applies to the worst case, where the target point is directly between two control points. + Factors affecting accuracy of a robot: (i) The accuracy varies within the work volume, tending to be worse when the arm is in the outer range of its work volume and better when the arm is closer to its base, because the mechanical inaccuracies are magnified with the robot's arm fully extended. The term ‘error map’ is used to characterize the level of accuracy possessed by the robot as a function of location in the work volume. (ii) By restricting the motion cycle to a limited range, accuracy can be improved. The mechanical errors will tend to be reduced when the robot is exercised through a restricted range of motions. Local accuracy: The robot's ability to reach a Particular reference point within the limited work space is sometimes called its local accuracy. Global accuracy: It is the accuracy assessed within the robot's full work volume. (iii) The load being carried by the mechanical links of t! (iv) Repeatability: * Repeatability is defined ast which it was previous) y the robot. Heavier workloads cause greater deflection of he robot, resulting in lower accuracy. he ability of a robot to reposition itself to a position to 'y Commanded or taught. Repeatability is affected by resolution and component inaccuracy. Chp 1] 1.34 ~ROBOTICS, _ INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS oS TP — Target Point wrotend : PP — — Programmed Point / AE - — Accuracy Error TP RP - _ Return Position = Repeatabil 0 i R epeatabilty RE - — Repeatability Error er 1.31: Errors in accuracy and repeatability The desired target point is represented by ‘TP’. During the teach procedure, the robot is commanded to move to point ‘TP’, but because of the limitations on its accuracy, the programmed position becomes point ‘PP’ The distance between points ‘TP’ and 'PP' is a manifestation of the robot's accuracy in this case. Subsequently, the robot is instructed to return to the programmed point ‘PP’, however, it does not return to the exact same position. Instead, it returns to position 'RP’. The difference between 'PP" and ‘RP’ is a result of limitations on the robot's repeatability. The robot will not always return to the same position R on subsequent repetitions of the motion cycle. Instead, it will form a cluster of points on both sides of the position ‘PP’. Measurement of repeatability of manipulator system: Reference Nominal position Position Fig, 1.32: Measurement of repeatability The manipulator is moved by its control system from a reference position to a specified position, that may be the actual position or the position closer to actual Position. This specified position is the nominal position. The distance of the actual Position of the point of end effector from its nominal position is measured and recorded. This value is denoted by 'S', as shown in Fig. 1.32. The experiment is repeated number of times and the largest value of 5 ie. Smax is called as manufacturer's repeatability and usually given as + Smax- Chp 1] 135ROBOTICS Factors 0) (i) (iii) (wv) The difference between accuracy and llets hit by four different shoot INTRODUCTION TO ROBONC, i iti ipulator: affecting repeatability of a robot manip ; ; ‘Ambient conditions e.g. temperature changes, operating conditions e.g. tr aan ditions between start up and shut down of the system. Rigidity of the structure and ision of the drive The tendency for the preci somewhat from one production model to the next ; ability can be improved, By decreasing the load rating below its true value, repeal y can be well illustrated by Fig. 1.25, where ers on their targets ansien, trains and transmissions to diffe, repeatability shows locations of five bul Fig. 1.33 Naturally, they all were supposed to hit the target at centre. Poor accuracy Good accuracy § good precision good precision 3 & Good accuracy Poor accuracy oor precision c Poor precision Accuracy ———» (v) Compliance: Compliance i Prevents jammin p essential for assembl 9, wedging and gall ly of close-fitti; ing of the . Robot manipulator ee Parts and therefore, itis Compe 'n certain directions beca tance reduces thi -, handling a heavy load “robots Precision of movement Me weight of the load will aren cad. I the robot '€ robot arm to d eflect. If the robot j tis pressin may 9 a tool a Y cause deflection of the aii Work part, the reactive f nipu " 've force of the part degraded b 9 ecause of compli lator. Thi , compliance when iti © robot's perfor is Operated und, mance will be Chp 1] 1.36 ler loaded situationsINTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS High compliance means the wrist is displaced a large arnount by a relatively small force. The manipulator is said to be ‘springy’ or ‘spongy’ for a robot vith fi h compliance, Low compliance means the manipulator is relatively stiff and is ah displaced by a significant amount on application of same magnitude of force. Compliance is a complicated quantity to measure, Rather, one could find the relationship between disturbances and displacements which may be, (i) Linear: Wherein the displacement or rotation is proportional to force or orque. (ii) Isotropic: The displacement in this case is independent of the direction of the applied force (iii), Diagonalised: The displacement or rotation occurs only in the same direction as the force or torque. (iv) Constant with time and (v) Independent of tool position, orientation and velocity. In actual practice, a manipulators compliance is a non-linear, anisotropic tensor quantity which varies with time and with the manipulator's posture and motion. It is a tensor because a force in one direction can result in displacements in other directions and even rotations. A torque can result in rotation about any axis and displacement in any direction. It is also found that: (i) Time can affect compliance through changes in temperature and subsequently viscosity in a hydraulic fluid. (ii) The compliance is a function of the frequency of the applied load or torque. eg. A manipulator may be very compliant at frequencies around 2 Hz but very stiff in response to slower disturbances.INTRODUCTION TO ROBOT, RO ROBOTICS - ot [- EXERCISES 1. What are applications of robots? 2. Write a note on robot-like devices. - ii ‘obotics. 3. Explain the relation between industrial automation and r _ 4. What are industrial applications of robots? ; of robots, in brief. Also state the generation to whig, 5. Explain various generations today’s industrial robots be long. Sketch and explain four types of joints in a robot 6 7. Sketch and explain the motions a 3 DoF wrist can perform. 8. What is shape of work space in each of the following configurations. (i) Post-type, (ii) Polar, (iii) Gantry robot, (iv) Joint arm. 9. Sketch a 2 DoF planar manipulator and 2 DoF non-planar manipulator. 10. What is resolution? Is it related to accuracy? 11. Explain different types of resolutions. 12. Explain difference between accuracy and repeatability. 13. A robot is less accurate but has good repeatability. Another robot is accurate but poo: in repeatability. Which robot will you select for — (i) Spray painting operation, (ii) Spot welding Operation? 14. What are the factors affecting accuracy of a robot? 15. What are the factors affecting repeatability of a robot? 16. What is compliance? Explain. 17. Write a note on play back robots, 18. Discuss broad classification of robots, 19. State and explain robots Performance arameter: i ers, 20. Explain socio- Onomic aspects of robo} ition, Plain socio-e¢; 'C aspects of robotisati eA