MODELLING
A model is an idealization of part of a real world that aids in the analysis of a problem. It
is an aid to visualizing and thinking about the problem. Modeling is the representation of
a system or part of a system in physical or mathematical form that is suitable for
demonstrating the behavior of the system. Models are used for thinking, communicating,
predicting, controlling, and training.
Engineering models can be classified into three categories.
o Computer models:
o Symbolic models: Models based on abstraction, usually mathematics. The wide
use of digital computers in engineering design has greatly enhanced and increased
the use of mathematical modeling.
o Graphic or Analog models: Models that behave like the real thing. Examples are
electric circuits that model mechanical systems.
o Physical or Iconic models: Models that look like the real thing. Examples are
model airplane for a wind-tunnel test.
Symbolic Model
They are abstractions of the important quantifiable components of a physical system. A
mathematical equation expressing the dependence of the system output parameter on the
input parameter is a common symbolic model. Mathematical modeling is described in
detail in the next section. A symbol is a shorthand label for a class of objects, a specific
object, a state of nature, or simply a number. Symbols are useful because they are
convenient, add to simplicity of explanation, and increase the generality of the situation.
The use of a symbolic model to solve a problem calls on our analytical, mathematical,
and logical powers. A symbolic model is also important because it leads to quantitative
results.
Mathematical Modeling
In mathematical modeling the components of a system are represented by idealized
elements that have the essential characteristics of the real components and whose
behavior can be described by mathematical equations. The first step is to devise a
conceptual model that represents the real system to be analyzed. A key issue is the
assumptions, which determine on the one hand the degree of realism of the model and on
the other hand the practicality of the model for achieving a numerical solution. Skill in
modeling comes from the ability to devise simple yet meaningful models and to have
sufficient breadth of knowledge and experience to know when the model may be leading
to unrealistic results.
A generalized picture of a mathematical model for a system or component is shown in
figure 1. The choice of the system that is modeled is an important factor in the success of
the model. Engineering systems are often very complex. Progress is better made by
breaking the system into simpler components and modeling each of them.
Figure 1: Characteristics of the modeling process
In developing a model we walk a fine line between simplification and realism. One way
to achieve simplification is to minimize the number of physical quantities that must be
considered. This is done by neglecting small effects. Thus, it may be assumed that a
structural member is completely rigid when its elastic deformation is considered of little
consequence to the problem.
Another common assumption is that the environment is infinite in extent and therefore
entirely uninfluenced by the system being modeled. In approximate models it is also is
common practice to assume that the physical and mechanical properties are constant that
do not change with time or temperature. Generally, we start with two-dimensional models
because they are more mathematically tractable.
Important simplification results when the distributed properties of physical quantities are
replaced by their lumped equivalents. A system is said to have lumped parameters if it
can be analyzed in terms of the behavior of the endpoints of a finite number of discrete
elements. The mathematical model of lumped-parameter system is expressed by
differential equations, a distributed-parameter system leads to partial differential
equations. Systems that can be represented by linear models are much more easily solved
than those represented by nonlinear models. Thus a common first step is to assume a
linear model.
Once of the chief components of the system have been identified, the next step is to list
the important physical and chemical quantities that describe and determine the behavior
of the system. Next, the various physical quantities are related to one another by the
appropriate physical laws. These are modified in ways appropriate to the model to
transform the input quantities into the desired output. The relation that transforms the
input quantities into output ones is called a transfer function. It may take the form of
algebraic, differential, or integral equations. The solution of these equations, analytically,
numerically, or graphically, is the last step in the modeling process.
Physical or Iconic Model
This model looks like the real thing. Examples are a scale model of an aircraft for wind
tunnel test and an enlarged model of a polymer molecule. Physical models are used
primarily to describe the static characteristics of a system, and they are used to represent
entities rather than phenomena. As geometric representations they may be two-
dimensional {maps, photographs, or engineering drawings} or three-dimensional {wood
and paper model airplane}. 3D models are especially important to communicate a
complex design concept, gage customer reaction to design styling, study the human
engineering aspects of design and check interface between parts of a large system.
Four types of physical models that are used in engineering design are as follows:
Proof of Concept Model is a minimally operative model of the basic principle of the
design concept. It is usually very elementally and assembled from readily available parts
and materials.
Scale Model is dimensionally shrunken or enlarged compared with the physical world. It
is often non-operating model made from wood or plastic, but it is vital for
communicating the concept and for visualizing possible space interferences or conflicts.
Experimental Model is a functioning model embodying the ideas of the design concept. It
is as nearly like the proposed design as possible, but it may be incomplete in appearance.
This model is subjected to extensive testing and modification.
Prototype Model is a full-scale working model of the design. It is technically and visually
complete. The prototype often is handmade, but in other respects is intended to meet the
needs of the user. In other words prototype is the real intended product or system before
its qualification.
Analog Model
Analog Model models are those that behave like real systems. They are often used to
compare something that is unfamiliar with something that is familiar. Unlike the physical
model, an analog model may look nothing like the real system it represents. It must either
obey the same physical principles as the physical system or simulate the behavior of the
system. An example of analog model is piped water system which can be used to
simulate electrical measurements in a circuit. An ordinary graph is also an analog model
because distances represent the magnitudes of the physical quantities plotted on each
axis. Other common classes of analog models are process flow charts.
