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Slide 1 - Introduction
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Module 2 - Unit 1 Lecture 2 This lecture is adapted from Chapter 2 Sociological theory and research.
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Slide 2 - Learning Objectives
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Module 2 focuses on the definition of “theory”, and some of the basic sociological theories that we use to study sport.
After listening to this lecture, and reading the chapter, you should be able to: Define theory and discuss its applicability
to the study of sport and physical activity,
Discuss the major theories used to understand sport and physical activity in society, Identify the different research
methods for examining sport and physical activity in society.
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Slide 3 - Science vs. Sense
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Before we get into “what” theory is, Kerlinger and Lee (2000) discuss five ways in which science and common sense
differ. As social scientists, we should understand the difference. First, scientific theory is systematically building/creating
an explanation for behaviors, through testing and scrutiny.
Lay or common sense theories are usually individual observations, which are not subject to scrutiny, such as the local
sports fan that calls into the sports talk radio show to give their opinion on what they think happened in yesterday’s
game or what led to yesterday’s results.
Second, similarly, scientists test predictions and theories through experimentation or field studies; whereas many
individuals develop “theories”, but they are not tested or empirically observed and scrutinized. Third, scientists try to rule
out variance, or alternative factors and variables that might explain certain behavior. This is done, again, through
scientific design and testing.
Forth, scientists are concerned with understanding and explaining why and how certain factors are related to, and
affected by, each other. Fifth, scientists are primarily concerned with describing and explaining observable factors which
can aid in our understanding of behaviors and phenomenon.
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Notes
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Slide 4 - Theory Definition
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Remember, sociology is the study of social worlds, and the relationships and interactions within AND between them. The
goal/purpose of sociology is to DESCRIBE and EXPLAIN, so that we can hopefully better understand and create a better
future.
As sport sociologists and social scientists, we want to examine and research sport (beyond the scores, statistics, and
highlights and the primary tool that we use to help us describe and explain what we observe is through the use of
“Theory”.
Theory allows us to use scientific inquiry and research to study human phenomenon, and then apply those findings to
real-world problems. From a scientific (and academic) perspective, theory is built, tested, and subjected to scrutiny.
Here are a couple definitions of “Theory”: “a reasonable proposition that can be used to explain and predict behavior”.
(Waltemyer, 2018), “a statement of constructs and their relationships to one another that explain how, when, why, and
under what conditions phenomena take place” (Cunningham, in press).
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Dr. Coakley (2009, p. 26) defines Social theory as “logically interrelated explanations of the actions and relationships of
human beings, and the organization and dynamics of social worlds.” Theories provide frameworks for asking research
questions, interpreting information, and making sense of the meanings and stories associated with various disciplines.
Research and theories go hand in hand because sociologists use research to test the validity (credibility) of theories, and
theories are developed based on research findings. And by using research and theory to study sport we can understand
(1) the social and cultural contexts in which sports exists, (2) understand the connections between those contexts and
sports,
(3) understand the social worlds that people create as they participate in, and watch, sport, (4) understand the
experiences of individuals and groups associated with sports and those social worlds. Thus, theories are just a lens that
we can view society through, which can help us IDENTIFY problems in sport,
ASK questions and GATHER information, and ultimately DEVELOP strategies to help eliminate or fix those problems within
sport.
Now, let’s look at a few of the major sociological theories, and how they can be applied to the study of sport.
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Slide 5 - Functionalist Theory
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As we discussed in the first lecture, social ideologies (how we view the world around us) are often reflected and
represented in a culture and society’s VALUES. For many in American society, our ideologies are centered around values
such as “success”, “competition”, “materialism”, and “valued means to achieve”.
However, there are many different factors (which we will talk about) that can influence our ideologies, and therefore, our
values. Just as there are many different factors which can influence our ideologies, there are varying ways to
scientifically view and examine the relationship between sport and society (aka Theoretical Lenses)
We will touch on some of those major theories in this lecture. The first sociological theory (or lens) I want to discuss is
“Functionalism” or Functionalist Theory. This is one of, if not, the most common sociological theories used to study sport.
Functionalism views society as a large system, made up of smaller, independent parts, which all contribute together for
the good of the larger society. Think about the human body. It is made up of various different parts (or systems), such as
the skeletal, muscular, circulatory, nervous, digestive that all work together so that our bodies can perform.
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Think about a car. The steering wheel, the speedometer, the brakes, the radio, etc. all play a role, or serve a function.
Think about a sports team. It is made up of individuals, who each plays a role so that the team can perform. Same thing
with society. Society is made up of different industries, groups, individuals all working together.
And as we have discussed, one of those elements that is important to society is SPORTS. So, from a Functionalist
perspective, we would study the ROLE, or Function, of sport within society. How does sport add to, or contribute to,
society. What role, or function, does sport play in promoting, or reflecting, societal values?
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Slide 6 - Interactionist Theory
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The next theory, is another commonly used lens to study sport from a sociological perspective, and that is
INTERACTIONISM, Interactionist theory examines how people INTERACT with, and within, their social environments, and
one of those environments is sport.
So, from an Interactionist perspective we would study sport to understand how and why people become involved in sport
(whether as fans or participants)….how people experience sport (again, whether as fans or participants)….and how
people create identities through sport?
How and Why do people become fans of certain sports…and specific teams? Did their mom play a certain sport? Was
their dad a fan of a certain team? Did their siblings or friends play certain sports?
Why do some people use the term “we” when referring to their favorite team, and some refer to the team as “they”?
Two concepts that go along with this are:
BIRG (Basking in Reflective Glory)….and CORF (Cutting-Off Reflected Failure). BIRGing typically occurs when a person is
very strongly attached to their team, and when the team has been successful.
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For example, if I ask a die-hard Dallas Cowboys fan how they did last weekend, a person who is BIRGing would say
something like, “Oh, we won! We played great…we dominated in all areas…etc.” something like that. It’s We, We, We…
like they are a part of the group, or team.
CORFing typically occurs for a person who is not strongly attached, or if there has been a lack of success (i.e. Failure).
For example, similarly, if I ask someone (who is not a Cowboys fan) how they did last weekend, a person who is CORFing
might say something like, “They won”, or if they are a Cowboys fan, and want to truly CORF, they would say, “Oh, they
lost. They did not play well at all, especially the defense”…They, they, they….they view themselves apart from the
group, or team.
We also might look at how people create identities through sport? How, and what, defines someone as an “athlete”? For
example, some people will only identify as a “hockey” player while they are still competitively playing, such as in high
school or college,
but once they are done competitively playing, even if they still play recreationally, they do not “identify” as a hockey
player. Then there are others, like Happy Gilmore, who no matter what, will always identify as a “hockey player”.
Sociologists might look at what causes these identities to be stronger or weaker? If someone asks us to describe
ourselves, why might some people mention their athletic identity first, while other might mention it somewhere else
down the list of identities…or maybe not even at all.
Other ways we might study sport from an Interactionist perspective is how do people give meaning to their experience
and interaction with one another through sport? How do people give meaning to sport related symbols, such as logos
and mascots?
How has the “12th Man” identity become such an important, and valuable, part of being an Aggie? Interactionism is all
about examining how people experience sport, and how and why people interact with, and create identities though,
sport.
And is a great theory to examine all of the traditions associated with Texas A&M University and our athletics!
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Slide 7 - Conflict Theory
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A next common sociological theory that we often use to study sport is CONFLICT theory. Conflict theory focuses on power
and money/resources, and how financial and human resources are used (by those in control of those resources)
to further their control and power within an industry….in our case, sports. There is “competition”, or conflict, over
resources, and how does this conflict play out?
So, from a Conflict theory standpoint, we would look at why are social groups inherently “unequal”….and how
competition over money, and resources, influences decisions that are made, and how organizations (and individuals)
ultimately perform.
The clichés, “the rich just keep getting richer”, and “to make money, you need to spend money” are very much related
to this theory. Think about the Dallas Cowboys and New York Yankees.
they are both very wealthy sport franchises, who seems to just keep getting richer….no matter how they perform. Why
is that? How does sport reflect wealth and power? Think about the big division 1 college sport programs.
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the have’s….and the smaller programs…the have nots. Think about the influence that the NFL has over American
society, vs. the MLS. And vice versa…think about Europe, and the influence that FIFA and soccer have, vs. say sports like
baseball or American football.
Think about college athletics, and the influence that the SEC, BIG 10 have over all of college athletics….vs. the Mountain
West or Southland conference. Conflict theorists focus on examining class relations,
and the social processes that center around who has economic power (aka decision making power), and how is that
decision making power used (they are the ones who decide who gets resources, new facilities, new equipment, additional
staff, etc.)
and who has advantages and disadvantages because of those resources within society.For example, within college
athletics, we might examine how money spent on new/improved/upgraded facilities impacts recruiting,
and how recruiting impact performance…and how performance impacts donor giving. In professional sport, we might
examine differences in resources, and revenues, between the NBA and WNBA,
or U.S. men’s national soccer team vs. the U.S. women’s national soccer team…as relates to pay, travel, amenities, etc.
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Slide 8 - Critical Theories
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Another commonly used sociological theory, to study sports, is CRITICAL theory. Critical theory assumes social order
(relationships, structures….access and opportunities) has been developed
over time, that looks at how the power within those relationships and structures came to be…historically….and can that
power, can those relationships and structures, change/shift/or transfer over time?
Specifically, related to sport…does sport just reproduce historical power struggles, or can sport be used to overcome
some of those barriers and struggles? Two of the most widely used sub-theories within the Critical group, are: Feminist
and Race theories.
Specifically to sport, FEMINIST theory would examine the historical underrepresentation of females and women primarily
participating in sport (why has half of the world’s population, historically, been deprived of opportunity?)
but also been underrepresented as fans and spectators? Why do men’s sports receive the majority of money, financial
resources, first priority for new facilities, broadcast and media coverage?
How has Title IX both helped, but also hurt, females and women in sport? It has definitely helped increase opportunity
for participation, but has it hindered females working in sport as coaches?
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And similarly from a RACE perspective, Critical Race theory would look at the historical underrepresentation of racial
minorities in certain sports (especially Blacks in America), what is the influence or impact of racial integration into sport
(such as Jackie Robinson’s long-term impact on baseball…and other sports)…..and also examine the underrepresentation
of racial minorities in positions of power…such as head coaches, athletic directors, general managers, and ownership.
Can, or has sport, been a vehicle to overcome some of these historical barriers, or is sport just reproducing them? We will
talk more about both of these issues (feminism and sex and sport, and race and sport) individually later in the course.
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Slide 9 - Social Framework
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In addition to the major sociological theories, there are also a few important “social psychological” theories, which are
used within the study of sport from a sociological perspective. The term “social psychology” just refers to the psychology
(”of the mind”…all the mental, cognitive processes which influence us) of human socialization, relationships, and
interaction. How and why do people interact, socialize? What factors affect decisions to interact and socialize?
Within the SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION framework, two important theories are: Social Identity and Self-Categorization
theories.
Social Identity Theory (SIT) is based on Henri Tajfel’s work, and holds that the groups (social worlds) that we belong to
help shape our individual identities, and can be a source of pride and self-esteem.
Self-categorization theory holds that we as individuals categorize ourselves, and others, into groups (or categories) based
on salient (surface-level) characteristics (such as sex, race, nationality) and also less-salient
characteristics (or categories), such as religion or sport fanship. We do this in order to make a big, complex, diverse,
heterogeneous world…simple and easier to comprehend and understand.
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Both of these theories help us to understand where and how people create, develop, and change their identities, or how
they identify themselves. However, when we categorize ourselves and others into groups, especially groups based on
the
more salient characteristics, we often create “in-groups” and “out-groups”, which means those who are like us, or similar
to us, are in the “in-group”, and those who are different are then in the “out-group”, and there are consequences and
outcomes of this process.
In-Group we communicate and interact with each other more, and have more favorable relationships, with those in the
“in-group”…..where as, those in the Out-Group - we communicate and interact with less, and have less favorable
relationships, with those in the “out-group”
This can lead to the creation of biases and stereotyping. We have positive bias (or give favor) towards those who are
similar to us, who are like us……and we have negative bias, or treat less favorably, those who are different from us.
We also, often, stereotype people based on their membership in certain social categories. For example, we often
stereotype people based on their sex, race, nationality, or religion…..and many times these stereotypes are based on
knowledge or interaction with a few
yet we often generalize that stereotype to the larger group/population of similar characteristics. When we stereotype the
whole (the large group/population) based on our interactions with a few, this can often lead to an erosion of relationships
and social worlds within a society.
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Slide 10 - Similarity-Attraction
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Another social psychological theory, which is often used in sociology, is the “Similarity-Attraction Paradigm”. This lens is
really a supplement to the social identity, social and self-categorization theories.
As discussed on the previous slide, we as people often create “in-groups” (with those whom are like us), and “out-
groups” (those who are different). Well, the Similarity-Attraction Paradigm holds that we, as people,
are naturally attracted to (creating a liking towards) those who are similar to us. Make sense…we feel more comfortable
being around others who look similar, act similar, or have similar interests or values.
Perceptions of “likeness” often lead to greater attraction to others who are similar to us….which increases
communication, interaction, and more favorable relationships. This could be the case within any social world.
For example, within a group of friends, or a sports team, a few of the friends or players may have even stronger
relationships than they have with others in the group/team because they perceive that they have more in-common with
each other.
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For example, let’s say you are in a PE class and the teacher makes you a captain for choosing the teams for a game.
According to the Similarity-Attraction Paradigm, you are probably going to pick those who look similar to you before you
pick those who look different from you.
That being said, we often make surface-level judgements about people based on salient, visible characteristics (similar to
self-categorization), such as race and sex, and before we know it, we have “in-groups” and “out-groups”,
and we then do not get to know those whom are different from us. This often happens in school and in the workplace, we
create “clicks”, which again can have positive benefits or outcomes for those who are similar (in-group members),
but negative outcomes for those whom are perceived as different (out-group members). Part of why we use this theory to
study sport from a sociological perspective is because we want to breakdown some of those social psychological barriers
that we as people, and as a society, have created.
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Slide 11 - Ecological Theory
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Social Ecological Theory goes back to one of the concepts we discussed in the previous lecture, in that we as people are
very much influenced and impacted by our environment. Our environment includes everything from
those whom we are close to and interact with on a regular basis (such as family and friends), to those at school and work,
those we play or watch sports with, those we go to church with, those we interact with on the
internet and social media, the actual media, and even the geographical environment in which we live. All of these factors
influence how we create, maintain, and even change our own personal attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and values.
This theory focuses on issues, problems, or things that an individual is struggling with, and looking at the factors that are
influencing that person….and then asking, which factors might be causing this problem or struggle, and how can we
change the environment or situational factors.
For example, a lot of people make the New Year’s resolution to get in shape, or lose weight. If a person joins a gym and
has a physical assessment done, they might find out that lack or exercise is the biggest problem for that
individual, or maybe it is diet…..or both. And then coming up with a plan to help that person to get back on track. We
change the factors in the environment to help the individual. That’s social ecological theory!
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Notes
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Slide 12 - Purpose of Sociology
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There are two primary forms of research methods within sociology….in other words, there are two methodologies used to
study people, and for us, specifically people and sports. Those two forms of research methods are: Quantitative and
Qualitative.
Quantitative research is done when information, or data, is typically gathered about a large number (hundreds or even
thousands) of people through tools such as questionnaires and surveys. Responses to the survey
questions are then coded or converted into numerical data….and then statistically analyzed to examine the relationships
between the variables (information data) that were collected. This methods is used when you
want to gather information from a lot of people, a large (and often diverse) population. For example, if I am researching
physical activity levels (such as fitness or sports participation), I might send out a survey to all
students at Texas A&M, and ask questions about what type of activities do you participate in or what sports do you play,
how often, etc. and then also questions about access to equipment, facilities, etc….and then demographic (self-
categorization) info such as age, race, sex, etc.
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Once I have all the completed surveys, I will then code each of those questions into numerical data, which then can be
statistically analyzed to see what factors (access, age, sex, etc.) may have an effect on physical activity.
Qualitative research is done when information, or data, is typically gathered about a relatively small number of people, or
a specific case (such as a specific event, or organization) through direct observation, personal
interviews, or other case-specific textual analysis….and then that information is converted into categories or themes
which emerge, to help paint a narrative or tell a story about some social phenomenon at that event, or
within that specific organization. For example, I may want to study cohesion with an adult recreational hockey team (just
one team, or maybe two, but it is a relatively small number of individuals from which information is
gathered), so I interview the players, watch a game, and then look for certain themes to emerge about the players and
cohesion within that specific team.
Another research method, which is just what it sounds like, is Mixed-Methods. It is just a combination of Quantitative and
Qualitative methods. Social researchers gather information, or data, using tools from both
quantitative and qualitative methods to address a particular research question or problem. So, the researcher may
watch and observe the recreational hockey team, interview players (those are qualitative tools), but then
also send a survey or questionnaire out to all players in the league, or even in other leagues, in order to get an idea of
cohesion within adult recreational hockey teams on a larger-scale than just the one team he or she observed.
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Slide 13 - Conclusion
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These research methods and theories help us DESCRIBE and EXPLAIN (better understand) the social worlds around us,
and in which we interact, and also the factors that influence those interactions and relationships.
In this module we: Distinguished between scientists/scholars and lay persons. Defined theory and its applicability to
research, teaching, service, and practice. Discussed the various types of theories that have been used in the study of
sport and physical activity.
Compared and contrasted the types of research methods that are employed to study sport and physical activity.
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Slide 14 - Exit
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