Model 1

1. Introduction
Fluid Mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids
or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus, this branch of science deals with the static,
kinematics, and dynamics aspects of fluids.
• The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics
• The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid
kinematics.
• The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are also considered, is called fluid
dynamics.
2. Properties of fluid
a) Density or mass density or specific mass (𝜌): It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
fluid to its volume. The SI unit is 𝑚3 . The value of density of water is 1000 𝑚3 .

b) Specific weight or weight density (𝑤): It is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑×𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
its volume. 𝑤 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = = 𝜌𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

The value of 𝑤 for water = 9.81×1000 𝑁/𝑚3 .

c) Specific volume (∀): It is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass.
1 𝑚3
∀= 𝜌 The SI unit is .
𝑘𝑔

d) Specific gravity (𝑆): It is the ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of a standard
fluid. It is dimensionless quantity.
2.1 Viscosity:

Fig. 1: Velocity variation near a solid boundary

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 Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement
of one layer to another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance 𝑑𝑦
apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say 𝑢 and 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢.
The top layer cases a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while lower layer causes a
shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to 𝑦.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝜏∝ =𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜏
𝜇=
𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦
𝑁−𝑠
The SI unit is or Pa-s
𝑚2
𝑁−𝑠
Note: One poise = 10−1 𝑚2

2.2 Kinematic Viscosity (𝜈): It is the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
𝜇
𝜈 = 𝜌. The SI unit is 𝑚2 /𝑠.

Note: One stoke = 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠.

3. Newtons law of viscosity

It states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear
𝑑𝑢
strain i.e., 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦

Types of fluid:
The fluids classified into the following groups:
1. Ideal fluid 2. Real fluid 3. Newtonian fluid 4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5 Ideal plastic fluid 6. Thixotropic fluid
1. Ideal fluid: A fluid which is incompressible and is having no viscosity and surface
tension. These fluids do not offer any resistance to deformation under the action of
shear stress (𝜏 = 0). These fluids do not exist in nature.
2. Real fluid: A fluid which possesses properties like viscosity, surface tension, and
compressibility etc. and hence during the motion certain amount of resistance is
always offered by these fluids. All fluids in actual practices are real fluids.
3. Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which shear stress on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
i.e., 𝜏 ∝ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦

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 For Newtonian fluid the value of 𝜇 is constant. In fig. 2 for this fluid, the
relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient is straight line.
For example: air, water, kerosene, gasoline, glycerine, etc.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which shear stress on a fluid element layer
is not proportional to the rate of shear strain. In fig. 2 for this fluid, the relationship
between shear stress and velocity gradient is non-linear.
For example: blood, paint, sludge, mud slurry, etc.
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
In this case, 𝜏 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦 )

If the index 𝑛 is greater than 1, then the fluid is called as dilatant. For example:
butter, quicksand etc.
If the index 𝑛 is less than 1, then the fluid is called as pseudoplastic. For
example: milk, paper pulp, etc.
5. Ideal plastic fluid or bingham plastic: A fluid in which shear stress is more than
the yield value and shear stress on a fluid element layer is proportional to the rate
of shear strain (linear relation).
For example: tooth paste, sewage sludge, etc.
𝑑𝑢
In this case, 𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦)

6. Thixotropic fluid: A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and
thereafter the shear stress on a fluid element layer is not proportional to the rate of
shear strain (non-linear relation).
For example: lipstick, printer ink, enamels, etc.
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
In this case, 𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝜇 ( )
𝑑𝑦

Fig. 2: Types of fluid

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4. Bulk modulus and Compressibility:
Bulk modulus of elasticity is the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
1
Compressibility is the reciprocal of Bulk modulus of elasticity (𝐾).

Fig. 3: Cylinder fitted with a piston

In fig. 3 let ∀ is volume of gas enclosed in a cylinder
𝑝 is the pressure of gas in when volume is ∀
Let pressure increased to 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝, the volume of gas decreases from ∀ − 𝑑∀
Then increase in pressure is 𝑑𝑝
Decrease in volume is 𝑑∀
𝑑∀
∴ Volumetric strain = − (here, -ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of
∀

pressure)
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
∴ Bulk modulus, 𝐾 = = 𝑑∀ = − 𝑑∀ ∀
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 −
∀

5. Surface tension:
It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas. It is
denoted as 𝜎. Its unit is SI is 𝑁/𝑚.

Fig. 4: Surface Tension

• Consider three molecules 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 of a liquid in a mass of liquid.

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 • The molecule 𝐴 is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the
liquid. Thus, resulting force acting on the molecule 𝐴 is zero.
• But the molecule 𝐵 which is situated near the free surface is acted upon by upward and
downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus, a net resultant force on molecule 𝐵 is
acting in the downward direction.
• The molecule 𝐶 situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant
downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force.
Thus, the free surface of liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of
the liquid act as though it is an elastic membrane under tension.
5.1 Surface tension or pressure intensity on liquid droplet

Fig. 5: Forces on droplet

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius 𝑟 (fig. 5a). On the entire surface of
the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.
Let 𝜎 = surface tension of the liquid.
𝑝 = pressure intensity inside the droplet
𝑑 = diameter of droplet
Let the droplet cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half will be
(i) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion
(fig. 5b) is = 𝜎 × 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
𝜋
(ii) pressure force on area (fig. 5c) is = 𝑝 × 4 𝑑 2

Under equilibrium conditions

𝜋 2
𝑝× 𝑑 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
4
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 4𝜎
𝑝= 𝜋 =
𝑑 2 𝑑
4

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 This equation shows that with the decrease of diameter of droplet, the pressure intensity inside
the droplet increases.
5.2 Surface tension or pressure intensity on a hollow bubble
A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and
other outside. Thus, two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such cases
(i) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference is = 2 × (𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑)
𝜋
(ii) pressure force on area is = 𝑝 × 4 𝑑 2
𝜋 2
𝑝× 𝑑 = 2 × (𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑)
4
2𝜎𝜋𝑑 8𝜎
𝑝= 𝜋 =
𝑑 2 𝑑
4
5.3 Surface tension or pressure intensity on a liquid jet

Fig. 6: Forces on a liquid jet

Consider a liquid jet of diameter 𝑑 and 𝐿
Let 𝑝 = pressure intensity inside the liquid jet
𝜎 = surface tension of the liquid
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet:
Force due to pressure = 𝑝 × 𝐿𝑑
Force due to surface tension = 𝜎 × 2𝐿
Equating forces, 𝑝 × 𝐿𝑑 = 𝜎 × 2𝐿
𝜎 × 2𝐿 2𝜎
𝑝= =
𝐿𝑑 𝑑
6. Capillarity
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative
to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically.
• The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise
• The fall of liquid surface is known as capillary depression

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 • It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid
• Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and
surface tension of the liquid.
6.1 Expression for capillary rise:

Fig. 7: Capillary rise

• Consider a glass tube of small diameter 𝑑 opened at both ends, and is inserted in a
liquid (water). The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid.
• Let ℎ is height of the liquid in the tube. The surface tension (𝜎) will balance the
weight of liquid of height ℎ.
• Let 𝜃 is the angle of contact between liquid and glass tube.
The weight of liquid of height ℎ in the tube = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝜌𝑔 = (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × ℎ) × 𝜌𝑔
𝜋
= 4 𝑑 2 × ℎ × 𝜌𝑔 …..(1)

Vertical component of the surface tensile force = 𝜎 × 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 …. (2)
Equating Eq. (1) and (2)
𝜋 2
𝑑 × ℎ × 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ= 𝜋 =
2 𝜌𝑔𝑑
4 𝑑 × 𝜌𝑔
Here, the value of 𝜃 = 0, therefore 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
4𝜎
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑

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6.2 Expression for capillary depression:

Fig. 8: Capillary fall

• If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower
than the general level of the outside liquid.
• Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube.
(i) Surface tension acting in the downward direction = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
(ii) Hydrostatic force acting upward = 𝑝 × 4 𝑑 2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑2
4

Equating these two,

𝜋 2
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑
4
4𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑
Value of 𝜃 for mercury and glass tube is 128°.

7. Vapour pressure and Cavitation:

A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization.
➢ The vaporization occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through
the free liquid surface.
➢ The accumulated molecules occur in a closed vessel exert a pressure on a liquid
surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid.
➢ Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this
flowing liquid becomes equal to or to less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization
of liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into
the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure.
The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from

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 the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation.
8. Concept of Continuum
➢ For the analysis of the flow of fluid, it is assumed that the fluid is continuous media.
In other words, we can say that various cavities may present in the fluids are
neglected during the analysis of the flow of fluid.
➢ So, the physical properties of the fluid can be represented by continuous algebraic
functions of time coordinates and space as the physical properties of the fluid are
continuous from point to point.
➢ Continuum can be defined as a continuous and homogeneous medium. The
continuum concept helps to study the overall behaviour and properties of the fluids
without any reference to atomic and molecular structure.
➢ At STP, air, other gases and liquids are to be treated as continuous medium i.e.,
continuum.

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 Pressure and its measurements
1. Fluid pressure at a point:
• Consider a small area 𝑑𝐴 in large mass of static fluid. The force exerted by the
surrounding fluid on the area 𝑑𝐴 is always be perpendicular to the surface i.e., 𝑑𝐹.
𝑑𝐹
Then, the ratio of is known as the intensity of pressure or pressure.
𝑑𝐴

𝑑𝐹
∴ 𝑝=
𝑑𝐴
𝐹
• This force is uniformly distributed over the area, then 𝑝 = 𝐴

∴ Force or pressure force is 𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝐴

SI unit of pressure is 𝑁/𝑚2 .
Note: 1 bar = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 105 𝑁/𝑚2

2. Pascal’s law
• It states that the pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all directions.
This is proved as:
➢ Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest and is of very
small dimensions i.e., 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑑𝑠 (in Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Forces on a fluid element

➢ Let the width of the element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity.
➢ 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , and 𝑝𝑧 are the pressures acting on the face 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴𝐶, 𝐵𝐶 respectively. Let
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝜃. Then the forces acting on the element are
• Pressure forces normal to the surface
• Weight of the element in the vertical direction
The forces on the faces are

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Force on the face 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝑥 × Area of face 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1
Force on the face 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑝𝑦 × Area of face 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1
Force on the face 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑝𝑧 × Area of face 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1
𝐴𝐵×𝐴𝐶
Weight of the element = 𝑚𝑔 = (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝜌) × 𝑔 = ( × 1) × 𝜌𝑔
2
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
= ×1×𝜌×𝑔
2
Resolving the forces in the 𝑥 direction i.e.,
𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − (𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) sin(90° − 𝜃) = 0
𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1cosθ = 0
But, 𝑑𝑠 × cosθ = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 ….(1)
Similarly, resolving the forces in 𝑦 direction, we get
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1 cos(90° − 𝜃) − ×1×𝜌×𝑔 = 0
2
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × sinθ − ×𝜌×𝑔 =0
2
But, 𝑑𝑠 × sinθ = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑑𝑥 and also element is very small and hence wight is negligible.
𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑝𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 ….(2)
From Eq. (1) and (2), we have
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 …(3)
The above equation shows that the pressure at any point 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions is equal.

3. Pressure variation in a fluid at rest or in a static mass of fluid or Hydrostatic Law

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic Law which states
that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the
specific weight of the fluid at that point. This is proved as:
Consider a small fluid element as shown in fig. 10.
Let ∆𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of element
∆𝑍 = Height of fluid element
𝑝 = Pressure on face AB
𝑍 = Distance of fluid element from free surface
The forces acting on the fluid element are:
1. Pressure fore on 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝 × ∆𝐴 and acting perpendicular to face 𝐴𝐵 in the downward
direction.
𝜕𝑝
2. Pressure force on 𝐶𝐷 = (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑍 ∆𝑍) × ∆𝐴, acting perpendicular to face 𝐶𝐷,

vertically upward direction.

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 3. Weight of fluid element = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍)
4. Pressure forces on surfaces 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷 are equal and opposite.
For equilibrium of fluid element, we have
𝜕𝑝
𝑝∆𝐴 − (𝑝 + ∆𝑍) × ∆𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
𝑝∆𝐴 − 𝑝∆𝐴 − ∆𝑍∆𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 × ∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍 = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
− ∆𝑍∆𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 × ∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍 = 0
𝜕𝑍

Fig. 10: Forces on a fluid element

𝜕𝑝
∆𝑍∆𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 × ∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
= 𝜌𝑔 = 𝑤 … ……. (1)
𝜕𝑍
Eq. (1) states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal weight density
of the fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law.
By integrating the above equation (1), ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑍
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑍
Where, 𝑝 is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and 𝑍 is the height of the point from free
𝑝
surfaces. Here, 𝑍 = is called pressure head.
𝜌𝑔

4. Measurement of pressure
The pressure is measured by considering
8.1 Local atmosphere pressure as reference pressure (zero pressure or datum pressure).
8.2 Absolute zero (complete vacuum) as reference pressure (zero pressure or datum
pressure).

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 Fig. 11: Relationship between the pressures
4.1 Atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure on all surfaces with which it is in contact. This
pressure is called as atmospheric pressure. It varies with the altitude and it can be measured
by using a barometer, hence it is also called as barometric pressure. It is important to note
that the length and the cross-sectional area of the tube have no effect on the height of the fluid
column of a barometer.
The fluid used in the barometer is generally mercury. The average height of
mercury column balanced by standard atmosphere (at sea level) is 760 mm of mercury (Hg).
Atmospheric pressure = 760 mm of Hg = 0.76 m of Hg = 10.336 m of water.

4.2 Gauge pressure

When the pressure of a fluid is measured with respect to local atmospheric pressure as reference
or zero pressure it is called as gauge pressure. Practically all pressure gauges read zero when
open to atmosphere and they read only the difference between the pressure of the fluid to which
they are connected and the atmospheric pressure.
If the pressure is above atmospheric pressure, it is called as positive gauge pressure whereas,
if the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure, it is called as vacuum pressure or negative
gauge pressure or suction pressure.
4.3 Absolute pressure
When the pressure of a fluid is measured with respect to absolute zero or complete vacuum, it
is called as absolute pressure.
Therefore, Mathematically, (i) Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
𝑝𝑎𝑏 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
(ii) Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure − Absolute pressure

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Note: (i) Atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15°𝐶 is 101.3 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . (ii) The atmospheric
pressure head is 760 mm of Hg or 10.33 m of water
5. Pressure measuring devices
The various devices used for measuring fluid pressure are divided in the following two
categories: (i) Manometers, (ii) Mechanical gauges
• Manometers are based on the principle of balancing the fluid column by the same or
another column of fluid. They are classified as (a) simple manometers (b) differential
manometers.
• Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used
mechanical gauges are
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge (d) Bellows pressure gauge
5.1 Simple manometers
Simple manometer consists if a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple
manometers are
1) Piezometer
2) U-tube manometer
3) Single column manometer
1) Piezometer: It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge pressures. One
end of this manometer is connected to the point where pressure is to be measured and other end
is open to atmosphere as shown in fig. 12.
The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point 𝐴, the height of liquid say
water is ℎ in piezometer tube, then pressure at 𝐴 is

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Fig. 12: Piezometer

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 2) U-tube manometer: It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to
the atmosphere as shown in fig. 13. The tube is generally contains mercury or any other
liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose
pressure is to be measured.

(a) For Gauge pressure (b) For Vacuum pressure

Fig. 13: U-tube manometer
(a) For Gauge pressure: Let 𝐵 is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose
value is 𝑝. The datum line is 𝐴 − 𝐴.
Let ℎ1 = height of light liquid above the datum line
ℎ2 = height of heavy liquid above the datum line
𝑆1 = specific gravity of light liquid
𝜌1 = density of light liquid = 1000 × 𝑆1
𝑆2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid
𝜌2 = density of heavy liquid = 1000 × 𝑆2
As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal
datum line is 𝐴 − 𝐴 in left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be
same.
Pressure above 𝐴 − 𝐴 in left column = 𝑝 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
Pressure above 𝐴 − 𝐴 in right column = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2
Hence equating the two pressures 𝑝 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1

(b) For vacuum pressure: For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy
liquid in the manometer will be shown in fig. 13 (b). Then,
Pressure above 𝐴 − 𝐴 in left column = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑝
Pressure above 𝐴 − 𝐴 in right column = 0
Hence equating the two pressures 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑝 = 0

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 ∴ 𝑝 = −( 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 )

3) Single column manometer:

Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a reservoir,
having a large cross-sectional area as compared to the area of the tube is connected one of the
limbs of the manometer. Two types of single column manometer are
(a) Vertical single column manometer
(b) Inclined single column manometer
(a) Vertical single column manometer
Let 𝑋 − 𝑋 be the datum line in the reservoir when the pipe is not connected to the manometer.
When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at 𝐴, the heavy liquid in
the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right limb (refer fig. 14).

Fig. 14: Vertical single column manometer

Let ∆ℎ = fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
ℎ2 = rise of heavy liquid in right limb
ℎ1 = height of centre of pipe above 𝑋 − 𝑋
𝑝𝐴 = pressure at 𝐴, which is to be measured
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the reservoir
𝑎 = cross-sectional area of the right limb
𝑆1 = specific gravity of liquid in pipe
𝑆2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb
𝜌1 = density of liquid in pipe
𝜌2 = density of liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb
𝐴 × ∆ℎ = 𝑎 × ℎ2

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 𝑎 × ℎ2
∆ℎ =
𝐴
Now consider the datum line 𝑌 − 𝑌,
Pressure in the right limb above 𝑌 − 𝑌 = 𝜌2 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 )
Pressure in the left limb above 𝑌 − 𝑌 = 𝜌1 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 ) + 𝑝𝐴
Equating these pressure, 𝜌2 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 ) = 𝜌1 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 ) + 𝑝𝐴
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 𝜌1 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 )
𝑝𝐴 = ∆ℎ(𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔) + ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔
𝑎 × ℎ2
𝑝𝐴 = (𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔) + ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔
𝐴
𝑎
As the area 𝐴 is very large as compared to 𝑎, hence ratio becomes very small and can be
𝐴

neglected.
Then, 𝑝𝐴 = ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔

(b) Inclined single column manometer

This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclination the distance moved by the heavy liquid in
the right will be more.
Let 𝐿 = length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from 𝑋 − 𝑋
𝜃 = inclination of right limb with horizontal
ℎ2 = vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from 𝑋 − 𝑋 = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∆ℎ = fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
ℎ1 = height of centre of pipe above 𝑋 − 𝑋
𝑝𝐴 = pressure at 𝐴, which is to be measured
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the reservoir
𝑎 = cross-sectional area of the right limb
𝑆1 = specific gravity of liquid in pipe
𝑆2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb
𝜌1 = density of liquid in pipe
𝜌2 = density of liquid in reservoir

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 Fig. 15 Inclined single column manometer
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb
𝐴 × ∆ℎ = 𝑎 × ℎ2
𝑎 × ℎ2
∆ℎ =
𝐴
Now consider the datum line 𝑌 − 𝑌,
Pressure in the right limb above 𝑌 − 𝑌 = 𝜌2 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 )
Pressure in the left limb above 𝑌 − 𝑌 = 𝜌1 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 ) + 𝑝𝐴
Equating these pressure, 𝜌2 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 ) = 𝜌1 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 ) + 𝑝𝐴
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 𝜌1 𝑔 × (∆ℎ + ℎ1 )
𝑝𝐴 = ∆ℎ(𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔) + ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔
𝑎 × ℎ2
𝑝𝐴 = (𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔) + ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔
𝐴
𝑎
As the area 𝐴 is very large as compared to 𝑎, hence ratio becomes very small and can be
𝐴

neglected.
Then, 𝑝𝐴 = ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔

Here, ℎ2 = 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Then, 𝑝𝐴 = (𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝜌2 𝑔 − ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔

5.2 Differential manometers

Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressures between
two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U-tube,
containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured. Most common types of differential manometers are
a) U-tube differential manometer
b) Inverted differential manometer

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a) U-tube differential manometer

a) Two pipes at different levels b) A and B are at the same level

Fig. 16: U-tube differential manometers

In Fig. 16 (a), the two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are at different level and also contains liquids of different
specific gravity. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the
pressure at 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝑝𝐴 and 𝑝𝐵 .
Let ℎ = difference of mercury level in the U-tube
𝑦 = distance of the centre of B from the mercury level in the right limb
𝑥 = distance of the centre of A from the mercury level in the right limb
𝜌1 = density of the liquid at A
𝜌2 = density of the liquid at B
𝜌𝑔 = density of the heavy liquid or mercury
Taking the datum line at 𝑋 − 𝑋
Pressure above 𝑋 − 𝑋 in the left limb = 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) + 𝑝𝐴
Pressure above 𝑋 − 𝑋 in the right limb = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝐵
Equating the two pressure, will obtain difference of pressure at A and B
𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) + 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝐵
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥)
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = ℎ × 𝑔(𝜌𝑔 − 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥
In Fig. 16 (b), the two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 are at same level and contains the same liquid of
density 𝜌1 . Then
Pressure above 𝑋 − 𝑋 in the left limb = 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) + 𝑝𝐴
Pressure above 𝑋 − 𝑋 in the right limb = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝐵
Equating the two pressure, will obtain difference of pressure at A and B

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 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) + 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝐵
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑥 − 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥)
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = ℎ × 𝑔(𝜌𝑔 − 𝜌1 )
b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer

Fig. 17: Inverted U-tube differential manometer

It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are
connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring
difference of low pressures. Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.

Let ℎ1 = height of liquid in left limb below the datum line 𝑋 − 𝑋

ℎ2 = height of liquid in right limb
ℎ = difference of light liquid
𝜌1 = density of the liquid at A
𝜌2 = density of the liquid at B
𝜌𝑠 = density of the light liquid
Taking 𝑋 − 𝑋 as datum line, then the pressure in the left limb below 𝑋 − 𝑋 = 𝑝𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
Pressure in the right limb below 𝑋 − 𝑋 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑠 𝑔ℎ
Equating the two pressures,
𝑝𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑠 𝑔ℎ
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑠 𝑔ℎ

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 Fluid Statics
Total pressure: It is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface when the fluid
comes in contact with surfaces.
Centre of pressure: It is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the surface.
Here, the submerged surfaces may be 1) Vertical plane surface 2) Horizontal plane surface 3)
Inclined plane surface and 4) Curved surface, on which the total pressure and centre of pressure
is to be determined.

Vertical plane surface submerged/immersed in liquid

Fig. 18: Vertical plane surface immersed in liquid

Consider a plane vertical plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid (fig 18). Let
𝐴 is total area of the surface
ℎ̅ is distance of centre of gravity (𝐺) of the area from free surface of liquid.
𝑃 is centre of pressure
ℎ∗ is distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid.
(a) Total pressure (F): Divide entire surface into a number of small parallel strips. Calculate
force on a small strip, and then 𝐹 is on the whole area is calculated by integrating the force on
small strip.
Consider a strip of thickness 𝑑ℎ and width 𝑏 at a depth of ℎ from free surface of liquid.
The pressure intensity on small strip, 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Area of strip, 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ
Pressure force on strip 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ
∴ Total pressure force on the whole surface, 𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ
But, ∫ ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ = moment of surface area about the free surface of liquid
= area of surface × distance of 𝐺 of the area from free surface of liquid

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 = 𝐴 × ℎ̅
∴ Total pressure force on the whole surface, 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ .. (1)

(b) Centre of pressure (𝒉∗ ): Resultant force F is acting at point P at a distance ℎ∗ . Hence
Moment of the force F about free surface of liquid = 𝐹 × ℎ∗ ….. (2)
Moment of force 𝑑𝐹 acting on a strip about free surface of liquid = 𝑑𝐹 × ℎ
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ × ℎ (∵ 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ)
∴ sum of moments about free surface = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑏 × 𝑑ℎ × ℎ = 𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑏ℎ2 × 𝑑ℎ
But, ∫ 𝑏ℎ2 × 𝑑ℎ = moment of inertia of the surface about free surface of liquid = 𝐼0
∴ sum of moments about free surface = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 ……(3)
Equate eq. (2) and (3), 𝐹 × ℎ∗ = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 , 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅

𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ × ℎ∗ = 𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 (∵ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅ )

𝜌𝑔𝐼𝑜 𝐼𝑜
ℎ∗ = ̅
= ̅
𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ 𝐴ℎ

By Theorem of principle axis, 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴ℎ̅2

𝐼𝐺 +𝐴ℎ̅2 𝐼𝐺
ℎ∗ = ̅
= ̅
+ ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ 𝐴ℎ

Table 1: Geometric properties of some important plane surfaces

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Horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid

Fig. 19: Horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid

Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid. As every point of the surface is
at the same depth from the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the
entire surface.
Let 𝐴 is total of surface
Then, total force on the surface = 𝑝 × 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅

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Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid

Fig. 20: Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid

Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in such way that the plane of
the surface makes an angle 𝜃 with the free surface of the liquid as shown in fig. 20. Let
𝐴 is total area of the inclined surface
ℎ̅ is distance of centre of gravity (𝐺) of inclined area from free surface of liquid
ℎ∗ is distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid
𝜃 is angle made by the plane surface with free liquid surface

Total pressure force (F):

Let the plane of the surface, if produced meet the free liquid surface at 𝑂. Then 𝑂 − 𝑂 is the
axis perpendicular to the plane of the surface. Let
𝑦̅ is distance of centre of gravity of the inclined surface from 𝑂 − 𝑂
𝑦 ∗ is distance of the centre of pressure from 𝑂 − 𝑂

Consider a small strip of area 𝑑𝐴 at a depth ℎ from free surface and at a distance 𝑦 from the
axis from 𝑂 − 𝑂.
Pressure intensity on the strip, 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Pressure force on the strip, 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑𝐴
Total pressure force on whole area, 𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴
ℎ ̅
ℎ ℎ∗
From fig, we write, = = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑦 𝑦̅ 𝑦∗

𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔(𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴

But, ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑦̅

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 ∴ 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦̅ × 𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
Centre of pressure (𝒉∗ )
Pressure force on the strip, 𝑑𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝐴
Moment of the force about axis 𝑂 − 𝑂 = 𝑑𝐹 × 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
Sum of moments of all such forces about 𝑂 − 𝑂 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
But, ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = moment of inertia of the surface about 𝑂 − 𝑂 = 𝐼0
∴ Sum of moments of all forces about 𝑂 − 𝑂 = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼0

Moment of the total force F about 𝑂 − 𝑂 = 𝐹 × 𝑦 ∗

Equate these two conditions, 𝐹 × 𝑦 ∗ = 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼0
𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐼0
𝑦∗ =
𝐹
Put values of 𝑦 ∗ , 𝐹, and 𝐼0
ℎ∗ 𝜌𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= [𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2 ]
sin 𝜃 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ̅
sin2 𝜃
ℎ∗ = [𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2 ]
𝐴ℎ̅
sin2 𝜃 ℎ̅2
ℎ∗ = [𝐼𝐺 + 𝐴 × 2 ]
𝐴ℎ̅ sin 𝜃
𝐼𝐺 sin2 𝜃
ℎ∗ = + ℎ̅
𝐴ℎ̅

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