MODULE -1

1. Write a note on Friction, Wear. (5 MARKS)

1. Friction

 Definition: Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another. It is a force
that opposes the sliding or rolling of two surfaces in contact.
 Types of Friction:
o Static Friction: The frictional force that must be overcome to start moving an object.
o Kinetic (Sliding) Friction: The frictional force opposing the motion of two surfaces sliding
past each other.
o Rolling Friction: The resistance encountered by a rolling object.
 Importance: Friction plays a crucial role in many practical applications, from braking systems in
vehicles to the operation of machinery. However, excessive friction can lead to energy loss and wear.

2. Wear

 Definition: Wear is the gradual removal of material from solid surfaces as a result of mechanical
action, such as friction or contact with other materials.
 Types of Wear:
o Adhesive Wear: Occurs when two surfaces slide over each other, leading to the transfer of
material from one surface to another.
o Abrasive Wear: Happens when a harder surface or particles scrape against a softer surface,
removing material.
o Corrosive Wear: Involves chemical reactions between the surface material and the
environment, leading to material degradation.
o Fatigue Wear: Results from repeated loading and unloading cycles, causing the surface to
crack and material to break off.
 Importance: Understanding wear is essential for improving the durability and reliability of
mechanical components. Minimizing wear can extend the lifespan of parts and reduce maintenance
costs.

2. Write a note on Wear Characterization (5 MARKS)

 Definition: Wear characterization involves the analysis and measurement of wear patterns,
mechanisms, and the rate at which material is removed.
 Methods:
o Microscopy: Optical or electron microscopy is used to examine the surface morphology and
identify wear mechanisms.
o Surface Profilometry: Measures the surface roughness and wear depth to quantify wear.
o Wear Testing: Simulates operating conditions to study wear behavior under controlled
environments.
o Material Analysis: Techniques such as spectroscopy or X-ray diffraction are used to analyze
the composition of worn surfaces.
 Importance: Wear characterization helps in understanding the underlying wear mechanisms, enabling
engineers to design materials and surfaces with better wear resistance. This leads to improvements in
performance, efficiency, and longevity of mechanical systems.

These concepts are fundamental in fields such as mechanical engineering, materials science, and
manufacturing, where the control and reduction of friction and wear are critical for the performance and
reliability of components and systems.
 3. Write a note on Regimes of lubrication. (10 MARKS)

The regimes of lubrication describe the different modes in which a lubricant separates surfaces in relative
motion. These regimes depend on factors such as load, speed, viscosity of the lubricant, and surface
roughness. Understanding these regimes is crucial in designing systems that minimize friction and wear. The
primary regimes of lubrication are:

1. Boundary Lubrication

 Description: Occurs when the lubricant film is thin, and surface asperities (microscopic peaks) of the
contacting surfaces come into direct contact. In this regime, the load is mostly supported by the
asperities, with the lubricant providing only partial separation.
 Characteristics:
o High friction and wear due to direct metal-to-metal contact.
o Lubricants with extreme pressure (EP) additives or anti-wear (AW) additives are often used to
protect the surfaces.
o Common in low-speed or high-load conditions, such as in start-up or shutdown phases of
machinery.
 Applications: Gear systems, engine components during start-up, and situations where complete
separation of surfaces is difficult.

2. Mixed Lubrication

 Description: In mixed lubrication, the lubricant film is thicker than in boundary lubrication, but
surface asperities still make partial contact. Both the lubricant and surface asperities share the load.
 Characteristics:
o Intermediate friction and wear levels.
o The transition regime between boundary and full-film lubrication.
o Occurs at moderate speeds and loads.
 Applications: Bearings, seals, and other components during transitional operation between start-up
and full operation.

3. Hydrodynamic Lubrication

 Description: In this regime, a full lubricant film completely separates the surfaces, preventing direct
contact. The load is entirely supported by the pressure generated within the fluid film due to the
relative motion of the surfaces.
 Characteristics:
o Low friction and wear.
o The lubricant film thickness depends on factors such as viscosity, speed, and load.
o Effective at higher speeds where the motion of the surfaces generates a sufficient fluid film.
 Applications: Journal bearings, thrust bearings, and sliding surfaces in high-speed machinery.

4. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)

 Description: This regime occurs in situations where the contact pressure is so high that it causes
elastic deformation of the surfaces. The lubricant film remains thin, but the high pressure increases the
lubricant's viscosity, enabling it to support the load without breaking down.
 Characteristics:
o Higher pressure compared to hydrodynamic lubrication.
o The elastic deformation of surfaces and increased viscosity help maintain a lubricant film.
o Typically occurs in rolling contacts, such as in gears, rolling element bearings, and cam-
follower systems.
 Applications: Rolling bearings, gear teeth, and other contacts where high pressures and relatively
small contact areas are present.
5. Hydrostatic Lubrication

 Description: In hydrostatic lubrication, an external pump supplies pressurized lubricant to the bearing
surfaces, creating a full fluid film that separates the surfaces even when there is no relative motion.
 Characteristics:
o The film thickness is maintained by external pressure rather than by the motion of the surfaces.
o Very low friction and wear.
o Suitable for high-precision applications or heavy-load conditions where other regimes might
fail.
 Applications: Precision machine tools, large bearings, and systems requiring very low friction and
wear under static or low-speed conditions.

6. Gas Lubrication

 Description: Similar to hydrodynamic and hydrostatic lubrication but uses gas (often air) instead of
liquid as the lubricant. The gas film separates the surfaces, supporting the load.
 Characteristics:
o Extremely low friction and wear.
o Suitable for high-speed, low-load applications.
o Sensitive to contamination and requires very smooth surfaces.
 Applications: High-speed spindles, gyroscopes, and other applications where minimal friction is
critical.

4. Write A Note On Effect Of Temprature On Viscosity (5 MARKS) (16 PAGE)

5. Write A Note On Effect Of Pressure On Viscosity (5 MARKS) (17 PAGE)
6. Explain with required notation Newton's Law of viscous forces Flow through
stationary parallel plates. (10 MARKS)
7. Explain with neat sketch Newton's Law of viscous forces (10 MARKS)
8. Derive Petroff's equation (10 MARKS)
9. A Full journal bearing has the following specification (10 MARKS)
Journal diameter: 46mm
Bearing length:66mm
Radial clearance to radius ratio:0.0015
Speed:2800 r/min
Radial load:820 N
Viscosity of the lubricant at the operating temperature
Considering the bearing as a lightly loaded, determine (a) the friction torque (b) coefficient of friction under
operating conditions (c) power loss in the bearing.
10. Explain other physical properties of mineral oil. (10 MARKS)
 MODULE-2
1. Problem on hydrodynamic (10 MARKS)
Following data are given for a 360o hydrodynamic bearing
Radial load=3.2KN
Journal speed=1490 rpm
Journal diameter=50mm
Bearing length=5mm
Viscosity of the lubricant=25cp

Assuming the total heat generated in the bearing is carried by the total oil flow in the bearing calculator
Power loss in friction
The coefficient of friction
Minimum oil film thickness.
Flow requirementin1/min.
Temperature rise.
2. Discuss Energy Equation And Its Mathematical Notations. (5 MARKS) (27 PAGE)

3. The following data are given for a full hydrodynamic journal bearing. (10 MARKS)
Radial load=25kn
Journal speed=900r/min
Unit bearing pressure=2.5Mpa
(I/D)ratio=1:1
Viscosity of the lubricant =20cp
Class of fit=H7e7
Calculate 1) Dimensions of bearing 2) Minimum film thickness 3) Requirement of oil flow
4. With neat diagram explain idealized slider bearing with a pivoted shoe (32 TB)
(10 MARKS)
5. Design a journal bearing with the following specification (75 TB) (10 MARKS)
Journal dia D=100 mm
Journal speed N=3000 rpm
Radial Load W=15 kN
6. Explain Idealized full journal bearings.(34 PAGE T.B) (15 MARKS)
7. Explain mechanism of pressure development with suitable diagram.(28 TB)
8. Explain any five bearing properties (78 TB)
9. Explain the steps to design journal bearing.(74 PAGE T.B) (10 MARKS)
 MODULE-3

1. Explain with neat diagram hydrostatic bearing (10 marks)

2. Derive hydrodynamic equation (187 TB) (8 marks)

3. Mention equation for thick film in EHL (4 marks) (197 TB)
4. Derive Grubin type solution. (15 MARKS)
5. Different Regimes in EHL contacts.(198 PAGE T.B) (10 marks)
6. Explain dimensionless parameters with suitable graph and notations. (10 marks)
7. Derive elastic deformation (15 marks)
8. Explain EHL Accurate solution using given notations.
9. Derive static radial load distribution of a ball bearing
10. Derive EHL Point Contact Equation.
 Module-4

1. Explain Advantages of Antifriction bearings (5 MARKS)

 Reduced friction and energy consumption:

Antifriction bearings use rolling elements (balls or rollers) to support loads, minimizing sliding contact
and thus reducing friction. This translates to less power required to operate machinery, saving energy
and reducing operating costs.
 Lower maintenance and lubrication:
Unlike sliding bearings that rely on a continuous lubricant film, antifriction bearings can operate for
extended periods without lubrication. This reduces maintenance requirements, leading to fewer
downtime and increased efficiency.
 Higher load and speed capacity:
Antifriction bearings are designed to handle significantly higher loads and speeds compared to sliding
bearings. This makes them suitable for demanding applications where high performance is critical.
 Improved durability and reliability:
The rolling contact mechanism in antifriction bearings distributes loads more evenly and reduces
localized stress. This can lead to longer bearing life and increased reliability.
 Simpler assembly and replacement:
Antifriction bearings are typically easier to assemble and replace compared to sliding bearings, leading
to reduced downtime during maintenance or repair.
 Environmentally friendly:
By reducing the need for lubricants, antifriction bearings can minimize environmental impact by
reducing the risk of lubricant leaks and spills.

2. Explain wear resistance material. (5 Marks)

3. Explain mechanism of Abrasive wear mechanism. (10 Marks)
4. Explain mechanism of Surface fatigue wear mechanism. (5 Marks)
 5. Explain mechanism of Tribochemical wear mechanism. (5 Marks)

6. Explain Types Wear and Wear Resistance Material (10 m)

Types of Wear

1. Abrasive Wear
o Caused by hard particles or rough surfaces sliding against a material.
o Example: Sand particles eroding pump impellers.
o Solutions: Use hard materials like carbides or ceramics.
2. Adhesive Wear
o Occurs when two materials stick together under load and shear off particles.
o Example: Bearing surfaces in contact.
o Solutions: Use materials with low mutual affinity or surface coatings.
3. Erosive Wear
o Caused by fluid or gas-borne particles impacting the material surface.
o Example: Blades in a turbine hit by dust-laden air.
o Solutions: Use hard, tough materials or erosion-resistant coatings.
4. Surface Fatigue
o Repeated contact leads to crack initiation and propagation.
o Example: Rolling contact in gears or bearings.
o Solutions: Use materials with high fatigue strength and resilience.
Types of Wear-Resistant Materials

1. Metals and Alloys

 Tool steels (D2, H13) – Hard, heat-treatable, used in dies and molds.
 Tungsten carbide (WC-Co) – Extremely hard and wear-resistant.
 Chromium-rich alloys – Used in mining equipment.

2. Ceramics

 Alumina (Al₂O₃) – Very hard, chemically stable.

 Silicon carbide (SiC) – High strength, heat and wear resistant.
 Zirconia (ZrO₂) – Excellent impact resistance.

3. Polymers

 UHMWPE (Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene) – Low friction, used in bushings and
medical implants.
 PTFE (Teflon) – Excellent sliding properties and chemical resistance.

4. Surface Coatings & Treatments

 Hard chrome plating – Smooth and wear-resistant.

 Titanium nitride (TiN) – Coating used on cutting tools.
 Laser cladding and thermal spraying – Add a hard surface layer to a softer substrate.

7. With necessary diagram explain delamination theory of wear. (5 Marks)

8. Explain hypothesis of archard.
9. Explain rabinowicz’s quantitative law of abrasive wear.
10. Explain Bayer-ku surface fatigue theory.
 Module-5
1) Write a note on surface contaminations. .(5 m)

2) Derive ploughing effect. .(15 m)

3) Derive frictional heating. .(15 m)
4) Explain effect of sliding speed on friction. .(5 m)
5) Explain laws of friction with necessary notations.(10 m)
 6. Write Advantages of magnetic bearings. (5 M)

Advantages of Magnetic Bearings:

1. Frictionless Operation:
o Magnetic bearings allow for nearly frictionless movement because there is no physical contact
between moving parts. This reduces wear and tear and extends the lifespan of the equipment.
2. No Lubrication Required:
o Since there’s no physical contact, magnetic bearings don’t need lubrication, eliminating
maintenance costs related to lubricants and reducing environmental impact.
3. High Rotational Speeds:
o Magnetic bearings can operate at very high speeds, significantly higher than traditional
mechanical bearings, making them ideal for high-speed applications like turbines and
compressors.
4. Low Maintenance:
o Due to the lack of friction and wear, magnetic bearings require less maintenance compared to
conventional bearings, which need periodic replacement of worn-out parts.
5. Precision Control:
o Magnetic bearings offer precise control over the positioning of the rotor, which can be
advantageous in applications requiring high accuracy, such as aerospace or precision
manufacturing.
6. Reduced Vibration and Noise:
o The absence of mechanical contact reduces vibration and noise levels, making magnetic
bearings suitable for environments sensitive to noise and vibration.
7. High Reliability in Harsh Environments:
 o Magnetic bearings can operate in environments that would degrade or damage traditional
bearings, such as in vacuum, clean rooms, or extreme temperatures.

7. Write disadvantages of magnetic bearings. (5 M)

Disadvantages of Magnetic Bearings:

1. High Initial Cost:

o The upfront cost of magnetic bearings is significantly higher than that of traditional bearings
due to the complexity of the system and the need for specialized equipment.
2. Complex Control System:
o Magnetic bearings require sophisticated electronics and sensors to maintain stable operation,
which adds to the complexity and potential points of failure.
3. Power Consumption:
o Active magnetic bearings (AMB) require a continuous supply of electrical power to maintain
the magnetic fields, which adds to operating costs.
4. Backup Systems Required:
o In case of a power failure, backup systems such as auxiliary bearings are often needed to
prevent damage, adding further complexity and cost.
5. Limited Load Capacity:
o Magnetic bearings may not be suitable for extremely heavy loads, as the force that can be
generated by the magnetic fields may not be sufficient for certain applications.
6. Sensitivity to Magnetic Interference:
o External magnetic fields can interfere with the operation of magnetic bearings, potentially
affecting their performance in certain environments.
7. Size and Weight:
o Magnetic bearing systems can be bulkier and heavier than conventional bearings due to the
need for electromagnets, sensors, and control systems.

8. Explain Sources of surface contaminations. (5m)

Surface Contaminations refer to the presence of unwanted substances or particles on the surface of materials,
components, or devices. These contaminations can originate from various sources, and they often interfere
with the performance, durability, and reliability of the surfaces they affect. Understanding surface
contamination is crucial in industries like manufacturing, electronics, aerospace, medical devices, and
cleanroom operations.

Surface Contaminations:

 Manufacturing Processes: Contaminants can arise from machining, welding, or other manufacturing
steps.
 Handling and Contact: Human touch transfers oils, sweat, and skin particles to surfaces.
 Environmental Exposure: Airborne particles, pollutants, or moisture can settle on exposed surfaces.
 Equipment and Tools: Tools, machines, or packaging materials that aren’t clean can introduce
contaminants during assembly or production.
 Lubricants and Cleaning Agents: Improper cleaning methods or excess lubricants used during
production can leave residues.
9. Explain Types of Surface Contaminations (5 m)

1. Particulate Contaminations:
o Tiny solid particles, such as dust, dirt, fibers, or metal shavings, that settle on surfaces.
o They can be transported by air, equipment, or contact with contaminated objects.
2. Organic Contaminations:
o Contaminants of biological origin or chemical compounds containing carbon, such as oils,
grease, or residues from human skin.
o Sources include human handling, lubricants, cleaning agents, or environmental pollutants.
3. Inorganic Contaminations:
o Non-organic substances like metal oxides, salts, or corrosion by-products.
o These contaminants may come from environmental exposure, manufacturing processes, or
reaction with other chemicals.
4. Chemical Contaminations:
o Includes residues from cleaning agents, adhesives, or processing chemicals.
o These can form thin films on surfaces that interfere with bonding, coatings, or conductivity.
5. Biological Contaminations:
o Microbial growth such as bacteria, mold, or fungi can develop on surfaces, especially in humid
environments or when organic residues are present.

10.Explain laws of friction (249 TB) (10m)