Chapter III

GREEDY METHOD

 Greedy method is the most straightforward designed technique.

 As the name suggest they are short sighted in their approach taking decision on
the basis of the information immediately at the hand without worrying about the
effect these decision may have in the future.
DEFINITION:
 A problem with N inputs will have some constraints .any subsets that satisfy these
constraints are called a feasible solution.
 A feasible solution that either maximize can minimize a given objectives function
is called an optimal solution.
Control algorithm for Greedy Method:
Algorithm Greedy (a,n) //a[1:n] contain the ‘n’ inputs
{
solution =0;//Initialise the solution.
For i=1 to n do {
x=select(a);
if(feasible(solution,x))then
solution=union(solution,x); }
return solution; }
* The function select an input from a[] and removes it. The select input value is assigned to X.
 Feasible is a Boolean value function that determines whether X can be included into
the solution vector.
 The function Union combines X with The solution and updates the objective function.
 The function Greedy describes the essential way that a greedy algorithm will once a
particular problem is chosen ands the function subset, feasible & union are properly
implemented.
Example
 Suppose we have in a country the following coins are available :
Dollars(100 cents)
Quarters(25 cents)
Dimes( 10 cents)
Nickel(5 Cents)
Pennies(1 cent)
 Our aim is paying a given amount to a customer using the smallest possible
number of coins.
 For example if we must pay 276 cents possible solution then,
1 doll+7q+ 1 pen 9 coins
2 doll +3Q +1 pen 6 coins
2 doll+7dim+1 nic +1 pen 11 coins.

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 KNAPSACK PROBLEM

 We are given n objects and knapsack or bag with capacity M object I has a
weight Wi where I varies from 1 to N.
 The problem is we have to fill the bag with the help of N objects and the resulting
profit has to be maximum.
 Formally the problem can be stated as
Maximize xipi subject to XiWi<=M
Where Xi is the fraction of object and it lies between 0 to 1.
 There are so many ways to solve this problem, which will give many feasible
solution for which we have to find the optimal solution.
 But in this algorithm, it will generate only one solution which is going to be
feasible as well as optimal.
 First, we find the profit & weight rates of each and every object and sort it
according to the descending order of the ratios.
 Select an object with highest p/w ratio and check whether its height is lesser than
the capacity of the bag.
 If so place 1 unit of the first object and decrement .the capacity of the bag by the
weight of the object you have placed.
 Repeat the above steps until the capacity of the bag becomes less than the weight
of the object you have selected .in this case place a fraction of the object and
come out of the loop.
 Whenever you selected.

ALGORITHM:

1.Algorityhm Greedy knapsack (m,n)

2//P[1:n] and the w[1:n]contain the profit
3.// & weight res’.of the n object ordered.
4.//such that p[i]/w[i] >=p[i+1]/W[i+1]
5.//n is the Knapsack size and x[1:n] is the solution vertex.
6.{
7.for I=1 to n do a[I]=0.0;
8.U=n;
9.For I=1 to n do
10.{
11.if (w[i]>u)then break;
13.x[i]=1.0;U=U-w[i]
14.}
15.if(i<=n)then x[i]=U/w[i];
16.}

Example:
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Capacity=20
N=3 ,M=20
Wi=18,15,10
Pi=25,24,15
Pi/Wi=25/18=1.36,24/15=1.6,15/10=1.5
Descending Order  Pi/Wi1.6 1.5 1.36
Pi = 24 15 25
Wi = 15 10 18
Xi = 1 5/10 0
PiXi=1*24+0.5*1531.5
The optimal solution is 31.5
X1 X2 X3 WiXi PiXi
½ 1/3 ¼ 16.6 24.25
1 2/5 0 20 18.2
0 2/3 1 20 31
0 1 ½ 20 31.5
Of these feasible solution Solution 4 yield the Max profit .As we shall soon see this
solution is optimal for the given problem instance.
JOB SCHEDULING WITH DEAD LINES

The problem is the number of jobs, their profit and deadlines will be given and we have
to find a sequence of job, which will be completed within its deadlines, and it should
yield a maximum profit.

Points To remember:
 To complete a job, one has to process the job or a action for one unit of time.
 Only one machine is available for processing jobs.
 A feasible solution for this problem is a subset of j of jobs such that each job in
this subject can be completed by this deadline.
 If we select a job at that time ,
Since one job can be processed in a single m/c. The other job has to be in its waiting state
until the job is completed and the machine becomes free.
So the waiting time and the processing time should be less than or equal to the dead line
of the job.

ALGORITHM:
Algorithm JS(d,j,n)
//The job are ordered such that p[1]>p[2]…>p[n]
//j[i] is the ith job in the optimal solution
// Also at terminal d [ J[ i]<=d[ J {i+1],1<i<k
{
d[0]= J[0]=0;
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J[1]=1;
K=1;
For I =1 to n do
{ // consider jobs in non increasing order of P[I];find the position for I and check
feasibility insertion
r=k;
while((d[J[r]]>d[i] )and
(d[J[r]] = r)do r =r-1;
if (d[J[r]]<d[I])and (d[I]>r))then
{
for q=k to (r+1) step –1 do J [q+1]=j[q]
J[r+1]=i;
K=k+1;
}}
return k;}

Example :
1. n=5 (P1,P2,…P5)=(20,15,10,5,1)
(d1,d2….d3)=(2,2,1,3,3)

Feasible solution Processing Sequence Value

(1) (1) 20
(2) (2) 15
(3) (3) 10
(4) (4) 5
(5) (5) 1
(1,2) (2,1) 35
(1,3) (3,1) 30
(1,4) (1,4) 25
(1,5) (1,5) 21
(2,3) (3,2) 25
(2,4) (2,4) 20
(2,5) (2,5) 16
(1,2,3) (3,2,1) 45
(1,2,4) (1,2,4) 40

The Solution 13 is optimal

2. n=4 (P1,P2,…P4)=(100,10,15,27)
(d1,d2….d4)=(2,1,2,1)

Feasible solution Processing Sequence Value

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(1,2) (2,1) 110
(1,3) (1,3) 115
(1,4) (4,1) 127
(2,3) (9,3) 25
(2,4) (4,2) 37
(3,4) (4,3) 42
(1) (1) 100
(2) (2) 10
(3) (3) 15
(4) (4) 27
The solution 3 is optimal.

MINIMUM SPANNING TREE

 Let G(V,E) be an undirected connected graph with vertices ‘v’ and edge ‘E’.
 A sub-graph t=(V,E’) of the G is a Spanning tree of G iff ‘t’ is a tree.3
 The problem is to generate a graph G’= (V,E) where ‘E’ is the subset of E,G’ is a
Minimum spanning tree.
 Each and every edge will contain the given non-negative length .connect all the
nodes with edge present in set E’ and weight has to be minimum.

NOTE:
 We have to visit all the nodes.
 The subset tree (i.e) any connected graph with ‘N’ vertices must have at least N-1
edges and also it does not form a cycle.

Definition:
 A spanning tree of a graph is an undirected tree consisting of only those edge that
are necessary to connect all the vertices in the original graph.
 A Spanning tree has a property that for any pair of vertices there exist only one
path between them and the insertion of an edge to a spanning tree form a unique
cycle.

Application of the spanning tree:

1. Analysis of electrical circuit.
2. Shortest route problems.

Minimum cost spanning tree:

 The cost of a spanning tree is the sum of cost of the edges in that trees.
 There are 2 method to determine a minimum cost spanning tree are

1. Kruskal’s Algorithm
2. Prim’s Algorithm.

KRUSKAL’S ALGORITHM:
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 In kruskal's algorithm the selection function chooses edges in increasing order of
length without worrying too much about their connection to previously chosen edges,
except that never to form a cycle. The result is a forest of trees that grows until all the
trees in a forest (all the components) merge in a single tree.

 In this algorithm, a minimum cost-spanning tree ‘T’ is built edge by edge.

 Edge are considered for inclusion in ‘T’ in increasing order of their cost.

 An edge is included in ‘T’ if it doesn’t form a cycle with edge already in T.

 To find the minimum cost spanning tree the edge are inserted to tree in increasing
order of their cost

Algorithm:

Algorithm kruskal(E,cost,n,t)
//Eset of edges in G has ‘n’ vertices.
//cost[u,v]cost of edge (u,v).tset of edge in minimum cost spanning tree
// the first cost is returned.
{
for i=1 to n do parent[I]=-1;
I=0;mincost=0.0;
While((I<n-1)and (heap not empty)) do
{
j=find(n);
k=find(v);
if(j not equal k) than
{
i=i+1
t[i,1]=u;
t[i,2]=v;
mincost=mincost+cost[u,v];
union(j,k);
}
}
if(i notequal n-1) then write(“No spanning tree”)
else return minimum cost;
}
Analysis
 The time complexity of minimum cost spanning tree algorithm in worst case is
O(|E|log|E|),
where E is the edge set of G.

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 Example: Step by Step operation of Kurskal algorithm.

Step 1. In the graph, the Edge(g, h) is shortest. Either vertex g or vertex h could be
representative. Lets choose vertex g arbitrarily.

Step 2. The edge (c, i) creates the second tree. Choose vertex c as representative for
second tree.

Step 3. Edge (g, g) is the next shortest edge. Add this edge and choose vertex g as
representative.

Step 4. Edge (a, b) creates a third tree.

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Step 5. Add edge (c, f) and merge two trees. Vertex c is chosen as the representative.

Step 6. Edge (g, i) is the next next cheapest, but if we add this edge a cycle would be
created. Vertex c is the representative of both.

Step 7. Instead, add edge (c, d).

Step 8. If we add edge (h, i), edge(h, i) would make a cycle.

Step 9. Instead of adding edge (h, i) add edge (a, h).

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Step 10. Again, if we add edge (b, c), it would create a cycle. Add edge (d, e) instead to
complete the spanning tree. In this spanning tree all trees joined and vertex c is a sole
representative.

PRIM'S ALGORITHM

Start from an arbitrary vertex (root). At each stage, add a new branch (edge) to the
tree already constructed; the algorithm halts when all the vertices in the graph have been
reached.

Algorithm prims(e,cost,n,t)
{
Let (k,l) be an edge of minimum cost in E;
Mincost :=cost[k,l];
T[1,1]:=k; t[1,2]:=l;
For I:=1 to n do
If (cost[i,l]<cost[i,k]) then near[i]:=l;
Else near[i]:=k;
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Near[k]:=near[l]:=0;
For i:=2 to n-1 do
{
Let j be an index such that near[j]≠0 and
Cost[j,near[j]] is minimum;
T[i,1]:=j; t[i,2]:=near[j];
Mincost:=mincost+ Cost[j,near[j]];
Near[j]:=0;
For k:=0 to n do
If near((near[k]≠0) and (Cost[k,near[k]]>cost[k,j])) then
Near[k]:=j;
}
Return mincost;

 The prims algorithm will start with a tree that includes only a minimum cost edge
of G.
 Then, edges are added to the tree one by one. the next edge (i,j) to be added in
such that I is a vertex included in the tree, j is a vertex not yet included, and cost
of (i,j), cost[i,j] is minimum among all the edges.

 The working of prims will be explained by following diagram

Step 1: Step 2:

Step 3: Step 4:

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Step 5: Step 6:

SINGLE SOURCE SHORTEST PATH

Single-source shortest path:

Graphs can be used to represent the highway structure of a state or country with
vertices representing cities and edges representing sections of highway. The edges can
then be assigned weights which may be either the distance between the two cities
connected by the edge or the average time to drive along that section of highway. A
motorist wishing to drive from city A to B would be interested in answers to the
following questions:
1. Is there a path from A to B?
2. If there is more than one path from A to B? Which is the shortest path?

The problems defined by these questions are special case of the path problem we study
in this section. The length of a path is now defined to be the sum of the weights of the
edges on that path. The starting vertex of the path is referred to as the source and the last
vertex the destination. The graphs are digraphs representing streets. Consider a digraph
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G=(V,E), with the distance to be traveled as weights on the edges. The problem is to
determine the shortest path from v0 to all the remaining vertices of G. It is assumed that
all the weights associated with the edges are positive. The shortest path between v0 and
some other node v is an ordering among a subset of the edges. Hence this problem fits the
ordering paradigm.

Example:
Consider the digraph of figure. Let the numbers on the edges be the costs of travelling
along that route. If a person is interested travel from v1 to v2, then he encounters many
paths. Some of them are
1. v1v2 = 50 units
2. v1 v3 v4v2 = 10+15+20=45 units
3. v1v5v4v2 = 45+30+20= 95 units
4. v1v3v4v5v4v2 = 10+15+35+30+20=110 units

The cheapest path among these is the path along v1v3v4v2. The cost of the path is
10+15+20 = 45 units. Even though there are three edges on this path, it is cheaper than
travelling along the path connecting v1 and v2 directly i.e., the path v1v2 that costs 50
units. One can also notice that, it is not possible to travel to v6 from any other node.
To formulate a greedy based algorithm to generate the cheapest paths, we must conceive
a multistage solution to the problem and also of an optimization measure. One possibility
is to build the shortest paths one by one. As an optimization measure we can use the sum
of the lengths of all paths so far generated. For this measure to be minimized, each
individual path must be of minimum length. If we have already constructed i shortest
paths, then using this optimization measure, the next path to be constructed should be the
next shortest minimum length path. The greedy way to generate these paths in non-
decreasing order of path length. First, a shortest path to the nearest vertex is generated.
Then a shortest path to the second nearest vertex is generated, and so on.
A much simpler method would be to solve it using matrix representation. The steps that
should be followed is as follows,

Step 1: find the adjacency matrix for the given graph. The adjacency matrix for fig 7.1 is
given below
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

V1 - 50 10 Inf 45 Inf

V2 Inf - 15 Inf 10 Inf

V3 20 Inf - 15 inf Inf

V4 Inf 20 Inf - 35 Inf

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 V5 Inf Inf Inf 30 - Inf

V6 Inf Inf Inf 3 Inf -

Step 2: consider v1 to be the source and choose the minimum entry in the row v1. In the
above table the minimum in row v1 is 10.
Step 3: find out the column in which the minimum is present, for the above example it is
column v3. Hence, this is the node that has to be next visited.
Step 4: compute a matrix by eliminating v1 and v3 columns. Initially retain only row v1.
The second row is computed by adding 10 to all values of row v3.
The resulting matrix is
V2 V4 V5 V6

V1Vw 50 Inf 45 Inf

V1V3Vw 10+inf 10+15 10+inf 10+inf

Minimum 50 25 45 Inf
Step 5: find the minimum in each column. Now select the minimum from the resulting
row. In the above example the minimum is 25. Repeat step 3 followed by step 4 till all
vertices are covered or single column is left.
The solution for the figure can be continued as follows
V2 V5 V6
V1 Vw 50 45 Inf
V1 V3V4Vw 25+20 25+35 25+inf
Minimum 45 45 inf

V5 V6

V1 Vw 45 Inf

V1V3V4V2Vw 45+10 45+inf

Minimum 45 inf

V6

V1 Vw Inf

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 V1V3V4V2V5Vw 45+inf

Minimum inf

Finally the cheapest path from v1 to all other vertices is given by V1V3V4V2 V5.

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