CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO STS

Science - comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. It is done through
observation of natural phenomena, and/or through experimentation that tries to simulate
natural processes under controlled conditions

Four Major Branches of Science

Formal - Mathematics, Statistics, System Science, Computer Science
Natural – Physical, Physics, Chemistry, Earth, Biological, Biology, Botany
Social – Anthropology, Arts, Education, Cognitive, Business Studies, Economics, Geography,
Linguistics
Applied – Engineering, Agronomy, Health Science, Architecture

- Science is also a system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world
and its phenomena and that entails unbiased observations and systematic
experimentation.
- It is also a human attempt to understand the natural world, with or without
concern for practical uses of that knowledge. In general, a science involves a
pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental
laws.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Five basic steps, plus one feedback step:
1. Make an observation.
2. Ask a question.
3. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
5. Test the prediction.
6. Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions

TECHNOLOGY
Technology comes from the Greek root word techne, meaning art, skill, or cunning of
hand and logos meaning “to speak of ” or word, the utterance by which inward
thought is expressed, a saying or an expression. Technology is a knowledge put into
practical use to solve problems or invent useful tools.
Technology as Product
- Artifacts fabricated by humans to meet specific need like tools, machines and
medicines.
Technology as Knowledge/Method
- A system of implicit and explicit knowledge, techniques and materials utilized in
using, making or repairing a certain kind of artifact
ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
•Alter the way people live, connect, communicate, and transact, with profound effects
on economic development.
SOCIETY
- Society is the sum total of our interactions as humans, including the interactions
that we engage in to figure things out and to make things. These are a group of
individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing
the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political
authority and dominant cultural expectations.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
- Study in science, technology, and society (STS) focus on how society, politics, and
culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these in
turn affect society, politics and culture.

Interactions between Science and Technology

• Science explores for the purpose of knowing, while technology
explores for the purpose of making something useful from that knowledge.
• Science drives technology by making new technology possible through scientific
breakthroughs.
• Without technology, some science experiments would not be possible. Without
science, technology could not proceed.
• The very questions that scientists ask are shaped by the available technology

CHAPTER 2
Historical Antecedents in which Social Considerations Changed the Course of Science
and Technology

Ancient Times
Mesopotamia
- The first recorded civilizations of the world existed in the region of Mesopotamia
around 3300-750 BC. The region now corresponds to most parts of present-day
Iraq, Iran, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey.
- Mesopotamia means “between two rivers,” which signifies its location
within Tigris-Euphrates river system
Mesopotamia
Sumerian Civilization
- Sumer, now modern-day Iraq, is the earliest known civilization
in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians called themselves “the black-headed people’ and their
land as “the land of the black-headed people”.
❑Cuneiform
❑Sumerian number system
❑Sumerian sailboat
❑Sumerian wheel
❑Irrigation and Dikes
❑Plow
❑Lunar Calendar

Sumerian Civilization
Cuneiform
➢ Etymology: Latin word “cuneus” for wedge
➢ Writing system of the Sumerian using word
pictures and triangular symbols by carving on
clay using wedge instruments and then left to
dry.
❖ “Epic of Gilgamesh” was written using
cuneiform script
Sumerian Number System
➢ Used the main base 60 and the auxiliary base 10.

Sumerian Sailboat
➢ Made of planks of wood and sails made of
cloth.
➢ Primarily invented to help people of Sumer to
be able to make trade and travel over distances
more efficient.
Sumerian Wheel
➢ First used for pottery in 3500 BC and later for
transportation in chariots in 3200 BC. Sumerian Civilization 17
❖ Before the wheel, Sumerians had to drag their goods on
flat-bottomed carts called sledges. The sledges often got
stuck in the mud, and couldn’t carry heavy loads of supplies.
So, wheeled carts made transportation much easier
Irrigation and Dikes
- The construction oh high levees or flood banks to collect
floodwaters coming from the Tigris and Euphrates is proof of
ingenuity of Sumerians. During summer when the climate is
dry, they poked holes in the levees to let the water escape,
thus irrigating the land
Plow
➢ Farm technology that enables the farmers to dig
the ground where seeds would be planted
❖ Sumerians specified the prayer that should be
recited to pay homage to Ninkilim, the goddess of
field rodents, in order to protect the grain from being
eaten.
Lunar Calendar
- The Sumerians are also known for being the first
astronomers. They observed the phases of the moon
and the movements of the planets and the stars.
Referring to the phases of the moon, they were able to
develop a lunar calendar that became the basis for
having 12 lunar months in a year
Mesopotamia
Babylonian Civilization
- The ancient city of Babylon served as the center of Mesopotamia civilization for
nearly two millennia. Babylon is known to be derived from bav-il or bav-ilim
meaning “gates of the gods”
❑Hanging Gardens of Babylon ❑Code of Hammurabi
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
➢ King Nebuchadnezzar II built the garden for his wife, Amytis.
❖Robert Koldewey directed the excavation of Babylon in 1899 and his team
discovered a basement with fourteen large rooms with stone arch ceilings of which
was believed to be the Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Code of Hammurabi
➢ Proclaimed by the Babylonian King Hammurabi, who
reigned from 1792 to 1750 BC.
➢ A collection of 282 rules, established standards for the
commercial interactions and set fines and punishments to
meet the requirements of justice.

Ancient Times
Africa
- Science and technology in the African region are diverse as African excel in various
fields such as agriculture, metallurgy, engineering, textile production, and
medicine. However, other African accomplishments are lesser known compared to
 other great buildings and monuments of Egypt. The history of science in Africa,
beyond ancient Egypt, is seldom recognize because of the West’s indisposition to
the African way of acquiring scientific knowledge.
- ❑Pyramids ❑Mummification ❑Papyrus ❑Ink ❑Hieroglyphics
❑Cosmetics and wigs
Egyptian Civilization
Pyramids
➢ Build as tomb of Pharaohs and their Queens.
❖ Pyramid’s smooth, angled sides symbolizes the
rays of the sun and help Pharaoh’s soul ascend to
join their gods, particularly the sun god Ra.
❖ The Great Pyramid of Giza was built for Pharaoh
Khufu.
Mummification
➢ Preservation of body
➢ “Life after life”
➢ Typically involved removing moisture from a
deceased body and using chemicals or natural
preservatives, such as resin, to desiccate the flesh
and organs.
Papyrus
➢ from Cyperus papyrus, paper plant.
➢ Chief writing material in ancient Egypt, was
adopted by the Greeks, and was used extensively in
the Roman Empire.
Ink
➢ Ancient Egyptians began writing with ink—made by
burning wood or oil and mixing the resulting
concoction with water—around 3200 B.C
Hieroglyphics
➢ Holy writing -provided by god
➢ Composed of three basic types of sign:
• logograms—words
• phonograms—sounds
• determinatives—placed at the end of the word
to clarify meaning of the word
Cosmetics and Wigs
❖ Malachite, a copper ore, which provided the green eye makeup color so greatly favored
at the time
❖ Kohl, used to draw thick, distinctive black lines, giving an almond shape to the eyes
❖ Red ocher, which was used as rouge or lip color

China
 - China is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia. “China” is derived from the
Sanskrit Cina from the name of the Qin dynasty. The Greeks and the Romans called
China as Seres meaning “the land where the silk comes from”
❑Abacus
❑Silk production
❑Tea production
❑Great Wall of China
❑Gun powder

Chinese Civilization
Abacus
➢ a counting device that was used not only for counting
but also for basic and complex mathematical operations.
Silk Production
❖ The ancient Chinese bred special moths to produce the
quality silk they wanted.
❖ In 550 AD, the secret of silk became known to other
countries when two monks from the Byzantine Empire
managed to smuggle some silkworm eggs out of the
country. They hid the eggs inside of their bamboo
walking sticks.
Tea Production
❖ According to folklore the second Emperor of China, Shen Nung who studied plants and
herbs was in the court yard when the leaf of the Camellia sinensis blossom dropped into
his boiling pot of water.
Great Wall of China
➢ Keep the foreign invaders and controls the border of China
Gunpowder
➢ Initially used for fireworks
➢ Mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate in hopes of creating a potion for
immortality.
➢ Was later used in Mongol Wars of the 10th century and, ironically, the European
domination of China in the 1800s.
Greece
- Greece is a country in Southeastern Europe that is also known as Hellas or Ellada.
❑Greek Philosophy
❑Olympics
❑Odometer
❑Water mills
❑Aqueducts
❑Water alarm clock
Greek Civilization
Greek Philosophy
 Mathematics and Science

Olympics
- For the first 12 Olympics, the
stadion foot -race was the only
event and it remained the most
prestigious event throughout the
history of the Games
Odometer
➢ Invention was attributed to Archimedes of
Syracuse during the First Punic War
➢ Used to measure the distance covered by a
vehicle.
Water mills
- Common in agricultural processes like milling of grains led to production of edible food
stable like beaten rice and cereals
Water Alarm Clock or Clepsydra
- Invented by Ctesibius . Worked by using water droppings and clay vessels to track
time.
Roman Civilization
Roman Numerals
➢ Uses letters to represent numbers
❖ Roman numerals were requirements due to the increasing rate of communication and
trade among nations

Middle Ages
- The Middle Ages, also known as Dark Ages, is usually associated with the time
when people were seen as tasteless, vulgar, and old-fashioned. It is known as Dark
Ages due to the invasion of various Germanic tribes on the pervious domain of the
Roman Empire.
- Alaric I, king of Visigoths, invaded Rome thrice. He was appointed Magister
Militum meaning Master of the Soldiers. He originally planned to attack
Constantinople but was distracted after knowing that he would not receive
subsidies for his tribe from the Romans.
Byzantine Empire
- After the collapse of the Roman Empire, only the Eastern part remained with
Byzantium as its capital. It was later renamed Constantinople when it was captured
by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century (320-330).
- The peak of the Byzantine Empire was witnessed during the rule of Emperor
Justinian who was able to reclaim the land invaded by various Germanic tribes.
This time was considered the restoration of the empire of Rome.
Handheld Trebuchet or cheiromangana
➢ a type of catapult that uses a siege engine in its
mechanism to throw a projectile.
Tidal Mill
➢ Uses running water to grind grains, however, derives its
power from the rise and fall of the tides.

Islamic Empire
Koran
➢ holy book of the Muslims.
➢ Encouraged the development of science by allowing believers to seek knowledge and
observe nature for signs of Allah through scientific study.
Ibn Al -Haytham or Alhazen
➢ Laid the foundation for modern optics when he applied the
scientific method for his optic experiments
➢ Devised the Laws of Refraction and performed experiments on
the dispersion of light into its component colors.
➢ “Father of Modern Optics”

Abu Ali al -Hussein Ibn Sina or Avicenna

➢ Wrote al-Qanun fi al-Tibb or The Canon of Medicine which is a
medical encyclopedia that is first to describe the anatomy of the human eye
and recognize the contagious natures of tuberculosis and meningitis.
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
➢ Developed algebra
Jabar ibn Hayyan
➢ “Father of Arab Chemistry”
Abu Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al Zahrawi
➢ “Father of Operative Surgery

Medieval Europe
- Around the 8th century, Charles the Great or Charlemagne, assisted by the English
monk Alcuin of York, founded the Carolingian Renaissance. The empire was
characterized by cultural revitalization that increased activity in the fields of
literature, arts, architecture, and more.
- The rise and fall of various Germanic kingdoms in Western Europe and the Viking
Age (793-1006AD) were notable key points in the changing geopolitical landscape
of Europe. The Vikings, while known to be cruel warriors, pillagers, and skillful
navigators, are also credited for a number of technological advancements,
particularly in warfare and navigation.
Dane axe and magnetic compass

Europe began to recover during the High Middle Ages from the continual conflicts of the
Muslims and Vikings in the Early Middle Ages. This was followed by the Crusades which
introduced a bigger conflict between Christians and Muslims. The Crusades were a series
of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church to curb the spread of the Islamic faith in
Europe. In 1095, Pope Urban II of the Latin Church of Western Europe gave a sermon at
the Council of Clermont emphasizing the importance of reclaiming the territories of
Palestine and Jerusalem from Muslim occupation. By 1096, Europe launched the First
Crusade against the Muslims.
Crossbow

Three -field system

- Involves the division of a single piece of land into three smaller plots where
different seasonal crops would be planted.

 Medieval scholars traveled to Western Europe, primarily to Spain and Italy, to

acquire and translate scholarly works written in Greek to Latin.
❖ Aristotle’s works, Physics and Metaphysics, were revived in the 12th and 13th
centuries. Among the most known translators were Averroes and William
Moerbeke.
❖ The work of Claudius Ptolemy, Geography, was also translated to Latin which
inspired Christopher Columbus to pursue his exploration of world

Two main religious orders spearheaded the methodology of scholasticism

throughout Europe:
➢ Franciscans founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209
➢ Dominicans founded by St. Dominic in 1215.

Alchemy
➢ ancient branch of natural philosophy that mainly seeks to convert base metals
into noble metals such as gold.
❖ It is shrouded in mystery for its goals are not only in pursuit of creating certain
materials but it is also rooted in a spiritual worldview that regards metals as living
entities that possess mythical abilities.
Astrology
➢ Establishes the connection between the position of heavenly and celestial
bodies to the dwellings of human life and the natural world.
Nicholas Oresme
➢ Invented coordinate geometry
Jean Buridan
➢ Developed a theorem that described how a body in motion continues to stay in
motion through the body’s intrinsic and natural quality which he called impetus

Modern Ages
Renaissance
- The Renaissance is a period from the 14th to the 17th century marking the
transition from the Middle Ages to modernity. Renaissance is a French word that
means “rebirth”. The term was used to represent the rebirth of Greek and Roman
interests in the sciences and arts.
Printing Press
➢ Invented by Johannes Gutenberg
➢ Primarily used to reproduce religious texts

Dante Alighieri
➢ “Father of Italian Poetry”
➢ Wrote The Divine Come
Francesco Petrarca
➢ “Father of Humanism”
Leonardo da Vinci
➢ Known for his works Mona Lisa, Vitruvian Man, and The Last Supper
Michelangelo
➢ Known for painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican with scenes from the Book
of Genesis
Raphael
➢ Known for The Sistine Madonna and The School of Athens
Nicolaus Copernicus
➢ Proponent of the heliocentric theory that went against the general belief that the earth
is at the center of the universe.
❖ Galileo Galilei eventually proved Copernicus’ theory to be correct.
❖ Isaac Newton eradicated all doubts of heliocentrism’s validity through a mathematical
description of the motion of the earth and other celestial bodies around the sun.

Blast furnace
➢ Type of metallurgical furnace used to produce industrial metals
Industrial Revolution
- The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century, a period characterized by the
shift from agricultural processes to urbanized and industrial processes.
❖ England is considered to be the first country to be industrialized.
Iron and Steel Industry
- Tobern Bergman discovered the important role of carbon in steel in 1750.
However, even with such discovery, steel was not produced commercially until
years later. Henry Bessemer and William Kelly improved the methods of
manufacturing steel from iron.
❖ Kelly experimented on the manufacturing of steel using less charcoal.
❖ Bessemer patented the same invention and was able to produce steel stronger
than the cast iron.
 - Robert Mushet discovered an alloy of iron that combined carbon and manganese
with the formed iron. In the process of adding these two elements, the carbon
content is able to reach the level required for steel production.
Textile Industry
- In 1733, John Kay invented the flying shuttle to increase the output for yarn. The
spinning jenny, also called Saxton Wheel, was developed by James Hargreaves in
1764. It is a machine that is able to spin more than one spindle at a time.
- Richard Arkwright patented a textile machine powered by water and not by hand
called the water frame. Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule which
combines the features of the spinning jenny and water frame.
- The power loom for spinning and weaving was created by Edmund Cartwright in
1787 to increase the production of cotton from plantations in England. In 1793, Eli
Whitney invented a machine called the cotton gin and multiplied the amount of
cotton that could be cleaned, which increased the production of cotton for textiles.
Transportation Industry
- Steam engine was first developed by Thomas Newcomen together with John
Calley. Newcomen utilized the principle developed by Denis Papin who invented
the pressure cooker
- James Wyatt perfected and patented the steam engine that produced the needed
power without consuming too much fuel.
- Throughout the Industrial Revolution, the steam engine continued to developed as
it became important in powering ships and trains, then later on were used to
propel river boats.
- Richard Trevithick developed the first locomotive, an engine or rail transport
vehicle which he named New Castle.
- George Stephenson, considered to be “Father of Railways” designed an effective
locomotive called Blucher.
- Robert Fulton utilized the steam engine and developed the North River Steamboat
which was later called Clermont
S&T in the 18th 19th Centuries

- Charles -Augustin de Coulomb made noteworthy progress in the field of physical

science when he published a series of studies on electrodynamics, which later on
culminated into the Coulomb’s Law. Coulomb’s Law states that “like charges repel
each other; unlike charges attract”
- Joseph Priestley discovered a colorless gas from heated mercury in 1774. The
colorless gas was later named as oxygen by Antoine Lavoisier
- Antoine Lavoisier also explained the reaction of substances that contained carbon
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. He was soon after dubbed as the
“Father of Modern Chemistry” when he published his research on the Law of
Conservation of Mass.
- John Dalton proposed the Atomic Theory which primarily states that all matter is
composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
- Hans Christian Oersted discovered that electric current produces magnetic fields.
- Michael Faraday constructed a crude electric motor in 1821 using the discovery of
Oersted.
- James Clerk Maxwell formulated a theory on electromagnetic radiation which
poses that light, magnetism, and electricity are variations in manifestation of the
same phenomenon.
- In 1874, George Johnstone Stoney proposed the theory that electrons have
fundamental quantities of electricity
- William Crookes was noted for his discovery of the element thallium and for his
cathode-ray studies, fundamental in the development of atomic physics.
- Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was a physicist who received the first Nobel Prize for
Physics, in 1901, for his discovery of X-rays, which heralded the age of modern
physics and revolutionized diagnostic medicine.
- Joseph John Thompson was an English physicist who helped revolutionize the
knowledge of atomic structure by his discovery of the electron.
- Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered that uranium salts spontaneously emit a
penetrating radiation that can be registered on a photographic plate.
- Marie Curie discovered polonium and radium.
 ❖ The lead that contained Marie Curie's coffin may have been used because of
concern in 1934 about radium contamination of her body.
- Alexander Graham Bell filed a patent for the telephone because of his success in
developing a means to exchange messages in real time through electric current.
 ❖ The first words spoken by Alexander Graham Bell over the telephone were, "Mr.
Watson, come here; I want to see you."
- Carolus Linnaeus dubbed as the “Father of Taxonomy” developed a system of
naming organisms called the binomial nomenclature.
- Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck proposed the Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Characteristics which theorizes that an organism can pass on some of its traits,
obtained from either use or disuse, to its offspring
 - Charles Darwin was an English naturalist whose scientific theory of evolution by
natural selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies.
- Gregor Mendel, known as the “Father of Genetics,” wrote a paper on his
experiments on breeding pea plants, which he conducted from 1856 to 1863.
S&T in the 20th Century
- Modern physics advanced with the discovery of quantum theory by Max Planck,
and the theory of relativity by Albert Einstein. The phenomenon called
photoelectric effect was also explained by Einstein.
- Erwin Schrödinger is best known for his development of the Schrödinger
equation, a wave equation that accurately describes the behavior of electrons in
atoms
- James Chadwick was a British physicist who is best known for discovering the
neutron in 1932. He proved the existence of this neutral subatomic particle, which,
along with protons, makes up the nucleus of an atom.
- Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, a drug against bacterial infections caused
by staphylococci and streptococci.
- Howard Florey and Ernst Chain developed the first antibiotic that could be mass
produced.
- Jonas Salk developed the first polio vaccine.
- Albert Sabin improved Salk’s work and produced the oral polio vaccine.
- The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was discovered by Luc Montagnier and
Robert Gallo, which led to the awareness of the causes of acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the measure needed to avoid contracting HIV.
- The first manned engine-powered aircraft flight was launched by Orville and
Wilbur Wright in 1903
- In terms of land transportation, the first production model of the automobile was
launched by Henry Ford in 1908.
- In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite named Sputnik and
instigated the first manned space flight in 1961. A few years later, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spearheaded the space programs
Mercury and Apollo. In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon.
Computer and the Age of Information
- The first computer that resembled the modern machines we see today was
invented by Charles Babbage between 1833 and 1871. He developed a device, the
analytical engine, and worked on it for nearly 40 years.
- As the creator of the “bit” (short for binary digit), Claude Shannon became known
as the “Father of Information Theory” Computer and the Age of Information 28
- ❖ Shannon worked with Warren Weaver to formulate the Shannon-Weaver
Model of Communication that is considered as the “mother of all models” because
it integrated the various concepts at work in the field of technological
communication,
- SIGSALY is a secure speech system during World War II and used a highly secure
one-time pad (OTP) encryption. It was to ensure the security of the confidential
talks between President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.
- Alan Turing introduced the universal Turing machine (UTM), known as the first
“computing machine”, which earned him the title “Father of the Modern
Computer”
- Konrad Zuse devised the world’s first programmable computer, Z3, the first
Turingcomplete digital computer to be created
- John Atanasoff, with the help of his graduate student, Clifford Berry, created the
first electronic digital computer called Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC).
- Tommy Harold Flowers invented the world's first programmable electronic
computer in 1943 called Colossus which helped encrypt German messages during
World War II.
- ❖ Harvard Mark I, a general-purposed electromechanical computer devised by
Howard Aiken and built by IBM in 1944, was able to compute and print
mathematical tables.
- ❖ The creation of the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), nicknamed as
Manchester Baby computer, was spearheaded by Frederic Calland Williams and
Tom Kilburn. It was not intended for practical computing tasks but rather as a
proof-of-concept prototype. The SSEM successfully ran the first stored-program on
June 21, 1948, proving the core concept of electronic digital computing.
- William Shockley and his team of engineers were the first to commercially mass-
produce transistors. However, in 1957, members of his team, later called
“traitorous eight” founded their own company called Fairchild Semiconductors. In
a similar manner, engineers from this company also eventually left to start their
own companies, such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Intel Corporation,
laying the foundation for what its now known today as Silicon Valley, a center of
digital and technological research and development
- ❖ In 1948, the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) built the 604
Electronic Calculating Punch which was capable of performing basic mathematical
operations hundreds of times faster than earlier IBM machines. By December
1957, IBM used this model as a basis to create the 608 model, the first solid-state
computer available on the commercial market.
- Jack Kilby is credited for being the first to create and patent the integrated circuit
(IC) chip. He pioneered the integration of individual parts of a computer’s electrical
components such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors into a single unit. Kilby
received a Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the IC.
- ❖ By 1961, IBM released the 7030 Data Processing System known as the IBM
Stretch computer, the first IBM supercomputer that ran completely through
transistors. The Stretch computer was not successful but it pioneered the use of
“bytes” or 8-bit characters.
- ❖ Intel and Fairchild were the first to produce 8-bit microprocessors on a
commercial level.
- ❖ The first commercially viable storage device was the floppy disk that was
originally designed by IBM.
- ❖ The floppy disk was improved on to create the compact disc (CD)
- ❖ The beginnings of the CD can be traced to the invention of James Russell that
can record digital information on an optical transparent foil lit by a high-power
halogen lamp.
- ❖ Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was created in 1969.
It was a packet switching network that grouped data in a message into parts or
“packets” that are sent independently to other computers in the system through
the most optimal route. Once the message reaches its destination, it reassembles
itself and can be read as it was originally composed.
- ❖ When ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990, it was replaced by a system
called internet. The internet is a collection and interconnection between and
among numerous networks from around the world. To access the information
from this global network, the World Wide Web (www) was created in 1989 by Tim
Berners-Lee.