CS3591 – Computer Networks Unit-1

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION AND APPLICATION LAYER

Data Communication - Networks – Network Types – Protocol Layering – TCP/IP Protocol
suite –OSI Model – Introduction to Sockets - Application Layer protocols: HTTP – FTP –
Email protocols(SMTP - POP3 - IMAP - MIME) – DNS – SNMP

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
 When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or
remote.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A NETWORK
The effectiveness of a network depends on three characteristics.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.

CRITERIA NECESSARY FOR AN EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT

NETWORK
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.

Factors that affect the Factors that affect the Factors that affect the
Performance of a network: Reliability of a network: Security of a network:

1. Number of users 1. Efficiency of software. 1.Protecting data from

2. Type of transmission 2. Frequency of failure unauthorized access and
medium 3.Recovery time of a viruses.
3. Capabilities of the network after a failure
connected hardware

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COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN A NETWORK PROCESS

The five components are:

1. Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, pictures, audio, video etc.
2. Sender - It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset etc.
3. Receiver - It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.
4. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
radiowaves etc.
5. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two
devices may be connected but not communicating.

KEY ELEMENTS OF PROTOCOL

 Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which
they are presented.
 Semantics: Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
 Timing: Refers to two characteristics. (1). When data should be sent and (2). How
fast they can be sent.

TRANSMISSION MODES
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission
media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a
directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

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Types of Transmission mode

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex Mode
o Half-duplex Mode
o Full-duplex mode (Duplex Mode)

SIMPLEX MODE

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one
direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but
cannot send the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the
two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in
sales that do not require any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but
never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can
only accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the
data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Advantage of Simplex mode:

o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the
communication channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between
devices.

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HALF-DUPLEX MODE

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit
and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at
a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error
occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.
o In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the
other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create the
distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can
utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the
transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to
wait, this causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.

FULL-DUPLEX MODE

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in
both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in
one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a Telephone network.
When two people are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both
can talk and listen at the same time.

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Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the
communication channel is divided into two parts.

COMPARISON - SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX AND FULL-DUPLEX MODE

BASIS FOR SIMPLEX HALF-DUPLEX FULL-DUPLEX

COMPARISON MODE MODE MODE

Direction of Communication is Communication is Communication

communication unidirectional. bidirectional, but is bidirectional.
one at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices Both the devices
send the data but can send and can send and
cannot receive it or receive the data, receive the data
it can only receive but one at a time. simultaneously.
the data but cannot
send it.

Example Radio, Keyboard, Walkie-Talkie Telephone

and monitor. network.

LINE CONFIGURATION / LINE CONNECTIVITY

Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a
link. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible line configurations:
i. Point to Point (PPP): Provides a dedicated Communication link between two
devices. It is simple to establish. The most common example for Point-to-Point
connection is a computer connected by telephone line. We can connect the two
devices by means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite link.

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ii. MultiPoint : It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or

more devices share a single link.There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections.

 Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously,

it is called Spatially shared line configuration

 Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link ,
then its called Temporally shared or Time Shared Line Configuration.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Two or more devices connect to a link. Two or more links form a topology.Topology is
defined as
(1) The way in which a network is laid out physically.
(2)The geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and nodes to
one-another.
The various types of topologies are : Bus, Ring, Tree, Star, Mesh and Hybrid.

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BUS TOPOLOGY

 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable.
 The long single cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
 When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
 It transmits data only in one direction.

Advantages of Bus Topology Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective. 1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. Cable required is least compared to 2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are
other network topology. more, the performance of the network
3. Used in small networks. decreases.
4. It is easy to understand. 3. Cable has a limited length.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables 4. It is slower than the ring topology.
together

RING TOPOLOGY

 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with

only the two devices on either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
 When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.

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Advantages of Ring Topology Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by 1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring
high traffic or by adding more nodes, topology.
as only the nodes having tokens can 2. Adding or deleting the computers
transmit data. disturbs the network activity.
2. Cheap to install and expand 3. Failure of one computer disturbs the
whole network

TREE TOPOLOGY

 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 It is also called hierarchical topology.
 It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
 Tree topology is ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 They are used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies. 1. Heavily cabled.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy. 2. Costly.
3. Easily managed and maintained. 3. If more nodes are added maintenance is
4. Error detection is easily done. difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

STAR TOPOLOGY

 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another.
 The controller acts as an exchange.
 If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.

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Advantages of Star Topology Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and 1. Cost of installation is high.
low network traffic. 2. Expensive to use.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily. 3. If the hub fails, then the whole
3. Easy to troubleshoot. network is stopped.
4. Easy to setup and modify. 4. Performance is based on the hub that
5. Only that node is affected which has is it depends on its capacity
failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly

MESH TOPOLOGY

 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
 The number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes is
given by n (n – 1) / 2.

Advantages of Mesh Topology Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data 1. Installation and configuration is
load. difficult.
2. It is robust. 2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily. 3. Bulk wiring is required.
4. Provides security and privacy.

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HYBRID TOPOLOGY

 Hybrid Topology is a combination of one or more basic topologies.

 For example if one department in an office uses ring topology, the other
departments uses star and bus topology, then connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology.
 Hybrid Topology inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies
included.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble 1. Complex in design.
shooting is easy. 2. Costly
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

NETWORK TYPES
 A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data,
and applications.
 A computer network can be categorized by their size.
 A computer network is mainly of three types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small
area such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

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o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network

adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o LAN can be connected using a common cable or a Switch.

Advantages of LAN Disadvantages of LAN

 Resource Sharing  High Setup Cost
 Software Applications Sharing.  Privacy Violations
 Easy and Cheap Communication  Data Security Threat
 Centralized Data.  LAN Maintenance Job
 Data Security  Covers Limited Area
 Internet Sharing

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

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o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
o WAN can be either a point-to-point WAN or Switched WAN.

Point-to-point WAN Switched WAN

Advantages of Wide Area Network: Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

o Large Geographical area o Security issue
o Centralized data o Needs Firewall & antivirus software
o Exchange messages o High Setup cost
o Sharing of software and resources o Troubleshooting problems
o High bandwidth

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
o Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).It is adequate for distributed
computing applications.

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INTERNETWORK

o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN.

o An Internetwork can be formed by joining two or more individual networks by
means of various devices such as routers, gateways and bridges.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
government computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.

Types of Internetwork
Extranet Intranet
An extranet is used for information
An intranet belongs to an organization
sharing. The access to the extranet is
which is only accessible by
restricted to only those users who have
the organization's employee or members.
login credentials. An extranet is the lowest
The main aim of the intranet is to share the
level of internetworking. It can be
information and resources among the
categorized as MAN, WAN or other
organization employees. An intranet
computer networks. An extranet cannot
provides the facility to work in groups and
have a single LAN, atleast it must have
for teleconferences.
one connection to the external network.

PROTOCOL LAYERING
 In networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and
all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
 A protocol provides a communication service that the process use to exchange
messages.
 When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol.
 When the communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between
different layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol
layering.
 Protocol layering is that it allows us to separate the services from the
implementation.
 A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to
give the services to the upper layer.
 Any modification in one layer will not affect the other layers.
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Basic Elements of Layered Architecture

 Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
 Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information
with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of
the messages used.
 Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.

Features of Protocol Layering

1. It decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable
components.
2. It provides a more modular design.

Principles of Protocol Layering

1. The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need
to make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each
direction.
2. The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.

Protocol Graph
 The set of protocols that make up a network system is called a protocol graph.
 The nodes of the graph correspond to protocols, and the edges represent a
dependence relation.
 For example, the Figure below illustrates a protocol graph consists of protocols
RRP (Request/Reply Protocol) and MSP (Message Stream Protocol) implement
two different types of process-to-process channels, and both depend on the HHP
(Host-to- Host Protocol) which provides a host-to-host connectivity service

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OSI MODEL
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.
o It is a reference model that describes how information from a software application
in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in
another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

ORGANIZATION OF THE OSI LAYERS

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FUNCTIONS OF THE OSI LAYERS

1. PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium.
The physical layer is concerned with the following functions:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media - The physical layer defines
the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium.
 Representation of bits - To transmit the stream of bits, it must be encoded to
signals. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
 Data Rate or Transmission rate - The number of bits sent each second –is also
defined by the physical layer.
 Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the
bit level. Their clocks must be synchronized.
 Line Configuration - In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link
is shared between several devices.
 Physical Topology - The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected using a mesh, bus, star or ring
topology.
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 Transmission Mode - The physical layer also defines the direction of

transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

2. DATA LINK LAYER

It is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next node.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
 Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into data units called frames.
 Physical addressing – If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network , data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and
receiver.
 Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a flow ctrl
mechanism.
 Error control- Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames and
to prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at the
end of the frame.
 Medium Access control -Used to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.

3. NETWORK LAYER

This layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from source to destination.
It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
 Logical addressing - If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system for source and destination called logical address. This
addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing – Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.

4. TRANSPORT LAYER

It is responsible for Process to Process delivery. That is responsible for source-to-

destination (end-to-end) delivery of the entire message, It also ensures whether the
message arrives in order or not.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
 Port addressing / Service Point addressing - The header includes an address
called port address / service point address. This layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly - The message is divided into segments and each
segment is assigned a sequence number. These numbers are arranged correctly on
the arrival side by this layer.
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 Connection control - This can either be connectionless or connection oriented.

 The connectionless treats each segment as an individual packet and
delivers to the destination.
 The connection-oriented makes connection on the destination side before
the delivery. After the delivery the termination will be terminated.
 Flow control - The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 Error Control - Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the
single link..

5. SESSION LAYER

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications.

The other responsibilities of this layer are
 Dialog control - Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization- Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data,
then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is
known as Synchronization and recovery.

6. PRESENTATION LAYER

It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of information exchanged between two
systems.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
 Translation – Different computers use different encoding system, this layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. It will
change the message into some common format.
 Encryption and decryption-It means that sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message over the n/w. and
vice versa.
 Compression and expansion-Compression reduces the number of bits contained
in the information particularly in text, audio and video.

7. APPLICATION LAYER
This layer enables the user to access the network. It handles issues such as network
transparency, resource allocation, etc. This allows the user to log on to remote user.
The other responsibilities of this layer are
 FTAM (File Transfer, Access, Management) - Allows user to access files in a
remote host.
 Mail services - Provides email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services - Provides database sources to access information about
various sources and objects.

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TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 The TCP/IP architecture is also called as Internet architecture.
 It is developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)
for its packet switched network (ARPANET).
 TCP/IP is a protocol suite used in the Internet today.
 It is a 4-layer model. The layers of TCP/IP are
1. Application layer
2. Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Interface Layer

APPLICATION LAYER
 An application layer incorporates the function of top three OSI layers. An
application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 Protocols such as FTP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, etc running in the application layer
provides service to other program running on top of application layer

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TRANSPORT LAYER
 The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction
of data which is being sent over the network.
 The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
o UDP – UDP provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission. It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
o TCP – TCP provides a full transport layer services to applications. TCP is
a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames.

INTERNET LAYER
 The internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
 Internet layer handle the transfer of information across multiple networks through
router and gateway .
 IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.

NETWORK INTERFACE LAYER

 The network interface layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 This layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in

the OSI reference model.

 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.

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COMPARISON - OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODEL

S.No OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL

1 Defined before advent of internet Defined after the advent of Internet.
2 Service interface and protocols Service interface and protocols were not
are clearly distinguished before clearly distinguished before

3 Internetworking not supported TCP/IP supports Internet working

4 Strict layering Loosely layered

5 Protocol independent standard Protocol Dependant standard

6 Less Credible More Credible

7 All packets are reliably delivered TCP reliably delivers packets, IP does
not reliably deliver packets

HTTP (HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

 The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to define how the client-
server programs can be written to retrieve web pages from the Web.
 It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (WWW).
 The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
 HTTP is a stateless request/response protocol that governs client/server
communication.
 An HTTP client sends a request; an HTTP server returns a response.
 The server uses the port number 80; the client uses a temporary port number.
 HTTP uses the services of TCP , a connection-oriented and reliable protocol.
 HTTP is a text-oriented protocol. It 21contains embedded URL known as links.