ECV 517: DESIGN OF BRIDGES

Outline
1. Bridge
2. Type of Bridges: Simply supported bridges, Prestressed
concrete bridges, Composite beam bridges, Plate girders, Box
Girders, Arch bridges, Cable stayed bridges, Suspension
bridges
3. Planning and location of bridges
4. Design of bridges using materials such as orthotropic plates,
other systems in steel, structural steel, composite
construction.
5. Inspection, preventive maintenance and repair of bridges.
6. Emphasis shall be laid on structural analysis, design and
detailing exercises.
7. The course shall be based on the following codes of practice:
BS 5400, BS 6399, ICE (Institute of Civil Engineers Manual) and
CP3 or other applicable standard/manual.
BRIDGES
The nature and function of structure

All structures must be capable of withstanding the loads

and forces for which they are designed. They may be rigid
or flexible. Flexible structures are often more able to
withstand dynamic forces.
A structural member is a part of any structure or
building. All structural members have a mechanical
function, so each of them supports a force ( tension
, compression, flexure..).
 The nature and function of structure

Source of Loads
Loads are caused by various actions i.e. interaction
of the structure with the natural environment; carrying
out the function they are expected to perform;
construction of the structure; and terrorist activities.

The relative importance of loads depends on the nature of

the structure and the geographical location of the site. For
example, building design is generally governed by gravity,
snow, wind, and possible earthquake loads, while
structures located in California USA need to be designed
for high seismic load while those in Florida USA need to
be designed for high wind loads due to hurricanes..
 Golden Gate Bridge, USA

Firth of Forth Bridge, Scotland Sunshine skyway Bridge, USA

 What is a BRIDGE?
•Generally bridges carry a road or railway across a natural or
artificial obstacle such as, a river, canal or another railway or
another road
•Bridge is a structure corresponding to the heaviest
responsibility in carrying a free flow of transport and is the most
significant component of a transportation system in case of
communication over spacings/gaps for whatever reason such as
aquatic obstacles, valleys and gorges etc.

Beam

Pier
 FUNCTION OF A BRIDGE

To connect two communities

which are separated by streams,
valley, railroads, etc.

Bosporus Straits Bridge

at Istanbul, Turkey –
• Replaces a slow ferry
boat trip
• Connects two continent
• Built in 1973
• Total length is 5000 ft
 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE
• Deck or Slab: supported roadway on abridge

• Beam or Girder: A rigid, usually horizontal,

structural element

• Abutment: The outermost end supports on a

bridge, which carry the load from
the deck. The most common type
is a Retaining Wall.

• Pier: A vertical supporting structure, such as a

pillar

• Foundation
 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

Deck

Girder

Abutment

Pier
 General Bridge Components
✓Bridge Bearings: These are supports on a bridge pier, which carry the
weight of the bridge and control the movements at the bridge supports,
including the temperature expansion and contraction. They may be
metal rockers, rollers or slides or merely rubber or laminated rubber (
Rubber with steel plates glued into it).
✓Bridge Dampers & Isolators: Bridge dampers are devices that absorb
energy generated by earthquake waves and lateral load
✓Bridge Pier: A wide column or short wall of masonry or plain or
reinforced concrete for carrying loads as a support for a bridge, but in
any case it is founded on firm ground below the river mud
 General Bridge Components cont…

✓Bridge Cap: The highest part of a bridge pier on which the bridge
bearings or rollers are seated. It may be of stone, brick or plain or
reinforced concrete.
✓Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
✓Abutment: A support of an arch or bridge etc which may carry a
horizontal force as well as weight.
✓Expansion Joints : These are provided to accommodate the
translations due to possible shrinkage and expansions due to
temperature changes.
 TYPES OF BRIDGES

•Beam or Girder Bridge

•Truss Bridge
•Rigid Frame Bridge
•Arch Bridge
•Suspension Bridge
•Cable Stayed Bridge
 Types of Bridges
Distinctive Features of Girder Bridges
•Widely constructed
•Usually used for Short and Medium spans
•Carry load in Shear and Flexural bending
•Efficient distribution of material is not possible
•Stability concerns limits the stresses and associated economy
•Economical and long lasting solution for vast majority of
bridges
•Decks and girder usually act together to support the entire
load in highway bridges
 Types of Bridges cont…

Beam Bridge

Forces
When something pushes down on the beam, the beam bends.
Its top edge is pushed together, and its bottom edge is pulled
apart.
 Arch Bridges

The arch has great natural strength.

Thousands of years ago, Romans built
arches out of stone. Today, most arch
bridges are made of steel or concrete, and
they can span up to 800 feet.
 Arch Bridges

Forces
The arch is squeezed together, and this
squeezing force is carried outward along the
curve to the supports at each end. The supports,
called abutments, push back on the arch and
prevent the ends of the arch from spreading
apart.
 Types of Bridges cont…
Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge
•Arch action reduces bending moments ( that is Tensile
Stresses )
•Economical as compared to equivalent straight simply
supported Girder or Truss bridge
•Suitable site is a Valley with arch foundations on a DRY
ROCK SLOPES
•Conventional curved arch rib has high Fabrication and
Erection costs
•Erection easiest for Cantilever Arch and most difficult for
Tied Arch
•Arch is predominantly a Compression member. Buckling
must be worked to the detail so as to avoid reductions in
allowable stresses.
 Distinctive Features of Arch Bridge
•Classic arch form tends to favor Concrete as a
construction material
•Conventional arch has two moment resistant
components : The deck and the Arch Rib.
•Near the crown of the arch and the region where
Spandrel Columns are short, undesirable B.M. can
occur. By using Pin ended columns it can be avoided
•Space beneath the arch is less and hence danger for
collision with the Rib, specially on a highway
•Curved shaped is always very pleasing and arch is
the most successful and beautiful structure
 Truss Bridge

All beams in a truss bridge are straight. Trusses are

comprised of many small beams that together can support
a large amount of weight and span great distances.
 Types of Bridges cont…
Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge
•The primary member forces are axial loads
•The open web system permits the use of a greater
overall depth than for an equivalent solid web girder,
hence reduced deflections and rigid structure
•Both these factors lead to Economy in material and a
reduced dead weight
•These advantages are achieved at the expense of
increased fabrication and maintenance costs
•Other bridge types have rendered the truss bridge types
less likely to be used due to its high maintenance and
fabrication costs.
•The truss is instead being used widely as the stiffening
structure for the suspension bridges due to its
acceptable aerodynamic behavior since the wind gusts
can pass through the truss as is not with the case in
girder, arch bridges.
 Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge

•It’s a light weight structure it can be assembled

member by member using lifting equipment of
small capacity.
•Rarely aesthetically pleasing complexity of
member intersections if viewed from oblique
direction
•In large span structures poor aesthetic
appearance of the truss bridge is compensated
with the large scale of the structure. For moderate
spans its best to provide a simple and regular
structure
 Suspension Bridges
This kind of bridges can span 2,000 to 7,000 feet
-- way further than any other type of bridge! Most
suspension bridges have a truss system beneath
the roadway to resist bending and twisting.
 Suspension Bridges
Forces
In all suspension bridges, the roadway hangs from
massive steel cables, which are draped over two towers
and secured into solid concrete blocks, called anchorages,
on both ends of the bridge. The cars push down on the
roadway, but because the roadway is suspended, the cables
transfer the load into compression in the two towers. The
two towers support most of the bridge's weight.
 Components of a Suspension Bridge

• Anchor Block: Just looking at the figure we can compare it as a

dead man having no function of its own other than its weight.
• Suspension girder: It is a girder built into a suspension bridge to
distribute the loads uniformly among the suspenders and thus to
reduce the local deflections under concentrated loads.
• Suspenders: a vertical hanger in a suspension bridge by which the
road is carried on the cables
• Tower: Towers transfers compression forces to the foundation
through piers.
• Saddles: A steel block over the towers of a suspension bridge
which acts as a bearing surface for the cable passing over it.
• Cables: Members that take tensile forces and transmit it through
saddles to towers and rest of the forces to anchorage block.
 Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge

•Major element is a flexible cable, shaped and supported in such a

way that it transfers the loads to the towers and anchorage
•This cable is commonly constructed from High Strength wires,
either spun in situ or formed from component, spirally formed wire
ropes. In either case allowable stresses are high of the order of 600
MPA
•The deck is hung from the cable by Hangers constructed of high
strength ropes in tension
•As in the long spans the Self-weight of the structures becomes
significant, so the use of high strength steel in tension, primarily in
cables and secondarily in hangers leads to an economical structure.
•The economy of the cable must be balanced against the cost of the
associated anchorage and towers. The anchorage cost may be high
where foundation material is poor
 Types of Bridges cont…
Distinctive Features of Suspension Bridge
•The main cable is stiffened either by a pair of stiffening
trusses or by a system of girders at deck level.
•This stiffening system serves to (a) control aerodynamic
movements and (b) limit local angle changes in the deck.
It may be unnecessary in cases where the dead load is
great.
•The complete structure can be erected without
intermediate staging from the ground
•The main structure is elegant and neatly expresses its
function.
•It is the only alternative for spans over 600m, and it is
generally regarded as competitive for spans down to
300m. However, shorter spans have also been built,
including some very attractive pedestrian bridges
•The height of the main towers can be a disadvantage in
some areas; for example, within the approach road for an
AIRPORT
 Cable-stayed bridge
 The cable-stayed bridge, like the
suspension bridge, supports the roadway
with massive steel cables, but in a
different way. The cables run directly from
the roadway up to a tower, forming a
unique "A" shape.
 Types of Bridges cont…
Distinctive Features of Cable-stayed Bridge
•The use of high strength cables in tension leads to economy in
material, weight, and cost..
•As compared with the stiffened suspension bridge, the cables are
straight rather than curved. As a result, the stiffness is greater
•The cables are anchored to the deck and cause compressive forces
in the deck. For economical design, the deck must participate in
carrying these forces
•All individual cables are shorter than full length of the
superstructure. They are normally constructed of individual wire
ropes, supplied complete with end fittings, prestretched and not
spun.
•There is a great freedom of choice in selecting the structural
arrangement
•Less efficient under Dead Load but more efficient in support Live
Load. It is economical over 100-350m, some designer would
extend the upper bound as high as 800m
 Distinctive Features of Cable-stayed Bridge
•Aerodynamic stability has not been found to be a
problem in structures erected to date
•When the cables are arranged in the single plane,
at the longitudinal center line of the deck, the
appearance of the structure is simplified and
avoids cable intersections when the bridge is
viewed obliquely
 Types of Bridges cont…

Floating Bridge

•Pontoon bridges are supported by floating pontoons with

sufficient buoyancy to support the bridge and dynamic
loads.
•While pontoon bridges are usually temporary structures,
some are used for long periods of time.
•Permanent floating bridges are useful for traversing
features lacking strong bedrock for traditional piers.
•Such bridges can require a section that is elevated, or can
be raised or removed, to allow ships to pass.
 Floating Bridges

Retractable!

But high maintenance!

Classification of bridges according to span

Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)

Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)
Large Span Bridges (50-150m)
Extra Large ( Long ) Span Bridges (over 150m)
 Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)

➢Culvert Bridge
➢Slab Bridges
➢T-Beam Bridge
➢Wood Beam Bridge
➢Pre-cast Concrete Box Beam Bridge
➢Pre-cast Concrete I-Beam Bridge
➢Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
 Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)

➢Pre-cast Concrete Box Beam & Pre-cast Concrete I-Beam

➢Composite Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
➢Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge
➢Cast-in-place RCC Box Girder Bridge
➢Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder
➢Composite Steel Box Girder
 Large Span Bridges (50 to 150m)

➢Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge

➢Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned concrete Box Girder
➢Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental Construction
➢Concrete Arch and Steel Arch
 Extra Large (Long) Span Bridges
(Over 150m)
➢Cable Stayed Bridge
➢Suspension Bridge
 Classification According To Structural
Arrangement

The classification of the bridge types can also be according to

the location of the main structure elements relative to the
surface on which the user travels, as follows:

•Main Structure Below the Deck Line

•Main Structure Above the Deck Line
•Main Structure coincides with the Deck Line
 Main Structure Below the
Deck Line
Masonry Arch

Concrete Arch
Arch Bridge
Inclined Leg Frame Arch

Rigid Frame Arch

Steel Truss-Arch
Truss-Arch Bridge
Steel Deck Truss
 Main Structure Above the Deck Line

1. Suspension Bridges

2. Cable Stayed Bridges

3. Through-Truss Bridge
 Main Structure Coincides with the
Deck Line
Slab (solid and voided)

T-Beam (cast-in-place)

I-beam (pre-cast or pre-stressed

Wide-flange beam (composite & non-

Girder Bridge composite

Concrete Box (cast-in-place, segmental

& pre-stressed

Steel Plate Girder (straight & haunched)

Steel box (Orthotropic deck)

FACTORS CONSIDERED IN DECIDING
BRIDGE TYPE
In general all the factors are related to economy, safety and
aesthetics.
1) Geometric Conditions of the Site
2) Subsurface Conditions of the Site
3) Functional Requirements
4) Aesthetics
5) Economics and Ease of Maintenance
6) Construction and Erection Consideration
7) Legal Considerations
 Geometric Conditions of the Site
•The type of bridge selected will always depend on the horizontal
and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances
above and below the roadway
•For Example: if the roadway is on a curve, continuous box
girders and slabs are a good choice because they have a pleasing
appearance, can readily be built on a curve, and have a relatively
high torsion resistance
•Relatively high bridges with larger spans over navigable
waterways will require a different bridge type than one with
medium spans crossing a flood plain
•The site geometry will also dictate how traffic can be handled
during construction, which is an important safety issue and must be
considered early in the planning stage
 Subsurface conditions of the soil
•The foundation soils at a site will determine whether abutments and
piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles, or drilled
shafts
•If the subsurface investigation indicates that creep settlement is going
to be a problem, the bridge type selected must be one that can
accommodate differential settlement over time
•Drainage conditions on the surface and below ground must be
understood because they influence the magnitude of earth pressures,
movement of embankments, and stability of cuts or fills
•For Example: An inclined leg frame bridge requires strong foundation
material that can resist both horizontal and vertical thrust. If it is not
present, then another bridge type is more appropriate.
 Functional Requirements
•Bridge must function to carry present and future volumes of
traffic.
•Decisions must be made on the number of lanes of traffic,
inclusion of sidewalks and/or bike paths, whether width of the
bridge deck should include medians, drainage of the surface waters,
snow removal, and future wearing surface.
•For Example: In the case of stream and flood plain crossings, the
bridge must continue to function during periods of high water
and not impose a severe constriction or obstruction to the flow
of water or debris.
•Satisfaction of these functional requirements will recommend some
bridge types over others.
•For Example: if future widening and replacement of bridge decks
is a concern, multiple girder bridge types are preferred over
 Aesthetics

•It should be the goal of every bridge designer to obtain a

positive aesthetic response to the bridge type selected
•There are no equations, no computer programs or design
specifications that can make our bridge beautiful.
•It is more an awareness of beauty on our part so that we
can sense when we are in the presence of something good.
•Aesthetics must be a part of the bridge design program from
the beginning. It can’t be added on at the end to make the
bridge look nice. At that time it is too late. From the
beginning, the engineer must consider aesthetics in the
selection of spans, depths of girders, piers, abutments, and the
relationship.
 Economic and ease of maintenance
•The initial cost and maintenance cost over the life of the bridge
govern when comparing the economics of different bridge types.
•A general rule is that the bridge with the minimum number of
spans, fewest deck joints, and widest spacing of girders will be
the most economical.
•For Example: (1) By reducing the number of spans in a bridge
layout by one span, the construction cost of one pier is eliminated.
(2) Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their
number will reduce the life cycle cost of the bridge. (3) When using
the empirical design of bridge decks in the AASHTO (1994) LRFD
Specifications, the same reinforcement is used for deck spans up to
4.1m. Therefore, there is little cost increase in the deck for wider
spacing for girders and fewer girders means less cost although at the
“expense” of deeper sections.
Economic and ease of maintenance cont…

•Generally, concrete structures require less maintenance than

steel structure. The cost and hazard of maintenance painting of steel
structures should be considered in type selection studies.
•One effective way to reduce the overall project cost is to allow
contractors to propose an alternative design or designs.
 Legal Considerations

•Regulations are beyond the control of an engineer, but they are

real and must be considered.
Examples of certain regulations are as follows:
•Permits Over Navigable Waterways
•National Environmental policy Act
•Department of Transportation Act
•National historic preservation Act
•Clean Air Act
•Noise Control Act
 Legal Considerations cont…

•Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act

•The Endangered Species Act
•Water Bank Act
•Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
•In addition to the environmental laws and acts defining
national policies, local and regional politics are also of
concern
 Wood Bridge on Concrete
Abutments

Three Span Wood Bridge

 GIRDER CROSS-SECTIONS
COMMONLY USED IN BRIDGES
REASONS FOR COLLAPSE OF BRIDGES

• Poor design

• Inadequate stability of the foundation

• Fatigue cracking

• Wind forces

• Scour of footing

•Earthquake
 Case Study:
Tacoma Narrows
Failure

The first Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed due to wind-induced vibrations on
Nov. 7, 1940. The bridge over engineered it to withstand hurricane winds, but the wind
that day was only 40 mph… what happened!?
 Before
Collapse

After Collapse
 AKASHI KAIKYO BRIDGE, JAPAN

Completion Date: 1998 Cost: $4.3 billion

Length: 12,828 feet Type: Suspension

Materials: Steel Span: 6,527 feet

 SUNSHINE SKYWAY BRIDGE, USA

Completion Date: 1987 Cost: $244 Million

Length: 29,040 feet Type: Cable Stayed

Materials: Steel, Concrete Span: 1200 feet

 NEW RIVER GORGE BRIDGE, USA

Completion Date: 1978 Cost: $37 Million

Length: 4,224 feet Type: Arch

Materials: Steel Span: 1700 feet

Maintenance and repair
 How a bridge cable is made
 Cables are made of thousands of individual steel
wires bound tightly together. Steel, which is very
strong under tension, is an ideal material for cables;
a single steel wire, only 0.1 inch thick, can support
over half a ton without breaking.
Suspension Bridges
 The towers are built up from reinforced
concrete or steel, with a gap for the main
roadway. Then the anchorages are installed
to hold the cables. Very thin steel cable is
spun from between the anchorages until it
can be gathered together to form two large
cables. Other cables are then dropped down
from the main cables and the sections of
prefabricated roadway are attached to them.
 Corrosion
 This is the last stage of a steel product’s life
cycle.
 When steel is exposed to water and oxygen,
it rusts
 Forms iron oxide
 Ways to prevent
corrosion
1) Protective coatings
2) Plating with another metal
3) Painting
4) Galvanized steel
 Preventing Corrosion

5. Use corrosion resistant metal

ex: stainless steel

Only problem?
Stainless steel is an alloy of chromium and is
therefore very expensive than regular steel!
 Preventing Corrosion

6. Anodic/Cathodic protection
a technique used to control the corrosion of a
metal surface by making it work as a cathode. This
is achieved by placing in contact with the metal to
be protected another more easily corroded metal to
act as the anode.
 Anodic region
 The negative part of the cell to which current
flows
 Oxidation occurs (gaining electrons)
 Rust forms
 The more reactive metal!
 Cathodic region
 The positive part of the cell to which current flows
from
 No rust forms
 Less reactive metal
 The area turns pink in phenolphthalein indicator (its
basic!)
 Corrosion Impact
 Approximately 20% of all the iron and
steel produced is used to repair or
replace corroded structures. (and this
cost billions of dollars each year in
repair and maintenance costs!)
 Elements in Bridge Design

Four main factors are used in describing a bridge:

• Span (simple, continuous, cantilever)

• Material (stone, concrete, metal, etc.)

• Placement of the travel surface in relation to the

structure (deck, through)

• Form (beam, arch, truss, etc.).

Note: The function required from the bridge and the area
where it is constructed decides the design of the bridge.
Basic Span Types

Simple Span

Continuous Span

Cantilever Span
 LOADS ON BRIDGES

• Permanent Loads: remain on the bridge for an

extended period of time (self weight of the bridge)

• Transient Loads: loads which are not permanent

- gravity loads due to vehicular, railway and

pedestrian traffic
- lateral loads due to water and wind, ice floes,
ship collision, earthquake, etc.
 MATERIALS FOR BRIDGES

• Concrete

• Steel

• Wood
 CONCRETE BRIDGES

• Raw materials of concrete: cement, fine

aggregate coarse aggregate, water
• Easily available
• can be designed to satisfy almost any geometric
alignment, straight to curved
• can be cast-in-place or precast
 CONCRETE BRIDGES

•Compressive strength of concrete range from

5000 psi to 8500 psi
• Reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete
•Mostly made of precast concrete: pretension or post-tens
•Problem of cracking on deflection
• Precast girders are used to avoid putting formwork
• Precast make proper quality control (done in yard)
• Shorter time of construction
 STEEL BRIDGES

• Minimum construction depth

• Rapid construction

• Steel can be formed into any shape or form

• Predictable life

• Ease of repair and demolition

 WOOD BRIDGES

• Convenient shipping to the job site

• Relatively light, lowering transportation and initial

construction cost

• Light, can be handled with smaller construction

equipment

• Approx. 12% of the bridges in US are wood bridges

• Commonly used for 20-80 ft span

 QUESTIONS?

EXAMPLES?

ASSESSMENTS?