POLYGRAPHY

• refers to the scientific method of detecting deception with the aid or use of a polygraph instrument. The
term polygraph is a composition of two words: poly means many and graph which means writings. Literally means
“many writings.”

Polygraph

- a machine designed to detect and record changes in physiological characteristics, such as a person's pulse and
breathing rates, used especially as a lie detector.

Polygraph Machine Measure and Record the ff:

1. Blood Pressure

2. Heart Rate

3. Respiration

4. Skin Conductivity

Polygraph Examination

-The entire environment within which a qualified polygraphist renders an expert opinion as to the veracity of an
examinee’s statements concerning the primary issue of the matter under investigation.

-Is a scientific test that collects physiological data from a person with the purpose of detecting reactions associated
with dishonesty.

Polygraph Examiner

-interpret the charts generated by the polygraph machine. Polygraph came from the Greek word "polys" - many
writings and "grapho" write.

Is one who is skilled and capable to detect deception or verify truth of statement through instrumentation or the use
of mechanical device.

Lie

-is an intentionally false statement to a person or group made by another person or group who knows it is not wholly
the truth.

WHY DO WE LIE?

AVOID PUNISHMENT
AVOID EMBARASSMENT
PROTECT SOMEONE ELSE FROM PUNISHMENT
PROTECT ONE’S SELF FROM PHYSICAL HARM
OBTAIN A REWARD
GET OUT OF AWKWARD SITUATION
MAINTAIN PRIVACY
WIN ADMIRATION FROM OTHERS
EXERCISE POWER OVER OTHERS

Ordeal, Trial or Judicium Dei is a common method of deciding guilt or innocence and a practice of referring disputed
questions to the judgment of God, determined by various means, particularly by physical tests.
1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal

Practiced in the hill tribe of North Bengal. The accused had to carry a bar of red hot iron in his hands while he walked
nine marked paces. In the unlikely event of no burns appearing on his hands, he was adjudged innocent. Otherwise,
he was promptly hanged.

2. Ordeal by Balance

Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India. A scale of balance is used, in one end of the scale the accused is placed and
in the other end is a counter balance. The person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to deliver an
exhortation on the balance and get back in. if he was found lighter than before, then he should be acquitted.

3. Ordeal by Water

Ordeal by water was the usual mode of trial allowed to members of the lower classes.

a. Boiling Water Ordeal – according to the laws of Athelstan, the first king of England, the ordeal of boiling water
consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling water, if the accused was able to lift a stone out of the boiling water he is
considered innocent otherwise he is guilty.

Another method of performing this ordeal is by inserting the hand as dep as the wrist. More serious offences
demanded that arm was submerged up to the elbow. The burn was bandaged for three days before fateful
examination.

b. Cold Water Ordeal – The usual mode of trial for witchcraft. In this ordeal, the accused was tied at feet and hands
and was lowered to cold water by rope. This rope is tied around the defendant’s waist and had a knot a particular
distance from the torso. If both know and accused dipped beneath the surface of the water, the accused was proven
innocent. If the know is dry or if the water refused to receive him, the defendant was guilty.

4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing

It is performed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations. The person on trial eats the
sathee, with the face to the east and then splits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his
mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared to be a liar. Indians practice this ordeal.

5. Ordeal of the Red Water

The ordeal the sassy bark or ordeal of the red water is used in the wide region of Eastern Africa. The accused is made
to fast for twelve hours, and then swallows a small amount of rice. Then he will be imbedded in dark colored water.
The water is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all rice, he is considered innocent of the charge. Otherwise, the
accused is guilty.

6. Ordeal by Combat

The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender or to pay a champion to fight for him. The victor is
said to win not by his own strength but because of supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right,
as in the duel in the European Ages in which the “judgment of God was thought to determine the winner”. If still
alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged or burned for a criminal offense or have a hand cut off and
properly confiscated in civil actions.

In England, King Henry III abolished all legal ordeals except Ordeal by Combat. This ordeal was vividly dramatized in
the movie “Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title.

7. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread)

A priest puts the corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused, with various imprecation. If the accused
swallowed it he was freed from punishment.

8. Test of the Eucharist

This was applied chiefly among the clergies and monks. When they took the host it was believed that God would
smite the guilty with sickness or death. Others believe that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink
for him to take in, Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the accused from taking in the poisonous drink.

9. Ordeal of the Bier

It was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out their killer. In England, it was customary for the accused
approach the bier on which the corpse lay. In view of the witness, the wound of the victim were observed to see if
they began to bleed again. They believe that murderer is near, which causes the blood to flow out from the wound of
the victim. This ordeal was recorded well by Shakespeare in “Richard III”.

10. Ordeal of the Needle

A red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the alleged criminal and if blood flowed from the wound, he was
deemed guilty; but if none, he is innocent. Wanaka, Eastern Africa practiced this ordeal.

11. Ordeal by head and fire

The accused walked barefooted over coals of fire, or was made to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by fire he
was considered innocent.

12. Trial of the Cross

The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their arms extended or crosswise and the first to
move his hands or suffer them to fall was held guilty. Or the accused was placed before relics and two dice were then
produced, one marked with a cross. Of these, one was taken up at hazard. If it happened to bear the sign of the
cross, the accused was acquitted.

13. Trial of the Waxen Shirt

The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and walked barefooted over coals of fire. If he was unhurt by the
fire and the wax did not melt, he was considered innocent.

14. Hereditary Sieve Method

Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics, in his famous book in criminal investigation in which beans were thrown into
a sieve as the name of the suspect was called, mentioned this ordeal. If the beans jump out of the sieve, the owner
of the sieve is innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the person named is a thief.

15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal

The donkey is placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey cried the accused is guilty of the crime
charged, because inside and in his conscience he is guilty.

16. Ordeal of the Tiger

Practiced in Siam, the accused and accuser are place on a cage of a tiger; if the tiger spare one of them he is
considered innocent.

*Other Countries Practicing Ordeal

Burma – the ordeal by divination is being practiced in this country, whereby it involves two parties being furnished
with candles of equal size and lighted simultaneously; the owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged to
have won his cause.

Madagascar – Legal authorities practiced trial by Ordeal. The supposed criminal was made to drink a decoction; a
poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a small dose is fatal. By managing the size of the dose, those who administer it can
decide result.

Borneo – the accuser and accused were presented shellfish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on
the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish moved first was adjudged the winner.

Greece – a suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was in the
line with the blade as supposed to be guilt out by divine providence.

Nigeria – the priest greased a cock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the accused. If feather passed through the
tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method practiced in the same
country us the pouring of corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to be unharmed if
innocent.

Pouring of boiling oil over the hand of the accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence is also practiced. In
the middle of the 13th century the ordeal had died out in England and on the other Continents.

METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Forensic Assessment Interview Technique

– allows the interviewer to assess non verbal and verbal behavior without the need of attachments to make the
accurate determinations of truth or deception.

Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through the words that are spoken, speed of delivery of words, choice
of words, tone of voice and the tense of language.

Non-Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through patterns of body movements, gestures, facial expression,
body posture, positioning and movements use to explain chosen words. Signs of Lying

2. Physiological Lie Detection

 The use of modern equipment to record the physiological changes that occur on a person was
employed in determining guilt or innocence. The polygraph is one that is used to accurately records and
measures physiological changes which include respiratory, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and vasomotor
activity. These parameters are monitored by the sensors connected on a particular parts the body of the
person being tested.

a. Deception Test

An approach in polygraph testing that is conducted to determine the involvement of an examinee to a known
incident or to multiple issues of concern:

• Comparison Question Technique

• Non-Comparison Question Technique

b. Recognition Test

This approach in polygraph testing is intended to determine if the examinee has knowledge about the issue
being tested. An examinee who are knowledgeable on the case information or facts, will exhibits
physiological reaction when confronted with the item relevant to the test. The type of recognition test are as
follows:

• Searching Peak of Tension Test

• Known Solution Peak of Tension Test
• Concealed Information Test
• Acquaintance Test

3. Non-Verbal Lie Detection

There are several concepts considered to determine the non-verbal indicators of deception. These approach includes
the following:

A. Multifactor Model
In multifactor model, there are elements that may influence cues to deception and each has
distinct effect on the non verbal behavior of liar.
a. Emotional Reactions

According to Ekman, (1985) telling a lie is most commonly associated with different
emotions such as fear, guilt, or delight. A lying person may feel guilt, afraid to discover his
lie, or related about fooling someone. The strength of these emotions depends on the
personality of the liar and the circumstances under which the lie takes place.

It is important to note that behavior of a lying person may be affected because of guilt,
fear and excitement.

The stronger the emotion, the more likely that some of these behaviors will revel deceit

b. Cognitive Load

There are various aspects that may explain why lying requires more cognitive demand than
telling the truth:

- Formulating a lie demands more cognitive effort.

- Liars are typically less likely than truthtellers to take their credibility for granted.
- Liars monitor the interviewer’s reactions more carefully in order to assess whether they
appear to be getting away with their lie.
 - Liars may be preoccupied by the task of reminding themselves to act and roleplay, which
requires extra cognitive effort.
- Liars who engaged in cognitively complex tasks experiences speech hesitations and
errors, speaks slower, and takes time to give answer. It also resulted in less hand and arm
movements. It further resulted to more gaze aversion due to difficulty in maintaining eye
contact.
c. Attempted Behavioral Control

Liars are aware that they must appear convincing in the eyes of an investigator, thus they will
try to control their behavior. They must subdue their nervousness while trying to hide their
difficulty of answering questions. Liars need to act and appear honest and keep away from
dishonest behavior. These effort of controlling behavior increases on high stakes situations.

B. Self-Presentational Perspective

This approach predicts that as liars experience one or more factors in multifactor model, it is plausible that signs of
deception will occur. However, DePaulo et al argued that emotions, cognitive load, and behavioral control may also
influence the behavior of truth tellers. Liars and truthtellers will succeed in their social interaction goals only if the
appear sincere and convincing.

C. Interpersonal Deception Theory

This theory suggests that liars must performed several simultaneous communication task during a face to face
encounters. Their verbal message must be credible while projecting plausible non verbal behavior. Liars must control
their behavior, while maintaining smooth conversation with their partner. The response is in accordance of what they
say, and must conceal any intent to deceive their partner. IDT embraces the three multifactor model of Zuckerman as
fundamental reasons for cues of deceit.

MACRO EXPRESSION MICRO EXPRESSIONS

-Obvious or “normal” expressions” -often misinterpreted or missed altogether

-Last between ½ and a second to 4 seconds -occur in ½ a second or mess

-Match the content and tone of what is said -unconsciously display a concealed emotion

Tools for Non-Verbal Lie Detection

A. Facial Emotional Expression

The aspect of facial communication are beyond control and ca be betray a deceiver’s true emotion
via micro expressions of that emotion. However, researchers have found out that micro expressions
of emotions are common to both liars and truth tellers.

B. Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)

The procedure involved in BAI includes asking of non-threatening, investigative and behavior-provoking questions.
The guilty suspect is supposed to probably display nervous behaviors such as crossing their legs, shifting seating
position, and preforming grooming behavior when giving answer to the questions. Innocent suspects are expected to
lean forward, maintain eye contact and use illustrators to supplement confidence in their statements. The guilty
suspects swiftly answer the question with lack of sincerity. They are more likely to exhibits anxiety reducing behavior
like shifting seating position. Investigators are inclined to observe nervous behaviors to classify the innocent and
guilty suspect. Succeeding experiments on the use of BAI produced contradicting results on the findings of Inbau. It
was found out that liars were less likely to cross their legs and shift posture that the innocent. Another subsequent
experiment showed that BAI procedure failed to distinguished innocent from truth-tellers.

The concept about non-verbal indicators of lying has been subjected to comprehensive research and experiments.
These tools are found to be unreliable in determining truth-tellers and liars. There is no available evidence to support
that it can effectively discriminate the truthful and guilty person.

4. Verbal Lie Detection

The basic premise of verbal lie detection are that liars have to think harder to fabricate a lie and will try to
make more convincing impression that truthful persons. Verbal lie detection is a memory-based approach,
regarded as a unique sign of deception. It is presumed that people remember differently the events that he
experienced from the events that are fabricated. Hence, they talk about them in different ways.

Tools for Verbal Lie Detection

A. Statement Validity Assessment (SVA)

The SVA is a tool designed to verify the accuracy of the testimony of child witnesses during the trial of a sexual cases.
There are times that an investigator encountered difficulty in determining the facts of sexual offense involving
children due to unavailability of evidence. Also, because of the absence of possible witness that could provide
independent version of the events to validate contradicting statement of victims and accused. The SVA assessment
are accepted as evidence in some North American courts and in criminal courts in several West-European countries,
including Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden.

Stages of Statement Validity Assessment:

• Case-file analysis
• Semi structured interview
• Criteria-based content analysis (CBCA)
• Validity checklist

B. Reality Monitoring (RM)

This method is used only for scientific research and said to have strong theoretical support. It is based on memory
theory and is centered on the concept that memories of experienced events differs in quality from memories of
imagined events.

C. Scientific Content Analysis (SCAN)

This tool was developed by Avioam Sapir, a polygraph examiner and a former Israeli police lieutenant. It supposed in
this approach that truth tellers and liars differ from each other. However, no theoretical support is available to
support the said assumptions. The procedure requires an examinee to write down in detail his/her activities on a
crucial period of time. Handwritten statement is then analyzed based on the criteria set for this tool. SCAN criteria
like denial of allegation and use of self-references mostly occur in truthful than deceptive statements, while other
criteria like change in language and missing information are likely to appear in deceptive than truthful statements.
 D. Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID)

The process of Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception, involves detailed examination of the length of response,
admitting potential errors, and use of Reality Monitoring (RM) criteria to distinguished the differences die to memory
and impression management or control of information. This extended approach to RM corresponds to the unique
external, contextual, and internal details as observe during the process of investigative interview for detection of
deception. The first experiment with this approach indicates 95% of the statements of honest and deceptive
participants were determined accurately. The statement of honest participants are more clear and spontaneous:

• It has more external and contextual detail overall.

• Response are more detailed due to the recall enhancement effect of the mnemonics.

The most silent and statistically powerful features of the study was the details that were not provided during free
recall but rather were added in the course of later recall task.

5. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Lie Detection (fMRI)

The method of monitoring brain activity has been employed by several researchers in an attempt to detect
deception. The fMRI approach involves measurement of changes in regional cerebral blood flow cause by the
activity of the nervous system. The activity of the brain in response to a specific type of events is measured
through fMRI procedure.

Classes of postulated neural processes engaged during deception

Cognitive control processes

- It includes working memory, memory-retrieval conflict monitoring, and response

inhibition. These refers to the processes with higher complexity of producing lies relative
to telling the truth.

Memory-relate processes

- These refers to the fact that lies and truths may differ in how well they are encoded, and
in the richness and quality of these memories.

Social cognitive processes

- It refers to the idea that a successful liar needs to take into account the perspective of
the target of the lie in order to be able to deceive the target.

Current studies suggests that fMRI methods so far could not outshine the traditional methods of detecting
deception. But since fMRI is a new approach, there is always a possibility that his method will be improved in the
future. Time will come that the techniques in brain-imaging and analysis will be refined and enhance through
numerous research that may be conducted.

6. Optical Motor Detection of Deception

The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced from the theory suggested by Charles Darwin that pupil
dilations was associated with fear and other emotion. It was speculated based on research that sympathetic nervous
system influenced the pupillary changes which could be used to measure the value of interest and pleasure on visual
stimuli. Succeeding researches suggests that cognitive effort can be related to pupil dilation.
The Autonomic Nervous System controls the dilation and constriction of the pupil. The iris dilates when the
sympathetic nervous system is activated, the parasympathetic subdivision of the ANS causes the constriction of the
iris.

Causes of Pupillary Changes

1. Light reflex
2. Startle Response
3. Fatigue
4. Pain
5. Emotional Arousal
6. Cognitive Load.

EYEDETECT is a new technology available designed for optical motor detection of deception test. It measures eye
movements, pupil diameter, reading behavior, etc., during the process of examination using an infrared camera and
scoring algorithm to determine the test outcome.

Verbal Clues

Verbal Clues to deception include the words that are spoken, speed of delivery of the words, choice of words, tone of
voice and the tense of the language.

a. Methods of responding to the Question – the way the respondent answers the question is clue of deception. In
general truthful people tend to be direct; untruthful people tend to be cautious about their answers.

b. Length of Time before Giving response – in general, truthful person answer questions immediately after the
question is asked; untruthful persons take their time in giving a response.

c. Repetition of Question – the act of repeating the question is another means for the deceiver to gain time to
frame his or her answer. The question may be repeated word for word, or the respondent may frame the answer
with a request to repeat the question.

d. Fragmented or Incomplete Sentences – Untruthful person often speak in disjointed or curtailed sentences. This
is usually because he has started the answer, then thought better of it. Statements such as “I…I… can’t think… it
seems to me… can be a clue of lying. Many liars will speak half-truths as well, and add qualifiers, such as “… to
the best of my memory… “or”… if I recall correctly.

e. Being Overly Polite – anger is a common response to an unjust accusation, as well as answering the statement
with a abrupt “no”. Untruthful subjects are more likely to be polite to the accuser, using pleasing terms such as
“sir” or “ma’am” “boss” or “chief”. The Suspect who has been accused and is lying will often say, “ Sir, to tell you
the truth, I didn’t do it”

f. Oaths – Lying persons will frequently utter oaths, such as “I swear to God I didn’t do it” or “I swear on my
Father’s grave.” Most truthful people do not need to swear or affirm; they are ardent in their denials. Some
people who use words like “frankly” or “to tell the truth” often are neither being frank nor are they telling the
truth.
g. Clarity of Response – Honest people tend be very clear in their answers, while untruthful persons tend to speak
softly and broaden their answers. Such responses are to avoid the stress caused by an untruthful response; the
liar is hedging. In that way, if caught in a lie, the earlier “soft” response may aid in diffusing the lie.

h. Use of words – as a general rule, truthful subjects have no trouble denying the allegation in precise terms, while
untruthful one will have problems with the used of words. Untruthful suspects also tend to deny specific
instances.

i. Assertiveness – truthful persons are confident about their innocence, and deceitful ones are not confident unless
they are practiced liars. Truthful people will respond directly without waiver or qualification; deceptive people
tend to respond indirectly with waivers and qualifications.

j. Inconsistencies – Contradicting testimonies made by the witness are one of the best indicators of dishonesty;
liars get caught up their own web of deceit.

k. Slip of the Tongue – Liars, as Freud discovered, quite often slip up and divulge themselves through a “slip of the
tongue.

l. Tirades – People who are deceptive sometimes reveal more than a word or two, as in the slip of the tongue. The
information doesn’t slip out, it pours out. Ekman a psychologist believes that “leaking” out may be caused by the
internal stress produced by a lie. Tirades may be in direct proportion to the stress generate in the lie, and arise at
a time of anger or other strong emotion.

m. Pauses – Ekman says gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to deception. The examiner should assess
pauses in speech that are tool long, too frequent, or which occur at inappropriate places.

n. Speed of Speech – Persons who are tense or upset frequently increases the swiftness of their speech, words tend
to run together and the conversation can be fragmented. A pattern of increased speed of speech during the
relevant part of the questioning could show deception.

Non-Verbal Clues

Non-verbal clues encompass patterns in the body movements, gestures, facial expressions body posture, positioning
and movements used to explain chosen words.

a. Emblems – emblems are often performed deliberately, these are expressions made with the body, whose
meanings are clearly understood. Here are examples of emblem: Shaking or nodding of the head, shrugging the
shoulders, the universal “thumbs up sign”, as well as the circled finger and thumb to indicate “okay”. Other
examples would include a broad wink finger and thumb to indicate “okay”. Other examples would include a
broad wink to show the remarks are to be taken in joke, as well as a shrug of the shoulders.
b. Manipulators – these are usual behavior of touching one’s self. Manipulators encompass grooming the hair,
wringing the hands, picking imaginary fur from a coat. Manipulators may go on for several minutes or may last
for a short time. Props, like cigarettes, pencils and so on can be used in the manipulation. Social scientists have
documented that body movements, fridgeting, and other behavior arise with stress. The manipulators increases
their use of manipulators when they are totally relaxed and when they are may be a sing of deception.

c. Breathing – Many persons, under prolonged periods of stress, hyperventilate. Although breathing is an
involuntary movement. Breathing is very much affected by stress. This stress may have nothing to do with the lie.
But an increase in breathing rate or volume may be a sign of deception.

d. Sweating – this is another uncontrollable body function. Perspiration occurs with heat as well as with emotion.
The rate of perspiration is not the same for all emotions, such as fear and anger. Too much sweating could very
well indicate an involuntary reflex with deception.

e. Frequent Swallowing – A dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion. Often the subject is not aware of
increased efforts at swallowing. During the time of the critical question, increased swallowing might indicate
deception.

f. Facial Muscles – Other muscles are not easy to control but people can control certain facial muscles with spirit.
Example, to force a smile is easy, but even beginners will notice something is wrong about. The reliable facial
muscles that cannot be are the muscles above the eyes but the muscles involving the mouth are controllable.
The muscles above the eyes control certain eye movements, along with movements of the eyebrows. These
muscles are difficult to train even experienced actors and actresses, and can be used in detecting deception.

g. Eyes – the eyes most likely express as much emotion as any other part of the anatomy. Blinking, pupil dilation,
and tears are some of the signs indicative of emotion in the eye. Rapid blinking can signal emotional stress in the
eyes. On the other hand, the nonexistence of blinking may indicate the subject has rejected the interrogator or
interviewer. Pupil dilation is an involuntary response and beyond the control of the subject. The most frequent
reason for a change in pupils is because of the light source. The Pupil will respond to felt emotion. Trained actors
know how to cry, they think of something in their life that was typically sad, and they focus on that emotion.
Trying to cry at proper times and equally trying to hold back tears could be a sign of deception.

h. Face – People believe that lies will commonly show up in the face and eyes. The face can have two messages:
what the liar is trying to show as well as what he or she is trying to hide. Reddening or blushing of the face is
supposed to be a sign of embarrassment and cannot be controlled. Such indicators may indicate strong emotion
and is not reliable sign of deception.
DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH

Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)

• An Italian scientist who in 1885 used hydrospygmograph procedure and envisioned the idea of using
scientific procedures to lie detection
• He is considered the first person to use an instrument for the purpose of detecting deception
• Hydrospygmograph. A device consisting of a cylinder containing registering tube, used to record the amount
of blood forced with each pulsation into a limb incased in the apparatus
• He employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception, which is known as Hydrosphymograph, this
instrument measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were asked about their
involvement in or knowledge of specific response.
• He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize a scientific instrumentation successfully in
the detection of deception.

Angelo Mosso (1895)

• He studied the effect of fear on the cardiovascular and respiratory system.

• He developed the mechanical device known as the “Scientific Cradle”, often called “Mosso Cradle.” This
devise was nothing more than a balanced table-like platform, mounted on a fulcrum.
• He theorized that this sudden change of blood flow to the brain caused by fear would result in a slight shift in
the subject’s body weight, and thus a corresponding measurable movement of the cradle. There is however,
no evidence that Mosso ever put his theory into practice.
• A pioneer type who developed in 1895 a type of sphygmanometer and utilized a scientific cradle and focus
on the significance of fear as an indication of deception
• Sphygmanometer. An early device for measuring blood pressure. The patient inserted their fingers into the
tubes (marked E) which were filled with water-both diastolic and systolic pressures (and pulse wave) were
recorded on the black cylinder.

Dr. William Moulton Marston (1893-1947)

• He was considered as the father of the modern polygraphy. He dealt with the sphygmomanometer and
made researches on the usefulness of sphygmomanometer in detecting lies, which was used to obtain
periodic discontinues blood pressure reading during the course of a test.
• He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.
• He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance changes and a gripping devise to record
tension.
• An American lawyer and psychologist, who is credited with the invention of a primitive form of lie detector
when he developed in 1915, of the systolic blood pressure test, which would become subsequently, a
component of the modern polygraph. This technique is used as a standard blood pressure cuff and a
stethoscope to take intermittent readings of the systolic blood pressure of a subject during an examination in
order to detect deception.
• Marston was also the creator of the systolic blood pressure test, which lead to the creation of the polygraph
(lie detector). Because of his discovery, Marston was convinced that women were more honest and reliable
than men and could work faster and more accurately

John Larson (1921)

• He developed an instrument that continually and simultaneously measures blood pressure pulse and
respiration.
• He designed the first two recording channel polygraph in the history. The first mechanical form of the
present-day polygraph consists of two recording components and that is the cardiosphymograph and the
pnuemograph.
Giovanni Lancisi

• His study about emotion and mental functions was conceived in 1782.
• He believed that emotions are produced, by thought, by more or less forceful heart action. He concluded
that the characteristics of the mind derived from the structure and physical changes going on in the body.

Stephen Hales

• English clergyman-a priest who pioneered clinical physiology.

• In 1773, he was the first to study the measurement of blood pressure in animals

Hugo Munsterberg

• In 1908, he suggested the use of blood pressure test, pulse tracings for measuring deception in court
proceedings

Galileo

• In 1581, he was the first to conduct experiments using pulsiologium, an apparatus designed for measuring
human pulse

DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMOGRAPH

Vittorio Benusi (1914)

• He detected deception with a pneumography, an instrument that graphically measures the inhalation and
exhalation. He demonstrated the changes in breathing patterns by nothing the changes in respiration –
expiration ratio during deception.
• Noted the changes in inhalation ratio occurring during deception.
• He recorded the respiratory curves of the pneumograph

Harold Burtt (1918)

• He determined that respiratory changes were indication of deception.

• He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in determining deception that in
changes in respiration.
• Respiratory changes were signs of deception and concluded that systolic pressure changes are valuable in
determining deception
• A researcher into deception test using respiration and devised a formula to evaluate respiratory responses
for detecting deception based largely on the ratio of the time to inhale to that of the exhalation.
• He partially confirmed the results obtained by Benussi and improved upon his technique. However, Brutt
considered this respiratory method of less diagnostic value than the blood pressure technique that he (Burtt)
considered the best indication of deception

Leonarde Keeler

• He made an improvement of Larson’s apparatus and in 1949 he invented the “Keeler Polygraph” with
components for recording blood pressure, pulse and respiration changes.
• A galvanometer what is known as the galvanic skin reflex or electrodermal response generally referred to as
the GSR is also added in his instrument.
• He also demised a metal bellows and designed a kymograph that pulled at a constant speed, a chart paper
under the recording pens from a roll of chart paper located inside the instrument.
• Made significant changes in the polygraph instrument by adding channels for recording blood-pressure
pulse, respiration changes, a galvanometer and kymograph. The instrument record breathing pattern,
galvanic skin response, heartbeat, pulse rate and strength plus changes in mean blood pressure
 • Keeler’s polygraph was portable, ultimately had all of the current channels, and contained an inking system.
It included a sprocket drive similar to that used earlier by Lee, but his kymograph had a differential gear train
with three settings. Keeler’s instrument became the standard in the field and remained so for many years.
• The Keeler Polygraph as it was called, was designed to be reliable, rugged, and portable

William M. Marston

• Included experiments to record the respiration and the time of the subject’s verbal response.

John E. Reid

• He designed a special chair equipped with metal bellows for recording unobserved muscular activities of the
arms, thighs and feet, located on the arm of the chair and on the seat, this transmit singular muscular
activity to the recording polygraph.
• He introduced the first four recording channel instrument to be developed. This instrument is excellent for
detecting deceptions because it does not only have a recording pen for cardiosphymograph, pnuemograph
and galvanograph but also it has the muscular movement pen for the arms and thighs.
• Found that by various forms of unobserved muscular activity a subject’s blood pressure could be a changed
in such manner as to seriously affect the accuracy of the examiner’s diagnosis
• He then devised and invented the “REID POLYGRAPH” for recording muscular activity along with changes in
blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and psychogalvanic skin reflex.

DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE

Harold Sticker (1897)

• He made the first suggestion for using galvanograph for detecting deception based on the works of several
predecessors.
• Worked on the galvanograph component and studied the influence and relation of the sweat glands to skin
resistance.
• “whoever takes the meaning of something to heart will react with a strong galvanic skin phenomenon.
Whoever is from any cause emotionally roused on looking at a picture will react with the definite increase of
the current whilst whoever is unmoved by the picture, in whom it rouses no memory, will have no skin
excitation

Veraguth (1907)

• He was the first one to use the term “psychogalvanic reflex”. He believed that the electrical phenomenon is
due to the activity of sweat glands.
• He made the first suggestion for using the psycho-galvanic reaction for detecting deception and wrote that,
“the galvanic skin phenomenon is under the influence of exciting mental impressions and the will have no
effect upon it”

Carl Jung

• Took to using EDA as an indicator of emotional complexes along with his word-association tests.
• However, the EDA was slow to be adapted to polygraph applications largely due to problems in devising a
method of producing a permanent recording, and the difficulty in the interpretation of the recordings once
they were available

Reverend Walter Summers

• Reported a success rate of more than 98% using his Pathometer, an electrodermal recorder, through the vast
majority of his tests with the device were on students in a laboratory setting.
• His method entailed constructing a series of test questions and then recording electrodermal response
amplitudes during the presentation of the questions.

Richard O. Arthur
 • Developed an improvised polygraph machine with two galvanic skin resistance

Emily Du Boi-Reymond

• German physician and physiologist, he discovered the flow of current from the two limbs by applying
chemical compound on the hands and feet.
• He inferred that the human skin is a conductor of electricity
• He regarded that the observed phenomena was influenced by muscle activity.

Herman and Luchsinger

• They reported their findings about the connection of sweat gland activity and flow of current in the skin of a
cat.
• He discovered that the finger and palm areas of the hands produces greater sweat compared to other body
parts

Jean Martin Charcot

• French neurologist-he was famous for his work on hysteria and hypnosis
• Charcot laboratory was used by Vigouroux and Fere in their research

Romain Vigouroux

• Electrotherapist- conducted research on emotionally disturbed patients by measuring the changes in skin
resistance through adjusted dosages of medications applied to them.
• He suggested the vascular theory in electrodermal activity, which associated the changes in skin resistance
with changes in blood flow

Luigi Galvani (1791)

• He is Italian Physiologist who was accorded the distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the
galvanometer, which records electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current ever recorded.
The GSR reflected emotional changes by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to electricity.

Development of Questioning Technique

Leonarde Keeler (1942)

He developed the “relevant – irrelevant” test. The theory of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions
and innocent shows no reactions.

Keeler is also credited with introducing the “card test” and specialized in “peak of tension test”.

John E. Reid (1950)

He developed the “reviewed control question” consisting of a known lie incorporated in to relevant – irrelevant test.
The theory of the test is to stimulate the innocent subject, to identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex
reactor and to improve contract between innocent and guilty subjects. He also discovered the “guilt – complex test”
administered to the overly responsive subject.
Cleve Backster (1960)

Backster conceived the psychological set theory. Psychological set postulates that an individual being asked a series
of question will mentally focus on those question that have the greatest salience, because they pose the greatest
interest or immediate threat to his general well-being at the point in time. This forms the basis of his zone of
comparison technique that provides constant monitoring of the subject’s reactivity and designed to disclose outside
issue. This is known as the “Backster Zone Comparison Test”.

Early Publications on Lie Detection

Sir James Mackenzie (1906)

• A famous heart specialist. It was said that “polygraph” exist as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect
deception. He first described the instrument in an article entitled “The Ink Polygraph” which appeared in the
British Medical Journal in 1908.

Vittorio Benussi (1913)

• He presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian Society for Psychology in Rome, on the
subject of his experiments regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

Richard O. Archer (1953)

• The first polygraphist to record simultaneously on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns.
He was also the first on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes. In 1966 he founded the journal
of polygraph Science, the oldest of the polygraph publications.

Richard I. Golden (1969)

• He presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas regarding
his experiments using existing control question techniques but requiring the subject to answer each question
twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for the purpose or requiring additional psycho-
physiological data from the examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the
same question.

William Stern (1902)

• Wrote an article “Die Aussagepsychologie” (The Witness Psychology), hypothesizing that person’s statement
depends on the cognitive ability of the person as well as on the interviewing process used to obtain the
statement. He was considered the “Father of Statement Analysis.”

Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

Franci Galton (1879)

• He developed the much-acclaimed psychological test known as the Word Association Test, whereby the
patient is presented with group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient to utter his first
thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav Jung later developed the work and experinment of Galton.

Allen Bell Jr. and Charles Mc Quiston (1972)

 • American inventors who developed a device called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument
detects slight trembling in the voice, which maybe interpreted to determine if person is telling the truth.

Anton Mesmer

• In 1778 he was first one to introduce hypnotism as a method of detecting deception.

Dr. Edward Mandel House

• a U.S. psychiatrist and diplomat who introduced truth serum as a method of detecting deception.

Lawrence A. Farwell

• invented, developed, proven, and patented the brain fingerprinting.

1. Hypnotism

This method was introduced by Franz Anton Mesmer in 1778. He believed in animal magnetism, therapeutic effect
influenced other persons. These effects produced were attributed to the state of mind of a subject whereby he is set
up, and thereby instructed to sit quietly and gazed at flashing light or shiny object tangled in front of his eyes and to
cooperate with whatever the hypnotist would like him to do.

* Detected deception through hypnosis was not admissible in court due to the following:

• It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in ascertaining the truth from falseness.
• The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
• the prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the hypnotized subject is suggestibility in
which the hypnotized subject is suspended will produce distortion of the fact rather than the truth.
• The state of the mind and professionalism of the examiner are too subjective to permit admissibility of the
expert testimony.
• The Word Association Test

This method was introduced in 1879 by Francis Galton, an English Scientist and Anthropologist. This method is done
by giving a subject a long list of carefully selected stimulus words or objects with other pictures combined with other
irrelevant words, objects or pictures with the instruction to respond with the very first word that may come to
subject’s mind.

2. The Truth Serum Method

This method was introduced by Edward Mandel House. The term truth serum is a misnomer. The procedure does not
make someone tell the truth and the thing administered is not a serum but is actually a drug.

This method is based on the theory that intervention through interrogation is made possible after dosage of drugs
has been appropriately administered, which depresses the cerebral activity to a point of unconsciousness, an
influence called as the twilight zone. On this condition the subject is half asleep.

The objective of the test is to extract from the subconscious mind of the subject the stored contents of the mind
called memory. During the test, a drug called Byosine Hydrobromide is actually administered hypodermically to the
subject in repeated doses until a state of delirium is induced. When the proper point is reached, the questions were
answered by the subject truthfully. He forgets his acts or may even implicate others. Accordingly, he will disclose
everything without evasiveness.

Of all the deception detection methods, the Truth Serum test is considered most favorable and effective if all the
following conditions proper to the conduct of the test will be observe:

• The test must be performed by skilled experimenter, operator, technician, or physician.

• The subject expresses his consent to undergo the test.
• The dosage of the drugs injected or administered is sufficient for acquiring desired results.
• There is sufficient time during the test.
• Assurance of result is acquired to determine truth or deception.

Through statements taken from the subject under this process is not admissible as evidence in court because its
nature is involuntary, its application to criminal investigation is very useful because of its psychological effect, before,
during, and after. Just as well, a person not knowing the misleading notion of the test may tell the truth to avoid pain
of needles and possible brain destruction even before the test is done.

3. Narco-analysis or Narco-synthesis

This method of detecting deception was practically the same as that of administration of truth serum. The only
difference is the drug used. The drug Sodium Amytal or Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject. When the
effects appear, questioning starts. It was claimed that the drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the
brain and the subjects talk freely. The administration of the drug and subsequent interrogation must be done by a
psychiatrist. Like the administration of truth serum, the result of the test was not admissible in court.

4. Intoxication

This was practiced by means of drinking alcoholic beverages as stimuli to obtain truth on the part of the subject. The
subject for interrogation will be allowed to take alcoholic beverages up to the point of intoxication. Theoretically,
when under the influence of the alcohol, the power of control is said to be diminished. Thus, the subject will tend to
tell everything he knows or reveal all the relevant information. Interrogation is to be made during the excitatory
effect of alcohol.

5. The Psychological Stress Evaluator

When a person speaks, there are audible voice frequencies, and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute fluctuation of the muscle of the voice mechanism. Such oscillations of the
muscles or micro tremor occur at the rate of 8 to 14 cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.

When a person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in the voice utterance is moderately or
completely suppressed. The degree of suppression varies inversely to the degree of psychological stress on the
speaker. The psychological stress evaluator detects, measure, graphically displays the voice modulations that we
cannot hear. When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the question, those inaudible frequencies tend to
disappear. Under this method, the following questions are followed:

The examiner meets the requiring party to determine the specific purpose of the examination and to begin
formulation of relevant questions.

A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at ease with the examiner, to provide an
opportunity to specify matters, to eliminate outside issues and to review questions that will be asked.

An oral test of about 12 to 15 yes or no questions is given which is recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a
mixture of relevant and irrelevant questions.
Immediately following the test or are a late time, the tape is processed through the psychological stress evaluator for
analysis of answer.

If stress is indicated, the subject is given authority to provide additional clarification. A retest is given to verify
correction and clarification.

Other Methods of detecting deception

1.Brain waive fingerprinting

It s a way of detecting a specific EEG (Electroencephalograph) wave. One type of brain waives called ERPs (event-
related potentials) is one of the potential interest in lie detection.

The theory is that the brain processes known and relevant information differently from the way it processes
unknown or irrelevant information.

2. Brain Imagery

An FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) is a device powerful magnet and sophisticated software that can
track the brain’s use of blood overtime. It is assumed that more blood is used in particular regions of the brain when
they are active than when they are inactive.

The hypothesis for lie detection is that the sequence of the brain activations will be different between lying and truth
telling. Preliminary research supports this hypothesis while laboratory evidence offers optimism for the use of FMRI
in lie detection.

3. Thermal Imaging

Measures changes in regional facial blood flow are often quite obvious, such as when a person blushes. Recent
advances in camera and computer technology have led to the development of a method that uses body heat to
detect deception.

4. Irish Analysis

The findings of a research conducted in 1940s is that larger dilations were identified in guilty than in innocent
participants.

5.Facial analysis

Research studies suggested that short duration facial expression can reveal concealed emotions, and have
implications for the detection of lies called micro-expressions. A series of studies stated that the accuracy is above
80% for the detection of deception.
 2.1: Theories of Lying

What is the theory of lie detection?

Lie detector simply certain physiological activities of the body. These physiological activities are constantly in
operation as long as the person is alive. The most common lie detection instrument records the breathing pattern of
inspiration and expiration, a continuous pattern of relative blood pressure and pulse rate, and a pattern of electro-
dermal responses.

According to Handler (2018) a very justifiable theory in comparison question test is that, there are changes in
measures physiology load on one group of questions or the other, as function of deception or truth-telling to the
relevant questions.

A subject who is lying to the relevant questions, will have larger changes in the measured physiology to the relevant
questions that to the comparison questions. On the other hand, a person who is telling the truth to the relevant
question, will have larger changes in the measured physiology to the comparison question that to the relevant
questions (Handler, 2018)

What is the theory of lying person?

The polygraph techniques use the principle that the bodily function of a person are influenced by his mental state.
The physiological changes accompanying deception are capable of being recorded, measured and interpreted with
reasonable certainty.

Telling a lie is usually an emotional experience. A conscious act of lying causes the mind of a person, which produces
an emotion of fear or anxiety, manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing and perspiration.
The physiological fluctuations that come with emotion are in nature automatic, self-regulating and beyond conscious
control because they affect the functioning of the internal structures that prepare the body for emergency.

CONTEMPORAY THEORIES IN POLYGRAPH TESTING ARE THE FF:

1. Analytic Theory
o Humans generate recordable physiological reactions to questions relevant to investigation targets
o Physiological reactions is influenced by the test questions presented
o Test question which require greater cognitive load, will produce the target physiological response
o Reactions on relevant questions is also influenced by emotional and conditioning factors
o Holds the greater changes in physiological activity are loaded at different types of stimuli as a function of
deception and truth-telling in response to relevant target stimuli (Nelson,2016).
2. Differential Salience Theory
o More general and frugal psychological theory that is more consistent with the field of scientific psychology
o It includes emotion, cognition and conditioned learning as a basis of response to polygraph questions
o Responsivity can divulge underlying processes that can be utilized as basis to detect deception
o Assume a common pathway for the physiological expression of those cognitive and emotional processes
that gave rise to the psychological salience
3. Cognitive-Behavioral Theory
 o Explains the variety of known physiological phenomena observed during polygraph testing
o Cognition, emotions and behavioral/experimental learning serves as basis of physiological responses
o It suggests that truth telling requires simple cognitive and emotional task demands than deception

OTHER THEORIES OF POLYGRAPH TESTING

1. Psychological Set
o Was introduced in polygraph by Cleve Backster.
o He made the concept as a foundation of his Zone Comparison Technique which he associated the concept
to fear of detection.
o It is assumed that examinees focuses their fears, anxieties and apprehensions on the self-preservation and
well-being.
o A guilty person will experience fear of detection which consequently causes greater reaction on the
questions relevant to the issue being tested.
o Adversely, a truthful person will focus fear on the comparison questions.
o This theory was however does not support the effectiveness of DIRECTED LIE COMPARISON questions
where fear of detection was not present because of the permission on the examinee to give a lie answer
on the DLC questions.
o According to Handler, the term psychological set was “made up” and there is no such thing.
2. The Fight – or – Flight Response
o The most common explanation on the causes of physiological phenomena observed during polygraph
examination.
o The term was first described by Walter Canon in 1959.
o It was assumed that the activation of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) influenced the distribution of
blood on certain parts of the body where it is mostly needed during an emergency situations.
o It is a primitive, autonomic, inborn response of our body to a perceived attack, harm or threat.
o According to Handler, this theory, an outdated term and does not explain the complete range of responses
during psychophysiological detection of deception test
o It is no longer taught in polygraph school
3. The Orienting Response
o Described by Pavlov (1927) as the orienting reflex. It is a behavioral response expected to occur as a
result of questions asked during polygraph examination does not start with a relevant question, to
ensure that orienting response on the test questions will not be confused as deceptive reaction
4. Arousal Theory
o This theory suggests that polygraph questions have different inherent cognitive and or emotional effect
for every for every test subject.
o Guilty and innocent examinee can be determined by evaluating which question has greater response as
influenced by behavioral conditioning
5. Conditioned Response Theory
o Holds that physiological reaction is associated with an emotional response caused by conditioned
stimulus
o A polygraph question connected with strong emotions produces larger response.
o The degree of physiological response is associated to the personal significance of questions presented
during the test.
o However, this theory is not considered as the prevailing explanation for polygraph examination.
o In 2003, the National Research Council commented that truthful examinee may be affected by the type
of relevant questions concerning the case of a murdered relative
6. Conflict Theory
o According to this theory, the tendency of a polygraph to give a conflicting answer causes physiological
arousal.
o It was assumed that the greater the conflict, the larger the response that is expected.
o This theory suggests that psychopaths have not produce larger response compared to non-psychopaths.
o However, there is no clear explanation on the presence of reaction when the examinee provide a truthful
answer or not required to answer the questions.
 7. Threat or Punishment Theory
o This theory holds that the cause of physiological arousal during deception is influenced fear of the
consequences if detected.
o Polygraph subject that is in fear of being caught on his lie will produce greater physiological responses
because of the negative consequences.
o However, this theory fails to explain why polygraph testing still function well in the absence of fear.
o In 2003, the National Research Council suggested that the fear of innocent subject of not being believe
for their truthful answer could also cause a strong physiological reactions.
o According to Handler, all tests have error rates
o The suggestions that a threat could cause an innocent person to fail in an untested hypothesis
8. Interpersonal Deception Theory
o Focuses on deception as an act, the process of detection, and our response to it.
o According to Buller and Burgoon. “detection occurs when communicators control the information
contained in their messages to convey a meaning that deposits from the truth as they know it/
o Therefore, deception can function to strategically manipulate information while impacting that dynamic
nature of one’s relationship.

DECEPTION

-It is defined as an act of convincing another to believe an information that is not true.

-It involves concept like propaganda, distraction and concealment

2.2: Psychology of Lying

Lying

o a part of communication and a form of social behavior which is involved in interacting with others.
o means saying a statement that he/she knows themselves as false to others to whom he/she want to perceive
it as true.
o It can be explained by different psychological principles of psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory,
behavior theory etc.
o arises from hedonistic nature of humans that to avoid pain and to increase pleasure. It can be also seen that
we lies not only for personal gains but also for others gain too.
o That is to avoid harm affecting ourselves and to avoid hurting others.
o can be accepted if it saves someone’s life-ourselves or of others.
o Learned as human developed and earned experiences
o Young children learned to lie to avoid punishment for any wrong doing
o When lies were undetected, people will be encouraged to tell more lies
o Experience makes them understand the nature and effect of lying

Lying is a form of deceiving others verbally. It is a part of our behavioral response in communicating with others. It
has long been a part of everyday life. We can't get through even a single day without telling lies. It is a consistent
feature of human social behavior. We are not aware of all the lies we tell. We people lie most the time in our daily
life, afraid of other people finding out the truth about us. We lie mostly to our parents, partners, friends, supervisors
and so on to whomever else with whom we interact. We lie for many reasons. Sometimes to get rid of the troubles or
sometimes to escape from the responsibilities. We think of the possible shame or threat occurring when the truth is
revealed. So we find possible solutions in the form of lies. It is a lazy way to solve a problem.
 2.3: Kinds of Lie and Type of Liars

KINDS OF LIE

1. Direct Denial
o This is a direct denial of the act in question that creates an emotional sense of disturbance.
o This disturbance refers to the conflict between what is true and the attempted deception that creates an
internal battle in the mind
2. Lie of omission
o This is a type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to tell.
o Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting details that could create
possible troubles
3. Lie of Fabrication
o This is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in an interview.
4. Lie of Minimization
o In this type of lie individual will accept that something has occurred but downplays the implication. Lie of
minimization could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth, however, he covers the truth for
his her own benefit.
5. Lie of Exaggeration
o This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also often
found on resume, where applicant exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and length
of service. The exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies of the subject story.

OTHER TYPES OF LIES

1. Benign or White Lie

o Used to maintain harmony of friendship, harmony of the home or office.
2. Red Lie
o This lie is common to communist countries.
o This lie is used to destroy other ideologies by means of propaganda.
3. Malicious Lie
o A Chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to obstruct justice.

TYPES OF LIARS ACC. TO PAUL EKMAN

1. Natural Liars
o Very successful and effortless in telling lies
o They are highly skilled and capitalizing on their talent relevant to their professions
2. Pathological Liars
o They have chronic behavior of habitually or compulsive lying even without apparent reason for doing so.
3. Psychopaths
o They have persistent antisocial behavior, lack of empathy and remorse.
o He lies easily without feeling any guilt or shame because of his psychopathic condition.

TYPES OF LIARS

1. Professional Liar
o A person who lies as part of their job or profession, often with the goal of selling something, persuading
others, or gaining an advantage.
2. Deceitful Liar
o A person who lies with the intent to deceive and mislead others for personal gain, often concealing the
truth or twisting facts.
3. Blatant Liar (Bold-Faced Liar)
o A person who lies without concern for whether they will be caught, often telling obvious lies that are easily
disprovable
 4. Imposter (Impersonator)
o A person who lies about their identity or pretends someone they are not for personal gain or to deceive
others
5. Gaslighter
o A person who lies to manipulate others into doubting their own perceptions, memory or reality, often in
abusive relationships, or power dynamics

TYPE OF LIAR

1. Panic Liar
o A person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He or she is afraid of embarrassment to
love ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational Liar
o is someone who has lied for years. This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher pay off than
telling the truth.
3. Tournament Liar
o A person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected. He views an interview as
another contest and wants to win.
o He lies because it is the only weapon remaining with which to fight.
o This person realized that he or she will probably be convicted but will not give anyone the satisfaction of
hearing him or her confess.
o He wants people to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethnological Liar
o a person who was trained not to be a squealer.
o This person loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he or she will
bever reveal the truth, the creed of underworlds gangs.
5. Psychopathic Liar
o this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his dishonest actions and no manifestation of
guilt.
o This is the most difficult type of liar because he is a good actor he can fool most investigators.
6. Pathological Liar
o A person who cannot distinguished what is right from wrong. These are those people who are mentally sick.
7. Black Liar
o a person who always pretends and a hypocrite.

The Instrument Parts and Function of a polygraph Machine and Its attachment

Polygraph usually termed, as “lie detector” is an instrument that monitors a person’s physiological reactions. This
instrument does not detect lies. It can only detect whether deceptive behavior is being displayed.

The instrument is carefully and accurately engineered for recording changes in the respiration, skin moisture, blood
pressure and pulse. The polygraph chart tracing will reveal attempted deception as shown by physiological changes
that are recorded reliably.
MODULE 3: PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF POLYGRAPH TESTING

The physiological data recorded by the polygraph that is generated from an examinee in response to stimuli
presented during the polygraph examination can be attributed to the activity of the Autonomic Nervous System The
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) controls unconscious bodily functions such as hearth beat, breathing, salivation,
perspiration and other manifestations of arousal. The ANS is basically composed of the sympathetic (SANS) and
parasympathetic nervous system (PSANS). The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the internal body organ in
response to a stressful situation. The parasympathetic nervous system slows down the physiological activation
caused by the SANS to maintain the minimum level or balance.

The activity of parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system in response to a given
situation are of homeostasis balance. Thus, any activity related to changes in the autonomic nervous system is
presumed to maintain homeostasis and survival (Nelson, 2015).

The activation of the sympathetic nervous system which causes changes in the respiratory, electrodermal,
cardiovascular, and vasomotor activity is primarily of interest during polygraph examination.
 I. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system supplies oxygen and removed carbon dioxide in our body. As we breathe, the air travels in and
out of our lungs. There is an intake of oxygen as we inhales, carbon dioxide were taken out of body cells when we
exhales. During polygraph testing, breathing is monitored to determine physiological phenomena associated with the
activity of the autonomic nervous system.

PARTS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Nasal cavity
o it warms, moisture, and filter the air entering the body before it reaches the lungs.
o the hairs and mucus in the nasal cavity is useful in trapping any contaminants present in the air
2. Right primary bronchus
o delivers oxygen to the superior, middle, and inferior lobe of the right lung.
3. Superior lobar bronchus
o carries air to alveoli.
o The exchanges of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs across the walls
of alveolar ducts and alveoli.
4. Middle lobar bronchus
o carries breathed air to alveoli.
5. Pharynx
o it allows inhaled air entering the nasal cavity to make its way to the respiratory tract.
6. Trachea
o a wide hollow tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi of the lungs. It provides the flow of air to and
from the lungs during respiration.
7. Left primary bronchus
o delivers air to the superior and inferior lobes of left lung.
8. Diaphragm
o it separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it contracts the volume of thoracic cavity
increases, creating a negative pressure that draws air into the lungs.
9. Larynx
o a tough, flexible segment of the respiratory tract connecting the pharynx to the trachea in the neck. It allows
the air to pass through the respiratory tract while keeping food and drink to block the airway.

The alveoli are small air sacs located at the ends of air passageway of the lungs that facilitates the exchange of
oxygen and carbon

The diaphragm and intercostal muscles are involved in breathing activity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts
stretching the thoracic cavity downward. At the same time, the intercostal muscles lift the rib cage and pull the
sternum outward. The enlargement of the thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand causing air to be drawn into the
lungs. Expiration takes place passively due to the elastic nature of the lungs and relaxation of the inspiratory muscles

THE RESPIRATORY CENTER

The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem. It is consists of three major
respiratory neurons, the dorsal respiratory group and ventral respiratory group which are located in medulla. The
pontine respiratory group which includes two areas known as the pneumotaxic center and the apneustic center are
located in the pons.

The respiratory center is responsible for producing and maintaining the rhythm of respiration. It regulates
homeostasis in response to physiological changes. The respiratory center receives input from chemoreceptors,
mechanoreceptors, the cerebral cortex, and the hypothalamus in order to regulate the rate and depth of breathing.
Input is stimulated by altered levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood Ph, by hormonal changes relating to stress
and anxiety from the hypothalamus, and also by signals from the cerebral cortex to give a conscious control of
respiration (wikipedia.org).

RESPIRATION LINE LENGTH

Dr. Howard Timm was credited for introducing the concept of respiration line length (RLL) in 1981. The respiration
line length refers to the linear measurement of respiration cycle in a specified period of time. The measurement of
RLL provides an objective means of evaluating the respiration reaction pattern (DoDPI,2006).

RESPIRATION FEATURES

The suppression of breathing has been found to be a reliable indicator of arousal during polygraph testin 2008, The
following pattern are considered to be correlated with respiratory suppression:

1. Apnea
2. Slowing of rate for three or more cycles
3. Decrease in amplitude for three or more cycles
4. Temporary increase in baseline for three or more cycles

RESPIRATORY RATE

The resting breathing pattern is between 12 to 18 breaths per minute Tobin, et.al, 1988; Handler, Reicherter, Nelson
& Fausett, 2009). Examinees who deliberately control their breathing rate to affect the physiological data recorded by
the polygraph can be determined by observing the regularity and characteristics of respiration rate:

1. Eupnea - normal breathing

2. Tachypnea - fast breathing
3. Bradypnea - slow breathing

FACTORS THAT AFFECT BREATHING PATTERN

1. Disease
2. Age
3. Athleticism
4. Excessive Deep Breathing

II. ELECTRODERMAL ACTIVITY

The term electrodermal activity refers to changes in the electrical properties in the skin (Johnson & Lubin, 1966). The
older term used to describe the skin phenomena is galvanic skin response or galvanic skin reflex which was named
after Luigi Galvani.

According to Brown, (1967), the term was no longer suggested to use because on the following reasons:

1. It suggests that the skin can be considered as a galvanic element, which does not correspond to the multiplicity
and complexity of EDA phenomena.
2. It suggests that EDRs are elicited as a kind of reflex, which would neither comprise spontaneous EDRs nor
psychologically elicited electrodermal changes.
3. GSR has been used to cover not only phasic EDRS

METHODS OF RECORDING ELECTRODERMAL

1. Exosomatic Method
o The application of either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) to the skin. In DC measurement, it
voltage 1s kept constant, EDA is recorded directly in skin conductance units, while skin resistance units are
obtained when current is kept constant (Handler, Nelson, Krapohl, & Honts, 2010). The discovery of
exosomatic methods of recording EDA was discovered by Fere in 1888.

• Skin Conductance - Siemens (S) or mhos

• Skin Resistance - Ohms

2. Endosomatic Method-Refers to the measurement of electrodermal response generated by the sweat glands
without using external current. It was first reported by Tarchanoff in 1890.

• Skin Potential - measured in microvolts.

TERMINOLOGY OF ELECTRODERMAL ACTIVITY

1 Electrodermal Activity (EDA) - refers to changes in the electrical properties of the skin. •

2 Electrodermal Level (EDL) - refers to the baseline or tonic level.

3 Electrodermal Response (EDR) - refers to phasic response or reaction to stimuli.

4 Skin Conductance Level (SCL) - refers to tonic level, recorded through exosomatic methods.

5 Skin Conductance Response (SCR) - phasic reaction recorded through exosomatic methods.

6 Skin Resistance Level (SRL) - tonic level, recorded through exosomatic methods.

7 Skin Resistance Response (SRR) - phasic response recorded through exosomatic methods

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumentary system is compose of the skin and its appendages. It serves as barrier that protects the entry of
foreign matters on our body. Skin helps remove water and solutes from the bloodstream through the sweat glands
(Venables & Christie, 1973).

It provides signal to the central nervous system related to its function as one of the senses of our body.

DIFFERENT LAYERS OF THE SKIN (Handler, Nelson, Kraphol & Honts, 2010).

1. Epidermis - the outer layer of the skin which provides waterproof barrier and creates skin tone.

• Stratum Malpighi - this region is comprised of the two deepest layers of the epidermis which are the strata
germinativum, and spinosum.

• Stratum Intermedium - it consist of stratum granulosum, and stratum lucidum.

• Stratum Corneum - can be divided into a lower, middle and upper zone

2. Dermis (cutis) - the lower layer part of the skin that contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat
glanas. It serves to cushion the body from stress and strain.

• Papillary Layer - it contains collagen fibers, it supply nutrients to selected part of the epidermis and regulates
temperature.

• Thicker Reticular Layer - is made of thick collagen fibers that are arranged in parallel to the surface of the skin. It
serves to strengthen the skin by providing structure and elasticity

1 Hypodermis-it attaches the skin to connective tissue

contains the secretory part of the eccrine sweat gland embedded in fatty tissue, blood vessels and nerves supplying
the rest of the skin (Boucsein,

1992; Handler et al., 2010).

THE SWEAT GLANDS

The sweat glands are small tubular structures in the skin that produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial
surface by way of a duct.

1 Apocrine Sweat Glands These type of sweat glands are located in the armpit and genital areas. They are larger in
size which are discharge into hair follicles, and produced body smells that cause by skin bacteria. They are not of
value as sources of electrodermal response considered in psychophysiology or polygraphy (Fowles, 1986).

2 Eccrine Sweat Glands These type of sweat glands are distributed all over the body, but most are found on the
palms, soles and forehead and least dense on the arms, trunk and legs (Fowles, 1986).

The eccrine sweat glands primary function is to help in maintaining homeostasis by regulating body temperature. It
consists of a secretory coil found in the dermis and sweat duct located in the hypodermis.

When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, as influenced by a significant stimuli, the sweat glands will be
stimulated. As sweat secretes, this results in corneal hydration and filling of the sweat duct. These phenomena will
lead to changes in skin conductance, though duct filling is the primary mechanism by which EDRs are elicited (Fowles,
1986).

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE REASORPTION

During sweating, the amount of substances in the sweat such as potassium, sodium and chloride are

and passive reabsorption. Active reabsorption has been compared to the same action that occurs in the renal tubules
of the kidneys (Handler, Nelson, Krapohl & Honts, 2010). The amount of surface sweat differs according to the
amount of sweating, presumably showing a limited reabsorption capacity. The increased ion concentration during
excessive sweating may contribute to EDA changes. Reabsorption is regarded to happen primarily in the dermal duct
but also in the acrosyringium. During reabsorption, sweat gland ducts may help to protect the body from excessive
ion loss during periods of profuse sweating. Fowles (1986), suggested that there is substantial proof to propose that
sodium is reabsorbed via an active sodium potassium pump. Sodium is exchanged with potassium resulting in an
increase in the amount of potassium in surface sweat. The amount of chloride passively diffuses down its
electrochemical gradient to be reabsorbed. While the chemical chloride ion gradient tends to oppose diffusion, the
somewhat greater electrical potential facilitates it, resulting in passive diffusion (Fowles, 1986; Handler, Nelson,
Krapohl & Honts, 2010).

ELECTRODERMAL RESPONSE

Electrodermal data has been shown to be a strong indicator of sympathetic nervous system arousal (Handler, Nelson,
Krapohl & Honts, 2010).

1 Increase in skin conductance (decrease in resistance)

2 Increase duration of response

3 Multiple response

FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTRODERMAL

RESPONSE

1. Medications

The activity of the sweat gland can be stimulated by medications containing acetylcholine or that are cholinergic
agonist. Its effects relatively decreases the electrodermal response (Handler et al., 2010).

Example:

• Injection of acetylcholine
• Chemical with anti-cholinergic properties

• Scopolamine

• Betablockers

• Benzodiazepines

The medications that are of concern in polygraph testing are mostly regulated and will require doctor's prescriptions
in order to procure it legally. A guilty individual may attempt to use any kind of medications but there is no guarantee
that it will give favorable results on his part. It is possible that an examinee who takes prescribe medicines are likely
to produced interpretable data (Handler, et al., 2010). Polygraph examiners must established initially if the polygraph
subject is taking medications and the reason of taking such medication prior to the examination.

2. Temperature

The condition of temperature has been found to

phasic response and resulted to a smalles amplitude of electrodermal responses, greater latencies and longer rise
times (Handler et al., 2010). The ideal temperatureto maintain is 73F (23C) with a constant relative humidity
(Boucsein, 1992; Handler et al., 2010).

3. Demographics

• Age

The texture of the skin changes as we grow older. Sweat glands production is affected by wrinkles that developed in
skin layers. Eventually the content of ion in sweat and active sweat glands is reduced.

Also,

the hypothalamus concerned

with electrodermal activity will possibly affect the production of electrodermal response due to old age.

• Gender

The activity of sweat glands and the amount of sweat produced differs among male and female.

It is generally concluded based on studies that women may have a higher tonic EDA, due to the greater sweat gland
density, while men tend to produce

stimulation (Handler et al, 201der conditions

III. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Dr. William M. Marston was known as the first to use blood pressure cuff in an attempt to detect deception.

He used a discontinuous blood-pressure test to record systolic blood pressure readings of a suspect during
investigation. Dr. Marston findings on discontinues blood-pressure test was presented in Frye case in 1923 which led
to decision of US District Court of Washington disallowing the result for lacked of general acceptance in scientific
community (Handler et al, 2007).

The cardiovascular system consists of heart muscles, arteries, capillaries, and veins. Its purpose is

to transport nutrients and oxygen to body tissues and removed metabolic wastes and carbon dioxide from the body
tissues (Handler, et al, 2007).
During polygraph examination, the primary concern of polygraph examiner is to monitor the changes that occur in
the heart and blood vessels by measuring the physiological phenomena through a partially inflated blood pressure
cuff.

Emotion-evoking questions are known to cause baseline arousal and sometimes a change in pulse amplitude.
Baseline changes in cardiograph tracing usually may occur during phasic or tonic change (Handler, et al. 2007).

CARDIOVASCULAR FEATURES

1. Changes in Baseline

End

Start

2. Changes in the pulse amplitude.

Baseline changes is either tonic rise or a phasic rise and fall. Phasic changes are generally associated with SNS
arousal. They rise quickly and generally fall to the pre-stimulus level or a new level. Both Matte 1996 and DACA
Anatomy and physiology) have published that baseline changes are manifested by changes in blood volume at the
site where it is being recorded.

The diagnostic importance of pulse amplitude and baseline changes are primarily caused by changes in blood
pressure and blood volume (Handler, et al, 2007).

CARDIAC CYCLE

The cardiac cycle describes all the activities of the heart through one complete heartbeat that involves one
contraction and relaxation of both the atria and ventricles (Packs, 1997).

1 Systole - refers to the contraction of the cardiac muscle. It is the highest vertical point in the pulse wave of the
cardiovascular tracings.

2 Diastole - relaxation phase, this refers to the descending limb of the pulse wave.

3 Dicrotic notch - it is the rebounding of the blood against the closed aortic semilunar valve after systole.

AVERAGE HEART RATE

The average heart rate ranges between 70-80 bpm (Martini, 2000). It may decreases during sleep by 10 to 20 bpm,
and may reach up to 150bpm during emotional excitement (Larsen et al., 1986).

1 Bradycardia 60bpm

2 Tachycardia 100bpm