Chapter 15 Notes
Buzurg ibn Shahriyar and the Maritime World
Buzurg ibn Shahriyar, a 10th-century shipmaster from Siraf on the Persian Gulf, compiled stories
in his Book of the Wonders of India around 953 CE.
His tales included fantastic creatures (giant lobsters, sea dragons, talking lizards) but also
described real trade activities, pirates, shipwrecks, and cultural exchanges.
These stories reveal the interconnected nature of the Indian Ocean basin, linking East Africa,
Arabia, India, Southeast Asia, and China through maritime commerce.
Political Landscape after the Gupta Empire
The collapse of the Gupta dynasty (~mid-6th century) left India politically fragmented and
vulnerable to invasions.
In northern India, King Harsha (r. 606–648) briefly unified the region, supported Buddhism, and
was known for charity and support of scholars. However, after his assassination and without an
heir, his kingdom disintegrated quickly.
Local rulers and regional kingdoms dominated, leading to constant conflict and instability,
especially in the north.
Introduction and Spread of Islam
Sind Conquest (711 CE): Arab forces conquered the Indus River valley (Sind), integrating it into
the Umayyad and later Abbasid caliphates. While nominally under Muslim control, local Hindu
and Buddhist elites retained significant power.
Merchants and Ports: Muslim merchants established communities in coastal cities, such as
Cambay and Calicut, marrying local women and embedding Islam gradually into society.
Turkish Migrations and Mahmud of Ghazni: Turkish-speaking peoples, having converted to
Islam, migrated and raided northern India. Mahmud (r. 1001–1027) destroyed Hindu and
Buddhist sites (e.g., Somnath Temple), hastening Buddhism’s decline in India.
Sultanate of Delhi (1206–1526): Established Muslim rule in northern India but lacked strong
central administration. Depended on alliances with local Hindu kings and was plagued by court
assassinations (19 of 35 sultans killed).
Southern India: Stability and Trade
The south remained more stable and avoided large-scale invasions.
Chola Kingdom (850–1267): Dominated trade, building a powerful navy that reached Ceylon and
Southeast Asia. Focused more on economic benefits from trade than centralized governance.
Allowed local autonomy as long as taxes were paid.
Vijayanagar Kingdom (1336–1565): Founded by brothers Harihara and Bukka, who reverted to
Hinduism after serving as Muslim officials. Emphasized Hindu culture while maintaining
peaceful trade with Muslim merchants. Ultimately fell to an alliance of Muslim kingdoms.
Agriculture and Monsoon World
India’s agricultural success relied on predictable monsoon patterns (wet summer winds and dry
winter winds).
In the south, lacking large rivers, elaborate irrigation systems (dams, reservoirs, canals) were
built, enabling higher yields and supporting dense populations.
Population rose from ~53 million in 600 CE to ~105 million by 1500 CE, fueling urban growth
and specialized labor.
Urbanization and Economic Networks
Major cities such as Delhi, Cambay, Calicut, and Quilon flourished as trade and manufacturing
hubs.
Urban centers supported by regional specialization (iron, copper, salt, pepper) and large-scale
distribution of commodities.
Hindu temples served as social, religious, economic centers — organized agricultural work, acted
as banks, provided education, and coordinated community resources. Many temples controlled
large tracts of land and had hundreds of employees.
Indian Ocean Basin and Maritime Trade
India’s central location made it a natural emporium in the Indian Ocean trade network.
Ships such as dhows (Arab, Persian, Indian) and Chinese junks carried massive cargo loads (up
to 1,000 tons by 1500 CE).
Ports like Cambay and Calicut attracted merchants from across Eurasia and Africa, creating
cosmopolitan environments where diverse religions and cultures coexisted.
Specialized production included fine cotton textiles, high-carbon steel, sugar, leather, and stone
carvings, which were exported widely. India imported horses, silk, spices, gold, and ivory.
Caste System Evolution
The caste system adapted to new social realities brought by trade, urbanization, and migration.
New jati (subcastes) emerged, often functioning as professional guilds (e.g., silk weavers, spice
merchants, ironworkers).
Caste distinctions spread into southern India, reinforced by temple authority and educational
roles of Brahmins.
The system provided social order and structure in the absence of centralized political power.
Hinduism and Its Transformation
Decline of Buddhism due to invasions and temple destructions (e.g., Nalanda in 1196).
Growth of devotional Hinduism through cults of Vishnu and Shiva, offering salvation and
personal connection to the divine.
Shankara (early 9th c.): Advocated for monistic philosophy, seeing the physical world as an
illusion and Brahman as ultimate reality.
Ramanuja (11th–12th c.): Emphasized personal devotion to Vishnu over pure logic, encouraging
emotional worship and promising salvation.
Spread of Islam and the Bhakti Movement
Islam gained adherents among merchants and lower-caste Hindus, though often social roles
remained unchanged after conversion.
Sufis: Mystic missionaries who promoted personal piety and tolerance, appealing to a wide
audience by blending local customs with Islamic beliefs.
Bhakti Movement: Emerged to bridge gaps between Hinduism and Islam, promoting intense
devotion regardless of sect. Figures like Guru Kabir taught that Vishnu, Shiva, and Allah were
manifestations of one universal divine force.
Indian Influence in Southeast Asia
Indian merchants introduced Hinduism, Buddhism, Sanskrit, and political ideas to Southeast
Asia starting around 500 BCE.
Funan (1st–6th c.): Controlled Mekong trade routes, adopted Indian political structures, and used
Sanskrit.
Srivijaya (670–1025): Based in Sumatra, controlled sea routes between China and India, taxed
ships, and spread Buddhism.
Angkor (889–1431): Khmer capital designed as a Hindu cosmic model, later adapted Buddhist
influences (Angkor Wat).
Later states (Singosari, Majapahit): Integrated Hindu, Buddhist, and indigenous elements,
supported by maritime trade.
Melaka (15th c.): Started as Hindu, converted to Islam, became a powerful trading hub
promoting Islam across Southeast Asia. Combined economic strength with religious expansion.
Questions
1. The economic activity described by Cosmas Indicopleustes is most directly linked to which of
the following?
D, The emergence of Indian port cities as clearinghouses for trade
2. The interactions described are best understood in the context of which development?
C, The advancements in maritime technology and knowledge
3. The Persian Christians described best offer evidence of which of the following?
B, The development of diaspora communities
4.
A. Monsoon patterns and trade
Monsoon winds allowed predictable sailing across the Indian Ocean.
Seasonal winds enabled traders to travel to India in summer and return west in winter.
This reliability made India a central trade hub connecting multiple regions.
B. Commerce and caste
The rise of commerce created new economic roles.
Merchant and artisan guilds emerged as powerful subcastes (jati).
These developments strengthened and expanded the caste system to accommodate economic
changes.
C. Cosmopolitan cities
Indian port cities attracted diverse populations.
Ports like Calicut and Cambay hosted merchants from Persia, China, and East Africa.
This mixing fostered cultural exchange and made cities vibrant global centers.
5.
A. Regional spread of Islam
Islam spread differently in north and south India.
Northern regions saw forced conversions via conquest; southern areas saw gradual adoption via
trade and Sufi influence.
These varied approaches shaped regional religious landscapes.
B. Hindu resistance
Southern Hindu kingdoms resisted Muslim expansion.
The Vijayanagar empire actively defended its territory and maintained Hindu traditions.
This allowed the south to preserve its cultural and religious autonomy.
C. Economic power and politics
Some states leveraged trade wealth for political dominance.
Srivijaya controlled maritime routes and taxed passing ships, building a strong navy and
bureaucracy.
Trade wealth transformed Srivijaya into a powerful regional empire.
