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Artificial Intelligence Notes
1. Introduction to AI
Artificial Intelligence (AI): Simulation of human intelligence in machines that can
think, learn, and make decisions.
Machine Learning (ML): Subset of AI where systems learn from data and improve
performance over time.
ChatGPT: A conversational AI language model developed by OpenAI.
OpenAI: Research organization developing safe and beneficial AI models.
Deep Learning: Subset of ML using neural networks with multiple layers (e.g., image
recognition, NLP).
2. History of AI
Eliza (1966): First chatbot created by Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT.
Father of AI: John McCarthy (coined the term AI in 1956).
AI Winter: Periods in the 1970s & 1980s when AI progress slowed due to lack of
funding.
2000s onwards: Revival due to Big Data, GPUs, and advanced deep learning algorithms.
3. Types of AI
1. Narrow AI (Weak AI): Specialized in a single task (e.g., Siri, Alexa, Google Translate).
2. General AI (Strong AI): Possesses human-like intelligence across tasks (still
theoretical).
3. Super AI: Future AI that surpasses human intelligence.
4. Applications of AI
Education: Smart tutoring systems, automated grading.
Finance: Fraud detection, credit scoring, stock market prediction.
Healthcare: Medical diagnosis, drug discovery, patient monitoring.
Entertainment: Personalized recommendations (Netflix, Spotify).
Tourism: Chatbots, smart travel planning.
5. AI Agents (with examples)
Definition: An AI Agent perceives its environment and acts to achieve goals.
Examples:
o Medical Diagnostic Systems
o Traffic Light Controllers
o Automatic Door Closers
o Online Shopping Recommendation Systems
6. PEAS Representation
PEAS = Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, Sensors
Example: Traffic Light Controller
Performance: Smooth traffic flow, fewer accidents
Environment: Road intersections
Actuators: Traffic lights (red, green, yellow)
Sensors: Cameras, vehicle sensors
7. Types of Environment
1. Fully Observable: Complete state of the system is available (e.g., Chess).
2. Partially Observable: Limited information is available (e.g., Driving a car).
3. Deterministic: Next state is predictable (e.g., Mathematical calculations).
4. Non-Deterministic: Outcome is uncertain (e.g., Stock market, Weather).
8. Turing Test
Proposed by Alan Turing (1950).
A machine passes the test if a human interrogator cannot distinguish whether they are
conversing with a human or a machine.
Diagram (Text form):
Human Interrogator <----> Human
|
| (Conversation)
|
V
Machine
If the interrogator cannot reliably tell which is human, the machine is said to exhibit intelligence.
9. Chinese Room Argument
Proposed by John Searle (1980).
Argues that machines do not truly “understand” language, they just manipulate symbols.
Example Diagram (Text form):
Input (Chinese symbols) ---> Person in room with rulebook ---> Output
(Chinese response)
The person produces correct answers without understanding Chinese, similar to how a computer
processes data without comprehension.
Unit 2 – Search Strategies
1. Uninformed Search (Blind Search)
No extra knowledge of the problem domain is used.
Examples:
Breadth-First Search (BFS):
Explores all nodes at the current depth before moving to next.
Guarantees shortest path.
DFS (Depth-First Search):
Explores deep into a branch before backtracking.
May not find the shortest path.
Diagrams (Text form):
BFS Example:
A
/ | \
B C D
/ \
E F
Order: A → B → C → D → E → F
DFS Example:
A
/ | \
B C D
/ \
E F
Order: A → B → E → F → C → D
2. Informed Search (Heuristic Search)
Uses heuristic knowledge (estimated cost to reach goal).
Heuristic Value (h(n)): Estimate of cost from current state to goal.
Examples:
Greedy Search: Chooses node with lowest heuristic value.
A Algorithm:* Uses both actual cost + heuristic for optimal path.
Diagram (Text form for A):*
f(n) = g(n) + h(n)
g(n) = actual cost so far
h(n) = estimated cost to goal
Perfect 👍 I’ll make exam-ready networking notes from the topics in your second notebook
image. Like before, I’ll structure them clearly, include diagrams (in text/ASCII form), and
explain numerical points where needed.
Computer Networks Notes
1. OSI Model
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model has 7 layers, each with specific functions:
1. Application Layer → User interface (HTTP, FTP, SMTP).
2. Presentation Layer → Data translation, encryption, compression.
3. Session Layer → Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions.
4. Transport Layer → Reliable delivery (TCP, UDP).
5. Network Layer → Logical addressing & routing (IP).
6. Data Link Layer → Error detection, framing (MAC).
7. Physical Layer → Transmission of raw bits (cables, signals).
Diagram (Text form):
+-----------------+ (7) Application
+-----------------+ (6) Presentation
+-----------------+ (5) Session
+-----------------+ (4) Transport
+-----------------+ (3) Network
+-----------------+ (2) Data Link
+-----------------+ (1) Physical
2. TCP/IP Model
A practical 4-layer model used in the internet.
1. Application Layer → (HTTP, SMTP, DNS)
2. Transport Layer → (TCP, UDP)
3. Internet Layer → (IP, ICMP, ARP)
4. Network Access Layer → (Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC)
OSI vs TCP/IP Mapping:
Application ↔ Application, Presentation, Session
Transport ↔ Transport
Internet ↔ Network
Network Access ↔ Data Link + Physical
3. Network Topologies
Bus: Single backbone, cheap but collision-prone.
Star: Central hub/switch, reliable but hub failure = network down.
Ring: Data flows in a loop, predictable but failure affects entire ring.
Mesh: Every device connected, high reliability, expensive.
Hybrid: Combination (e.g., star-bus).
4. Networking Devices & Cables
Hub: Broadcasts to all devices.
Switch: Intelligent, forwards to specific device.
Router: Connects multiple networks.
Gateway: Converts protocols.
Repeater: Boosts weak signals.
Cables:
Twisted Pair (UTP/STP): LAN use.
Coaxial: Cable TV, older LAN.
Fiber Optic: High-speed, long-distance.
5. Transmission Media
Simplex: One-way (e.g., Keyboard → CPU).
Half-Duplex: Both directions but one at a time (e.g., Walkie-talkie).
Full Duplex: Both directions simultaneously (e.g., Telephone).
6. IP Addressing (4 Types)
1. Unicast: One-to-one communication.
2. Broadcast: One-to-all in a network.
3. Multicast: One-to-many (group).
4. Anycast: One-to-nearest device in a group.
7. Classful vs Classless Addressing
Classful: Traditional system, fixed classes (A, B, C, D, E).
Classless (CIDR): Uses variable-length subnet masks (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24).
Numerical Example:
IP: 192.168.1.10/24
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
Network Address: 192.168.1.0
Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.255
8. IPv4
32-bit address (4 octets).
Written in dotted decimal (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
About 4.3 billion addresses.
Classes:
A: 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255
B: 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255
C: 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255
D: Multicast (224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255)
E: Experimental
9. IPv6
128-bit addressing.
Written in hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8::1).
Vast address space: 3.4 × 10³⁸ addresses.
Built-in security (IPSec).
Auto-configuration & efficient routing.
10. Propagation Time & Transmission Time
Propagation Time (Tp): Time for signal to travel through medium.
o Formula: Tp = Distance / Propagation Speed
Transmission Time (Tt): Time to push all bits into the link.
o Formula: Tt = Message Size / Bandwidth
Example:
Message size = 10⁶ bits, Bandwidth = 10⁶ bps
Tt = 10⁶ / 10⁶ = 1 sec
11. Signal & Noise
Signal: Data in form of electrical/optical waves.
Noise: Unwanted interference that affects transmission.
Types of Noise:
Thermal noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse noise
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):
Higher SNR = Better quality.
Formula: SNR (dB) = 10 log10 (Signal Power / Noise Power)
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