ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

Department of Civil Engineering

7.Introduction to Intersections and Interchanges

At the end of this course, students will be Contents
able to
• Introduction
 Identify the different types of intersections and • Types of at-grade junctions
interchanges
 Explain the design controls and criteria in • Design Requirements (Controls
geometric design of junction facilities and Criteria)
• Grade Separated Junctions and
structures
By Mubarek Z.
• Interchanges
Email: mubarek.zeyne@aastu.edu.et
Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne
January 1

/2022
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Introduction
 A junction, or intersection, is the general area where two or more
roads join.
 It serves conflicting traffic when competing for the same space at the
same time when going ahead or changing directions.
 Intersections are generally classified into three general categories:
At-grade junctions,
Grade-separated without ramps, and
 Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as interchanges).

BY Mubarek Z. 2
College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Introduction…
 At-grade intersections do not provide for the flow of traffic at different
levels, and therefore there exist conflicts between intersecting streams
of traffic.
 Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that provide
for traffic to cross at different levels (vertical distances) without
interruption. The potential for accidents at grade separated
intersections is reduced because many potential conflicts between
intersecting streams of traffic are eliminated.

BY Mubarek Z. 3
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Introduction…
Key Terminologies
 Channelisation
 A system of controlling traffic by the introduction of medians and/or islands to direct traffic into
a predetermined path, usually at an intersection or junction.
Channelised Intersection vs Unchannelised Intersection
 An intersection provided with medians and/or islands for defining the trafficable area and to
control specific movement. If no, it is unchannelised intersection.
 Furniture
 At an intersection, this is the equipment, such as sign posts, median kerbs, lighting poles,
signal posts and controller, pedestrian control fencing etc., which is installed to make the
intersection work more effectively.
Signalised Intersection vs Unsignalised Intersection
 An intersection provided with signal lights for efficient operation of traffic. movement. If no
signal installed, it is unsignalised intersection.
 Grade Separation
 Grade separated structures is the term used for two roads crossing at different levels by means of
an overpass/underpass with no connection between them.
Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 4
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Types of Intersections at Grade

Differing junction types will be appropriate under
different circumstances depending on traffic flows,
speeds, and site limitations. Types of junctions are:
i)Three-legged: T and Y-Junctions
ii) Four-legged: Cross-Junctions
iii) Multi-legged (>4) Junctions
iv) Roundabouts.

BY Mubarek Z.
Figure: Types of at-grade junctions(ERA,2013) 5
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Types of Intersections at Grade…

The intersection treatments may be:
 plain

 flared

 channelised (including roundabouts)

 unsignalised or signalized

A plain intersection is where the intersection has no special treatment. A flared

intersection is where one or more of the intersecting roads is widened to provide space for
additional width at the intersection. A channelised intersection is where traffic islands are
used to guide or channel traffic into clearly defined paths to produce more orderly and
safer operation. A roundabout is a particular form of channelised intersection. All types of
intersections may be unsignalised or signalised (including roundabouts).

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 6

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Design Requirements (Controls and Criteria)

i)Road Network Considerations: Traffic volume, Operational capacity and
efficiency
 Intersections are a fundamental part of a road hierarchy.
 They are the nodes of the system, and
 They determine how effectively the network operates.
 They govern how effectively each road can perform its allocated function in
the hierarchy.
 Intersections generally determine the capacity of the network.
 Intersecting legs(approach roads) traffic volume, movement maneuvers
(through, Light turn, U-turns and Right turns), safety record, pedestrian
volume, and others design parameters data need to considered.

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 7

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
i)Road Network Considerations: …
Department of Civil Engineering

Selection of Junction Type

 The choice of a junction type requires knowledge of traffic demand,
intersection performance and accident prediction. It is often difficult to
determine the best intersection type for any particular situation, taking into
account capacity, delay, safety and physical layout factors. Several alternatives
may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection of junction type based
on different combinations of traffic flows is shown in Figure 7-1(see next slide).
For lower volume junctions, the applicable junction type depending on traffic
flow is shown in further detail in Figure 7-2 (see next page).

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 8

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
i)Road Network Considerations: …
Traffic flow considerations

Figure 7-1: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Figure 7-2: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and
Flows(2013) Minor Road Traffic Flows (2013)
BY Mubarek Z. 9
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
i)Road Network Considerations: …
Department of Civil Engineering

Selection of Junction Type…

 The basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types, including grade
separation, are as follows(ERA,2013):
 Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction):
 For low flows. These can cause long delays.
 They require sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal
installation.
 Roundabouts:
 These are best for low to medium flows.
 They provide for minimum delays at lower flows. They have been shown to be safer
than priority junctions. They require attention to pedestrian movements and the
accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
 Grade-Separation:
 This is only for high flows because they are expensive but they result in minimum
delays. Pedestrian movements also need special consideration.

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 10

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

ii)Safety Considerations
 Intersections involve traffic conflicts. Where there are conflicts there is risk of
accidents. Obviously, denying movements, or even closure of the intersection,
will improve safety at that site. Such actions may be at the expense of other
factors (such as local access).
 The objective is to obtain the appropriate balance between risk and the other
network performance parameters that apply.
 Safety appears to be a function of exposure, speed, the number of conflict
points, sight distance, and other factors which are site specific. A high
percentage of accidents involve some degree of error by drivers and/or
pedestrians.
 The number and severity of accidents may be reduced and the consequences
of those accidents that do occur may be reduced by the application of the
following safety principles: By Exposure Control, Crash prevention, behavior
modification (awareness), injury control and injury management.
Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 11
College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
ii)Safety Considerations…
 Conflict Diagram: shows conflicting movements (points)
Types of conflicts :

Crossing Diverging Merging

Figure: Min. number of Conflict points

at a T junction

♠ Each types have 3 points Figure: Min. number of Conflict points at a Crossroads
♠ Crossing=16 points
♠ Diverging=4 points 12
BY Mubarek Z. ♠ Merging= 4 points
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
ii)Safety Considerations…
Department of Civil Engineering

Possible solutions to improve safety at intersections

 Points of conflict can be separated/reduced by the
addition of deceleration lanes, realignment of the
intersection, etc. See Figure
 Reducing and Separating the Points of Conflict (exposure
control, injury control)
 Keeping It Simple (exposure control, crash prevention)
 Minimising the Area of Conflict (exposure control, crash
prevention)
 Controlling Speed (exposure control, crash prevention,

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 13

College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
ii)Safety Considerations…
Department of Civil Engineering

Possible solutions to improve safety at intersections…

Figure :- Realignment to Reduce Relative

Speed at a Y Junction(AACRA,2004)

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 14

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

ii)Safety Considerations…
 Sight Distances and Visibility (Approach/Intersection Sight distance)
◦ On a basic cross-road intersection these manoeuvres are left turns and right turns from
both the minor road and the major road and crossing manoeuvres across the junction.
◦ The important factors are the time required to carry out the manoeuvre and the time
available to do so based on the sight distance and the speed of traffic. The time required
to carry out the manoeuvre depends upon(ERA,2013):
i. Whether the vehicle is in motion and at what speed when it reaches the junction (yield
control ) or begins from a stopped position (stop control);
ii. The type and power of the vehicle;
iii. The length of the vehicle;
iv. The distance the vehicle needs to travel (number of lanes plus median, if present);
v. The gradient of the road which the vehicle has to negotiate;
vi. The perception and reaction time of the driver;

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 15

College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

ii) Safety Considerations…

Figure : Visibility Splay for Yield Conditions

Table: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Yield’ Conditions(ERA,2013)

BY Mubarek Z. 16
College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

ii) Safety Considerations…

Figure : Visibility Splay for Stop Conditions

Table : Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Stop’ Conditions(ERA,2013)

BY Mubarek Z. 17
College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

ii) Safety Considerations…

Horizontal and Vertical Alignment of Approach
 As a general guide, horizontal curve radii at intersections should not be
less than the desirable radius for the design speed on the approach
roads.
 For high-speed roads with design speeds in excess of 80 km/h, approach
gradients should not be greater than -3 percent.
 For low-speed roads in an urban environment this can be increased to -
6 per cent.

BY Mubarek Z. 18
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control

 At grade intersection layout options may be
 three-leg (Y junction or T junction)
 four-leg
 multi-leg
 Two adjacent opposite hand T junctions are referred to as “staggered T" junctions.
 They may be left-right ( ) or right left ( ).
 The intersection treatments may be:
 plain
 flared
 channelised (including roundabouts)
 unsignalised or signalized
 The layout of intersections in urban areas will be highly dependent on the pattern of the road system, the
volumes and directions of the traffic using the intersection, and the constraints of the site and surrounding
development. Options must be developed for the conditions prevailing at the particular site.
Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 19
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…

A channelised intersection is one where conflicting vehicle travel paths are
separated by raised, depressed, or painted medians and/or islands.
Additional turning lanes are often used in conjunction with channelisation.
Channelisation
 At-grade intersections with large paved areas, such as those
♣ with large corner radii or with angles of skew differing greatly from 90°,
♣ permit unpredictable vehicle movements,
♣ require long pedestrian crossings and
♣ have unused pavement areas.
 Even at a simple intersection there may be large areas on which vehicles can
wander from natural or expected paths. Under these circumstances it is usual to resort
to channelisation.
BY Mubarek Z. 20
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…

Purpose of Channelisation
The purpose of channelisation is to manage the conflicts that are inherent in any intersection.
There are eight principles of channelisation:
I. Undesirable or wrong-way movements should be discouraged or prohibited;
II. Vehicle paths should be clearly defined;
III. The design should encourage safe vehicle speeds;
IV. Points of conflict should be separated whenever possible;
V. Traffic streams should cross at close to right angles and merge at flat angles;
VI. High priority flows should have the greater degree of freedom;
VII. Decelerating, slow-moving or stopped vehicles should be separated from higher speed
through lanes; and
VIII. Refuge for pedestrians and the handicapped should be provided where appropriate.
21
BY Mubarek Z.
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…
Form of Control
Choice of the form of control is from the following list:
 traffic regulations, which can be augmented by signs to clarify priority
 using signs and pavement markings such as give way, stop, U-turn permitted, zebra crossing etc. to over-
ride regulations (this may be required to give priority to the major vehicular movement or pedestrians)
 traffic signals
 roundabouts (which are a specialised form of channelised intersection having their own set of regulations)
 Control by traffic regulations or signs are generally adequate for low volume intersections.
 Four way junctions are normally signalized or controlled by roundabouts. Where traffic volumes do not
require control to achieve adequate capacity, control by signage may be adequate. It is desirable that stop
or give way signs on the minor road be mounted both on the border and on a median to ensure visibility
and improved compliance. Low volume cross roads should be converted to T junctions if this is feasible. In
new developments, uncontrolled cross roads should be avoided.
 High volume intersections, particularly four way junctions, will operate with greater capacity, lower delays
and greater safety if they are controlled by either a roundabout or a traffic signal. Software such as SIDRA
may be used to compare capacity and delays for alternative control types.

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 22

College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…
T-Junction

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 23

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…
Four Way junction

Source: AACRA(2004) manual

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 24

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…
Intersection Details
 Channelization
 Painted medians Vs Raised medians
 Raised Islands Vs Painted Islands: (Geometry, dimensions,…)
 Auxiliary lanes at intersection
 Left turn and right turn lanes

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 25

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
iii) Intersection Layout and Form of Control…
Roundabouts
 A roundabout is a channelised intersection at
which all traffic moves anticlockwise around
a central traffic island.
 Roundabouts perform better at the
intersection of roads with roughly similar
traffic flows and a high proportion of right
turning traffic. Roundabouts can improve
safety by simplifying conflicts, reducing
vehicle speeds and providing a clearer
indication of the driver's right of way
compared to other forms of channelisation.

BY Mubarek Z. 26
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Design Procédure
The design procédure is based on the following basic factors:
 understanding the role of each leg of the intersection in the road hierarchy
 estimating the likely volumes of traffic (cars, taxis, single unit trucks, buses, semi-trailers, bicycles and pedestrians)
 analysing the crash history if an existing intersection is included in the road project
 identifying and including all users of an intersection in the design considerations (e.g. pedestrian crossings, public
transport priority)
 selecting a design vehicle for each movement, and using the turning templates for this vehicle at the speed which is
appropriate for the movement
 using a check vehicle (an over-dimensional vehicle or other large vehicle that uses the intersection occasionally) to
ensure that the vehicle can traverse the intersection without damaging the roadside furniture or other installations
 developing the geometry of the intersection to orientate vehicles so that visibility is enhanced and relative speeds are
reduced
 using gap acceptance and sight distance criteria for cars as the principal design factors
 checking gap acceptance and sight distance criteria for trucks as supplementary design factors
 taking into account safety, delay, site suitability, funding and economic criteria in selecting the intersection layout and
form of control
Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 27
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

GRADE-SEPARATED JUNCTIONS AND INTERCHANGES …

Key Terminologies
Grade Separation
 The separation of two roadways vertically where they intersect so that crossing movements are effected at
different levels.
Interchange
 An interchange is the term used when two roads cross at different levels by means of an overpass with movement
between the roads provided for by means of connecting ramps. It is simply, a grade separation of two or more
roads with one or more interconnecting roadways. Where only some of the potential movements are provided,
the term partial interchange is used.
Underpass
 A grade separation where the subject carriageway passes under an intersecting carriageway or railway.
Overpass
 A grade separation where the subject carriageway passes over an intersecting carriageway railway.
Ramp
 Any turning roadway at an interchange.
Loop
 A ramp where traffic changes direction by 90° by means of a 270° turn.
BY Mubarek Z. 28
College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

GRADE-SEPARATED JUNCTIONS AND INTERCHANGES …

Choice of Scheme
In deciding on the location of a grade-separated junction(with or without
ramp), the following factors should be taken into account(ERA,2013):
i) Predicted traffic volumes.
ii) Cost of junction.
iii)Congestion control.
iv) Trip length (travel distance).
v) Size of urban areas.

BY Mubarek Z. 29
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Grade-separated Junction Structures

Typical Grade Separation Structures with Closed Typical Grade Separation Structure with Open-End Span
Abutments (AASHTO,2013) (AASHTO,2013)

BY Mubarek Z.

Multilevel Grade Separation Structures(AASHTO,2013) 30

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Grade-separated Junction Structures…

 Longitudinal Distance(D) to Attain Grade Separation

Figure: Flat Terrain, Distance Needed to

Achieve Grade Separation (AASHTO,2013)
Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 31
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Grade-separated Junction Structures

The circumstances in which the use of a grade separated junction is warranted are
usually as follows(ERA,2013):
I. An at-grade junction has insufficient capacity.
II. The junction is justified economically from the savings in traffic delays and
accident costs.
III. Grade separation is cheaper on account of topography or on the grounds that
expensive land appropriation can be avoided by its construction.
IV. For operational reasons.
V. Where roads cross freeways/motorways/railways.

BY Mubarek Z. 32
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Interchanges (Grade-separated structures with ramps/loops)

 There are several basic interchange configurations to accommodate turning
movements at a grade separation. The type of configuration used at a particular
site is determined by the number of intersection legs, expected volumes of
through and turning movements, type of truck traffic, topography, culture,
design controls, and proper signing.

Figure: Three-Leg Interchanges with Single Structures(AASHTO,2013)

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 33

College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Different types of interchange type 34

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Interchanges …

Fig. Trumpet Freeway-to-Freeway Interchange Fig. Typical Four-Leg Diamond Interchange

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 35
 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Interchanges …

Fig.: Freeway with a Three-Level Diamond Interchange Fig.:Four-Leg Interchange, Cloverleaf with Collector-Distributor
Roads

Prepared By Mubarek Zeyne January /2022 36

 College of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

References
1) ERA(2013) Geometric design manual
2) AACRA(2004) Geometric Design manual
3) AASHTO(2013), A Policy on Geometric design of Highways and Streets

Reflection Questions
1. What factors need to be considered in the selection of at-grade junction types?
2. What design control and criteria to be checked during geometric layout design
of a given junction facility?
3. What are the traffic control devices usually used at junction locations? Mention
some of them with their roles

BY Mubarek Z. 37