SOC 350: METHODS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH I

TOPIC: Instruments of Data Collection and their Considerations

Quantitative Research Instrument

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a set of questions used to collect information from individuals.
It is commonly used in surveys, studies, and evaluations to gather data about people's opinions, behaviors,
characteristics or experiences.

Features of a Questionnaire:
1. Structured Format: Questions are usually arranged in a specific order and follow a logical flow.
2. Standardized: All respondents receive the same set of questions to ensure consistency.
3. Written or Digital: Can be paper-based, online, or administered through interviews.
4. Quantitative or Qualitative: Can gather numeric data (e.g., ratings, choices) or descriptive responses (e.g.,
open-ended answers).

Purposes of a Questionnaire
Questionnaire can be used to:
- Collect data for research studies.
- Measure opinions, attitudes, or satisfaction.
- Evaluate programs, services, or products.
- Gather demographic or background information.

Example of a Questionnaire Item:

How satisfied are you with our service?
☐ Very Satisfied
☐ Satisfied
☐ Neutral
☐ Dissatisfied
☐ Very Dissatisfied

Types of Questionnaire
1. Types of Questionnaire Based on Question Format
a. Structured Questionnaire
- Contains closed-ended questions.
- Responses are predefined (e.g., Yes/No, multiple choice).
- Easy to analyze quantitatively.
- Example: Survey forms, customer feedback forms.
b. Unstructured Questionnaire
- Contains open-ended questions.
- Respondents can answer in their own words.
- Useful for qualitative data.
- Example: Interviews, exploratory research.

2. Types of Questionnaire Based on Administration Method

a. Self-Administered Questionnaire
- Filled out by the respondent without an interviewer.
- Can be paper-based or online.
- Cost-effective and scalable.

b. Interviewer-Administered Questionnaire
- Conducted face-to-face or over the phone.
- Interviewer asks the questions and records answers.

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 - Useful when clarification is needed.

3. Types of Questionnaire Based on Purpose

a. Descriptive Questionnaire
- Gathers data to describe characteristics of a group.
- Often used in census, market surveys.
b. Analytical Questionnaire
- Used to understand relationships and test hypotheses.
- Common in academic and scientific research.

4. Types of Questionnaire Based on Question Type

a. Closed-Ended Questions
- Predefined options for responses.
- Easy to analyze statistically.
- Types include:
o Dichotomous (Yes/No)
o Multiple Choice
o Rating Scales (e.g., Likert scale)
b. Open-Ended Questions
- No predefined options.
- Allows for rich, detailed responses.
- Harder to analyze but more insightful.

5. Types of Questionnaire Based on Time Frame

a. Cross-Sectional Questionnaire
- Administered once to collect data at a single point in time.
b. Longitudinal Questionnaire
- Administered repeatedly over time to observe changes.

Considerations in designing and administering questionnaires

1. The questions must accurately measure the research problem and objectives of the study i.e. it must be
relevance to the study objectives, hypothesis and proposed analysis.
2. The question must be relevant to the problem and the meaning of the questions and answers should be clear
and not ambiguous.
3. The response category should classify respondents as respondents would classify themselves, such that the
interviewer can record the classification without hesitation or reservation.
4. There should be no wording problems in questions and responses, jargons, double barrel question and double
negative should be avoided.
5. The wordings of the response and question is the same as any measure it attempts to replicate or make
comparison with. The questions and responses must to a large extent survive the pre-test and improved upon.
The researcher/interviewer should take note of respondent motives when administering the questionnaire.

Problem of getting biased or inaccurate answers from the respondents

The problem of getting biased or inaccurate answers from the respondents can arise regardless of how tactfully the
researcher set the question and response. This may be as a result of the following:
o Respondent gives answer they feel will elevate them in the eyes of the interviewer i.e. for prestige.
o Conformity or popularity bias makes the people to give answers they feel are more popular or typical of
a social class in which they are identified e.g. they give answers their friend or society will give.
o There is also saving face or eagle trust has on the part of the respondent i.e. the fear of embarrassment
of appearing uninformed or otherwise inadequate, this makes them to give answer that defends self-
image.
o Reaction–Hallow effect bias i.e people answers questions they have never even considered before simply
because they are asked. Courtesy bias or Oga bias – respondent just to appease the interviewer.

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 o Band wagon effect bias – allowing the current trend to affect their response i.e give answers that conform
to the current fashion which may reflect respondent feelings this issue.
o There is also partisan or No hassle bias- giving responses they perceive the interviewer will favour (either
it is correct or incorrect).
o Habit bias/response set: when people answer repeatedly to a series of question without considering one
on his own merit. People also respond just to make the interview. They don’t have the courage to push
the interviewer or to point blank refuse the question, so they just answer randomly.

Qualitative Research Instruments

Key Informant Interview Guide

A Key Informant Interview (KII) Guide is a structured tool used to conduct in-depth interviews with individuals who
have specialized knowledge, insights, or experience related to a particular topic, community, or issue. These
individuals, known as key informants, can be community leaders, officials, professionals, or anyone with unique
expertise or perspective.

Purpose of a Key Informant Interview Guide:

- To collect qualitative, detailed, and context-specific information.
- To understand opinions, behaviors, perceptions, and experiences.
- To gather data for needs assessments, policy analysis, program planning, or evaluation.

Structure of a Key Informant Interview Guide:

Here is a general outline with sample questions:

1. Introduction
 Explain the purpose of the interview.
 Assure confidentiality and voluntary participation.
 Obtain consent to record or take notes.
Example script:
“Thank you for agreeing to speak with me. This interview is part of a study on [topic so so so]. Your insights will help
us better understand [issue]. Your responses will be confidential.”

2. Background Information
 Gather information about the informant's role and experience.
Sample questions:
 Can you describe your role in this organization/community?
 How long have you been involved in this work?

3. Topic-Specific Questions
Customize this section based on the focus of your study. Example topics and questions:

A. Health Services (Example)

 What are the most common health issues in this community?
 What services are currently available to address these issues?
 What challenges do people face in accessing healthcare?

B. Education (Example)
 What are the major challenges facing local schools?
 How involved are parents in children's education?
 Are there specific groups of students who face more difficulties?

C. Community Development (Example)

 What are the key development priorities in this area?
 Who are the main actors or organizations involved?
 What has worked well or not so well in past projects?

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4. Opinions and Recommendations
 What changes would you suggest to improve the current situation?
 Are there any policies or programs you think should be introduced or modified?
5. Closing
 Is there anything else you'd like to add?
 Can you recommend other people we should speak with?
Tips for Using a KII Guide:
- Use open-ended questions.
- Keep it flexible – allow the conversation to flow naturally.
- Use probes to explore deeper insights (e.g., “Can you explain further?”).
- Record responses accurately (audio or detailed notes).

In-Depth Interview Guide

An In-Depth Interview (IDI) Guide is a tool used by researchers to conduct qualitative, one-on-one interviews that
explore a participant’s thoughts, experiences, and perceptions in detail. Unlike surveys or questionnaires, IDIs are
open-ended, flexible, and conversational, allowing rich and nuanced data collection.
Structure of an In-Depth Interview Guide
Below is a general format, along with examples, that you can adapt to your specific topic (e.g., health, education,
gender, livelihoods):
1. Introduction
Begin by explaining the purpose of the interview, ensuring confidentiality, and seeking consent.
Example Script:
“Thank you for agreeing to this interview. We are conducting a study on [topic], and we value your insights.
Everything you share will be kept confidential and used for research purposes only. You can choose not to answer any
question or end the interview at any time.”
2. Background Information
Ask basic questions to understand the respondent’s context.
Sample Questions:
- Can you tell me a bit about yourself?
- What is your role in your family/community/workplace?
- How long have you lived/worked in this area?
3. Thematic Sections (Main Questions by Topic)
Tailor this part to the subject of your research. Use open-ended and neutral questions. Include probes to explore
responses more deeply.
Health Example:
- What are the most common health concerns in your community?
- Can you describe your experience with the local health services?
- How do people usually seek treatment when they’re sick?
- What challenges have you faced in accessing health care?
Probes:
- Can you give an example?
- How did that make you feel?
- What do you think caused that situation?
Education Example:
- How would you describe the quality of education in this area?
- What challenges do students face in staying in school?
- How involved are parents and community members in education?
Livelihoods Example:
- What are the main sources of income for people in your community?
- What challenges do people face in earning a stable income?
- Are there any programs or organizations supporting livelihoods here?
4. Personal Experiences and Opinions
Encourage the respondent to reflect and share their perspectives.
Examples:
- In your opinion, what needs to change to improve the situation?

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 - What has been the most significant challenge you’ve experienced related to [topic]?
5. Recommendations
End with forward-looking questions.
Examples:
- What changes would you suggest to improve [issue]?
- Who should be responsible for making these changes?
6. Closing the Interview
Thank the participant and ask if they have anything else to add.
Example:
“Thank you for sharing your experiences. Is there anything else you’d like to tell me that we haven’t covered?”
Tips for Conducting IDIs
- Be respectful and patient.
- Avoid leading questions.
- Use neutral body language and tone.
- Take notes and/or record (with permission).
- Be ready to follow unexpected but relevant directions in the conversation.

Focus Group Discussion Guide

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guide is a structured framework used to facilitate group interviews that explore
participants’ perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes on a specific topic. FGDs are valuable for collecting rich
qualitative data, especially on social norms, group dynamics, and shared experiences.
Structure of a Focus Group Discussion Guide
Here’s a standard format you can adapt to your specific topic or population:
1. Introduction by the Moderator
Use a prepared script to explain the purpose and set the tone.
Example Script:
“Thank you for joining today’s discussion. We’re here to talk about [topic], and your insights will help us understand
it better. There are no right or wrong answers—everyone’s opinion matters. Please speak one at a time and feel free
to share your honest thoughts. Everything shared here is confidential.”
If recording, obtain verbal consent.
Start with participant introductions (first names only).
2. Ground Rules
Set a few rules for respectful and productive conversation:
- Speak one at a time.
- Listen actively.
- Respect differing opinions.
- Keep everything shared here confidential.
3. Warm-Up / Icebreaker
Begin with a light question to ease participants into the discussion.
Example:
 “Tell us your name and one thing you enjoy doing in your free time.”
4. Thematic Questions (Core Discussion Topics)
Organize questions into 3–5 thematic sections. Use open-ended questions and prepare follow-up probes for deeper
insights.
Sample Thematic Areas
Health Topic Example
Theme 1: Health Knowledge and Beliefs
 What are the most common health issues in this community?
 Where do people usually go when they feel sick?
Theme 2: Access to Services
 How easy or difficult is it to access healthcare?
 What challenges do people face when seeking medical help?
Theme 3: Community Attitudes and Practices
 How does the community view mental health issues?
 Are there any taboos or misconceptions around certain illnesses?

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Education Topic Example
Theme 1: Perceptions of School Quality
 What do people think about the quality of local schools?
 Are children learning the skills they need?
Theme 2: Barriers to Education
 What are some reasons students drop out or miss school?
 How do gender roles affect school attendance?
Livelihoods Topic Example
Theme 1: Income Sources
 What are the main ways people earn money here?
 Are jobs mostly formal or informal?
Theme 2: Economic Challenges
 What are the biggest economic problems people face?
 Are there any support programs or resources available?
5. Closing Questions
Wrap up with summary and open-ended prompts.
Examples:
 Is there anything we missed that you’d like to add?
 If you could change one thing about [topic], what would it be?
6. Thank You & Wrap-Up
Thank participants, reassure them of confidentiality, and explain next steps if relevant.
Example:
“Thank you for your valuable input. Your voices will help shape future decisions and improve services in your
community.”
Tips for Conducting FGDs
 Recognize the homogenous groups within the heterogeneous group
 Ideal group size: 6–10 participants
 Use a note-taker or record (with consent).
 Stay neutral and avoid leading questions.
 Use probes: “Can you explain more?” “Why do you think that is?”
 Be sensitive to group dynamics—ensure everyone has a chance to speak.

Observation Checklist
An Observation Checklist is a tool used to systematically record and assess behaviors, events, conditions, or processes
as they occur in real time. It ensures consistency and objectivity during field observations, program monitoring,
classroom assessments, workplace audits, etc.
Purpose of an Observation Checklist
 To standardize what to observe.
 To make data collection more objective and efficient.
 To ensure consistency across multiple observers or locations.
 To gather either quantitative (yes/no, frequency) or qualitative (descriptive) data.
Structure of an Observation Checklist
1. Header Information
Include details about:
 Observer name
 Date and time
 Location
 Subject (e.g., person, group, activity)

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2. Observation Items
These are the specific indicators, behaviors, or conditions you are monitoring.
Item No. Observation Item Observed? (Yes/No/NA) Comments/Notes
1 Handwashing station available near toilet Yes / No / NA Water available but no soap
2 Teacher uses visual aids in class Yes / No / NA Used charts and diagrams
3 Safety signs posted in the work area Yes / No / NA Some signs missing
4 Children actively participate in activity Yes / No / NA Half were disengaged

Types of Observation Checklist Items

- Behavioral: e.g., “Student raises hand before speaking”
- Environmental: e.g., “Cleanliness of facility”
- Process-based: e.g., “Correct procedure followed during handwashing”
- Presence/Absence: e.g., “First aid kit available”

Tips for Designing an Effective Observation Checklist

- Be clear and specific in your items.
- Use measurable criteria (avoid vague terms like "good" or "sufficient").
- Keep it short and focused—prioritize what's most important.
- Pilot test the checklist before full implementation.

Sample Use Cases

- Education: Classroom teaching behaviors
- Health: Clinic hygiene practices
- Construction: Safety compliance
- Community: Sanitation facility checks
- Research: Behavioral studies in natural settings

Unobtrusive vs. Obtrusive Observation in Research

1. Unobtrusive Observation: The researcher observes without the participants being aware they are being observed,
or with minimal influence on their behavior.
Key Features:
 Conducted secretly or with very low visibility.
 Often uses tools like cameras, one-way mirrors, or trace analysis (e.g., analyzing footprints, documents, or
garbage).
 Reduces observer bias and Hawthorne effect (when people change behavior because they know they’re being
observed).
Examples:
 Watching pedestrian flow via security camera.
 Analyzing worn pages in library books to determine usage.
 Observing shoppers in a store through one-way glass.
Advantages:
 More natural behavior (less chance of participants acting differently).
 Useful for sensitive topics or behaviors.
Disadvantages:
 Ethical concerns if consent is not obtained.
 Limited context—you may miss explanations for actions.
 May require inference, which can reduce accuracy.
2. Obtrusive Observation: The participants know they are being observed, and the observer is visible or present in
the setting.
Key Features:
 Observer may interact with or remain close to participants.
 Often used in classrooms, focus groups, or participant observation.

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Examples:
 A teacher being evaluated by a school inspector sitting in class.
 A researcher observing a community meeting.
 A health worker monitoring hygiene practices in a clinic.
Advantages:
 Easier to gain consent and remain ethically transparent.
 Allows for clarification, note-taking, and sometimes interviews.
Disadvantages:
 Risk of Hawthorne effect—people might change their behavior.
 May introduce observer bias.
Summary
Feature Unobtrusive Observation Obtrusive Observation
Visibility of observer Hidden / unnoticed Visible / known
Behavior influence Minimal (natural behavior) Possible behavior change (Hawthorne effect)
Ethics More sensitive—may lack consent Easier to obtain consent
Data depth Surface-level or inferred Can clarify or probe deeper
Tools used Cameras, trace evidence, hidden views Field notes, checklists, interviews
Types of Observations in Research
1. Structured Observation
- Predefined categories or checklists are used.
- Focuses on specific behaviors or events.
- Common in quantitative research.
- Example: Using a checklist to count how many times a teacher asks questions in a classroom.
Best for: When consistency and comparability across settings are needed.
2. Unstructured Observation
- Open-ended and flexible.
- Observer records everything relevant they see or hear.
- Common in qualitative research, especially exploratory studies.
- Example: Observing a community event without a checklist to explore social dynamics.
Best for: Discovering patterns, behaviors, or themes in natural settings.
3. Participant Observation
- The researcher actively participates in the setting or group being studied.
- Can be overt (subjects know they're being observed) or covert (they don’t).
- Widely used in ethnographic and sociological research.
Best for: Understanding group culture, relationships, and social norms.
4. Non-Participant Observation
- The researcher observes without getting involved in the activities.
- More detached and objective.
- Minimizes influence on subjects' behavior.
Best for: Behavioral studies or monitoring where neutrality is important.
5. Naturalistic Observation
- Conducted in the subject's natural environment with no interference.
- Observes behavior in its real-world context.
Best for: Capturing authentic behavior, especially in psychology or education.
6. Controlled Observation
- Takes place in a structured, controlled setting (like a lab).
- Variables may be manipulated to observe effects.
- Often used in experimental research.
Best for: Testing specific hypotheses under consistent conditions.
7. Direct Observation
 Researcher observes behavior firsthand, in real time.
 May use tools like video or tally sheets.
Best for: Time-sensitive or observable behaviors (e.g., customer service interaction).

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8. Indirect Observation
 Based on traces or artifacts of behavior rather than watching people directly.
 Example: Analyzing footprints in a museum exhibit to see which areas attract more visitors.
Best for: Studies where direct observation isn’t possible.

Considerations in designing and administering interview guides

Designing and administering interview guides is a critical part of qualitative research. It ensures the collection of
relevant, in-depth, and reliable data while respecting participants and maintaining ethical standards.
Here are the key considerations:
1. Research Objectives
o Clarify your goals before designing questions.
o Ensure all questions align with what you want to learn.
o Avoid unnecessary or off-topic questions.
� Ask: What exactly am I trying to find out from this interview?
2. Target Population
o Understand your participants’ background, language, culture, and literacy level.
o Design questions that are appropriate, respectful, and understandable.
� Use simple, clear language tailored to the audience.
3. Question Type and Structure
o Use open-ended questions to elicit detailed responses.
o Avoid leading, double-barreled, or biased questions.
o Include probes to follow up and explore responses deeper.
Avoid: “Don’t you think the program is very effective?”
Use: “How would you describe the program’s effectiveness?”
4. Logical Flow and Thematic Organization
o Start with easy or general questions (to build rapport).
o Group questions into themes or topics.
o Move from general to specific (the funnel approach).
5. Length and Time Management
o Keep the guide manageable in length (usually 30–60 minutes).
o Prioritize core questions, and prepare optional ones if time allows.
6. Ethical Considerations
o Obtain informed consent.
o Ensure confidentiality and anonymity.
o Avoid sensitive questions unless necessary—and approach them sensitively.
7. Pilot Testing
 Pre-test the guide with a similar audience.
 Adjust based on feedback (e.g., confusing questions, sensitive topics).
8. Interviewer Skills and Preparation
 Interviewers should be trained to:
o Stay neutral and non-judgmental
o Use active listening
o Handle emotional or sensitive responses
o Know when to probe or move on
9. Environment and Logistics
o Choose a comfortable, quiet, and private setting.
o Ensure audio recording (if used) is working and consented to.
o Be flexible with time, especially in community settings.
10. Documentation and Follow-Up
 Take field notes during or after the interview.
 Label and secure recordings and transcripts properly.
 Reflect on your role as an interviewer (researcher bias, tone, influence).
Summary Checklist for Designing & Administering an Interview Guide
Task
Align questions with research goals

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Task
Use open-ended, neutral questions
Organize questions by themes
Test and revise the guide
Obtain informed consent
Choose an appropriate setting
Prepare recording tools
Train interviewers
Take field notes and debrief

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