Science

CAMBRIDGE CHECKPOINT

NOTES
—

ESHAAL IMRAN
—

(BIOLOGY CHAPTERS: 1, 4, 7)

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 Photosynthesis
What is Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a complex biochemicali process used by plants, algae, and some bacteria to convert
light energy into chemical energy. This process is vital because it forms the base of most food chains
and produces the oxygen we breathe.

It takes place primarily in the chloroplasts of plant cells, where chlorophyll (the green pigment)
captures sunlight. This energy is then used to convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O) into
glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).

Photosynthesis Equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2

This means that six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and six molecules of water (H₂O), using light
energy, produce one molecule of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and six molecules of oxygen (O₂).

Sources of Reactants for Photosynthesis

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂):

a. Where it comes from: Carbon dioxide is a gas in the atmosphere. Plants absorb it
through small pores in their leaves called stomata. These pores open and close to
allow the exchange of gases.
i. When the stomata open, carbon dioxide enters the leaf and oxygen (a
byproduct of photosynthesis) exits.
2. Water (H₂O):
a. Where it comes from: Water is absorbed by the plant's roots from the soil. The
water travels upward through the plant via the xylem, which are specialized tubes
that transport water and nutrients.
i. Once in the leaf, the water moves into the chloroplasts, where it will be split
in the light-dependent reactions to release oxygen and provide electrons for
the electron transport chain.
3. Light (Sunlight):
a. Where it comes from: The plant absorbs light energy from the sun. This energy is
captured by pigments like chlorophyll inside the chloroplasts. Chlorophyll is
primarily responsible for absorbing light in the blue and red parts of the spectrum,
which is then used to power the light-dependent reactions.

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End Products of Photosynthesis

1. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆):
a. Where it is used: Glucose is the main product of photosynthesis and is used by the
plant for various purposes:
i. Energy: It can be broken down through cellular respiration to release energy
for the plant’s growth, reproduction, and maintenance.
ii. Storage: Glucose can be converted into starch, a polysaccharide that the
plant stores in the leaves, roots, or stems for later use.
iii. Building Blocks: Glucose is also a precursor for other organic molecules. For
example, it can be used to synthesize cellulose (for cell walls), lipids (for
membranes), and proteins (with the help of nitrogen).
2. Oxygen (O₂):
a. Where it is released: Oxygen is released into the atmosphere through the stomata.
This happens after water is split during the light-dependent reactions to release
oxygen as a byproduct. Oxygen is essential for the respiration of most aerobic
organisms, including humans.

Why is Photosynthesis Important?

1. Oxygen Production – The oxygen released during photosynthesis is critical for the survival
of aerobic organisms, including humans.
2. Energy Source: Photosynthesis is the foundational process for nearly all ecosystems. Plants
capture solar energy and store it as glucose, which can then be consumed by herbivores, and
so on up the food chain.
3. Carbon Cycle Regulation – It helps maintain atmospheric CO₂ levels by removing it from the
atmosphere, reducing the greenhouse effect and regulating the Earth’s climate.
4. Energy Flow in Ecosystems – It forms the foundation of the food chain, supporting
herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers.
5. Fuels and Biomass – Fossil fuels like coal and oil are derived from ancient photosynthetic
organisms, and biofuels are created from plants.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

• Light Intensity: More light generally increases the rate of photosynthesis until a saturation
point is reached.

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 • Carbon Dioxide Concentration: Increased CO₂ can boost the rate of photosynthesis,
especially when other factors are not limiting.
• Temperature: Photosynthesis has an optimal temperature range. Too high or too low
temperatures can reduce the rate of photosynthesis.
• Water Availability: Water is essential for photosynthesis, as it is split during the light
reactions to release electrons and oxygen.

Similarities Between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

1. Energy Transformation:
a. Both processes involve the conversion of energy.
i. Photosynthesis converts light energy (sunlight) into chemical energy
(glucose).
ii. Respiration converts chemical energy stored in glucose into usable energy
in the form of ATP.
2. Exchange of Gases
3. Essential to life on Earth
4. Occur in cells
5. Involvement of Organic Molecules:
a. Both processes involve organic molecules like glucose.
i. Photosynthesis produces glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) as the end product.
ii. Respiration breaks down glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into carbon dioxide and water
to release energy.

Differences Between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Feature Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Purpose Converts light energy into chemical Converts chemical energy (glucose) into
energy (glucose). usable energy (ATP).
Location Occurs in the chloroplasts (mainly Occurs in the mitochondria (in both plant
in plant cells). and animal cells).
Energy Source Light energy (sunlight). Chemical energy stored in glucose.
Reactants Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).
(H₂O), and light energy.
Products Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and
(O₂). ATP.

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Energy Flow Endothermic (requires energy Exothermic (releases energy in the form
input from sunlight). of ATP).
Process Type An anabolic process, meaning it A catabolic process, meaning it breaks
builds complex molecules down complex molecules (glucose) into
(glucose) from simpler ones (CO₂ simpler ones (CO₂ and H₂O) to release
and H₂O). energy.

Oxygen Role Oxygen is released as a byproduct.

Oxygen is consumed to accept electrons
and form water.
Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is absorbed to Carbon dioxide is released as a waste
Role make glucose. product after glucose breakdown.
Organisms Occurs in plants, algae, and some Occurs in plants, animals, and most
Involved bacteria. organisms (eukaryotic and some
prokaryotic cells).

Where Does Photosynthesis Happen?

Cell Membrane:
• Function: Acts as a barrier that controls what enters and exits the cell. It helps maintain the
cell’s internal environment.
Cytoplasm:
• Function: The jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It’s where most of the cell’s chemical
reactions occur, and it helps transport materials within the cell.
Nucleus:
• Function: The control center of the cell. It houses the cell’s DNA and regulates gene
expression, directing the cell's activities like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Mitochondrion:
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 • Function: Known as the powerhouse of the cell. It generates energy (ATP) through cellular
respiration to fuel cellular activities.
Vacuole:
• Function: A large storage space that holds water, nutrients, and waste products. In plant cells,
it helps maintain turgor pressure to support the cell's structure.
Cell Wall:
• Function: A rigid outer layer made of cellulose. It provides structural support, protection, and
helps maintain the shape of the plant cell.

Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in plant cells and algae, and they are the sites where
photosynthesis occurs. They respond to light intensity and direction. They contain chlorophyll.
Starch in plants is stored in the leaves in the chloroplasts. Not all plants store food in the form of
starch.

Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants that plays a crucial role in photosynthesis by
absorbing light, specifically in the blue and red regions of the light spectrum.

• Structure of Chlorophyll:
o Chlorophyll molecules have a porphyrin ring structure with a central magnesium
ion (Mg²⁺). This structure is what allows chlorophyll to absorb light efficiently.
o Chlorophyll absorbs most of the light, except for green light, which is reflected,
giving plants their green color.

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What is Fertilizer?

• What it is: Fertilizer is a substance that you add to soil to help plants grow better. It contains
nutrients that plants need, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), as well as
minerals like magnesium and nitrate.
• Use of Fertilizer: Fertilizers help plants grow faster, become stronger, and produce more
fruits or flowers. They are especially useful when the soil is missing important nutrients,
which happens sometimes because plants use them up as they grow.

Magnesium (Mg)

• What it is: Magnesium is an important mineral that plants need to make chlorophyll (the
green pigment in leaves that helps plants make food from sunlight).
• What happens if there's a deficiency?:
o Yellow leaves: The leaves will turn yellow, starting from the bottom of the plant. This
is because the plant can’t make enough chlorophyll.
o Slow growth: Without enough magnesium, plants can't photosynthesize properly, so
they grow more slowly.

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Nitrate (NO₃)

• What it is: Nitrate is a form of nitrogen, which plants use to make proteins and other
important molecules. Nitrogen is one of the main building blocks for plant growth.
• What happens if there's a deficiency?:
o Yellowing leaves (especially older leaves): Nitrogen deficiency causes the plant to
turn yellow because it can't make enough proteins and other vital substances.
o Poor growth: Without enough nitrate, plants can't grow strong and healthy, and they
may not produce flowers or fruits well.

1. Upper Epidermis

• What it is: The outer layer of cells on the top of the leaf.
• Adaptation: The upper epidermis is clear (transparent), which allows light to pass through
to the inner parts of the leaf where photosynthesis happens.

2. Cuticle

• What it is: A thin, waxy layer that covers the leaf’s surface.
• Adaptation: The cuticle helps to prevent water loss by reducing evaporation. This is
especially important because photosynthesis requires water.

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3. Palisade Mesophyll

• What it is: The layer of tightly packed cells just under the upper epidermis.
• Adaptation: These cells contain a lot of chloroplasts (the structures where photosynthesis
takes place). They are packed together to capture as much light as possible. This is where
most of the photosynthesis occurs.

4. Spongy Mesophyll

• What it is: The layer of cells beneath the palisade mesophyll. These cells are more spread out
with air spaces in between.
• Adaptation: The air spaces allow for the easy movement of gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂)
and oxygen (O₂). This is important because carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis, and
oxygen is produced as a byproduct.

5. Chloroplasts

• What they are: These are tiny organelles found inside the palisade and spongy mesophyll
cells.
• Adaptation: Chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll that absorbs light
energy. This energy is then used to carry out photosynthesis.

6. Vascular Tissue (Xylem and Phloem)

• What it is: The leaf contains tubes called xylem and phloem.
o Xylem carries water from the roots to the leaf.
o Phloem carries the food (glucose) made by the plant during photosynthesis to other
parts of the plant.
• Adaptation: These tubes ensure that the leaf gets enough water for photosynthesis and can
send out the sugars made during the process.

7. Stomata

• What they are: Tiny pores (holes) on the underside of the leaf.
• Adaptation: The stomata allow carbon dioxide (CO₂) to enter the leaf and oxygen (O₂) to
exit. They can open and close to regulate gas exchange and control water loss.

8. Lower Epidermis

• What it is: The outer layer of cells on the bottom side of the leaf.
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 • Adaptation: The lower epidermis contains most of the stomata, helping the leaf exchange
gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen.

All the parts of the leaf work together like a team to make photosynthesis happen. First, light enters
the leaf through the transparent upper epidermis, and it reaches the chloroplasts in the palisade
mesophyll cells, where most of the photosynthesis takes place. The chlorophyll in these chloroplasts
absorbs sunlight, which provides the energy needed for the process. At the same time, carbon
dioxide (CO₂) enters the leaf through tiny pores called stomata in the lower epidermis. The spongy
mesophyll cells, with their air spaces, allow the CO₂ to move freely toward the chloroplasts. Water
is absorbed by the plant's roots and transported through the xylem to the leaf, where it reaches the
chloroplasts. The energy from sunlight splits the water molecules, releasing oxygen (O₂) as a
byproduct, which exits through the stomata. The glucose (food) produced during photosynthesis is
then carried through the phloem to other parts of the plant. All these parts—chloroplasts, stomata,
mesophyll cells, xylem, and phloem—work together to ensure that the plant gets the energy it needs,
produces food, and releases oxygen into the air.

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon through Earth in both
elemental and combined states. In its elemental form, carbon can be found
as diamond and graphite, both of which are carbon atoms arranged in
different structures. In a combined state, carbon is found in several forms:

• Carbonates in minerals (like limestone or marble)

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere
• Methane (CH4) in the atmosphere and as part of natural gas reserves
• Organic compounds in living organisms like proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates (carbon-containing nutrients.).

The carbon cycle involves the interchange of carbon compounds among the
biosphere (living organisms), geosphere (Earth’s crust), pedosphere (soil),
hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, rivers), and atmosphere (air). It is also called the
biogeochemical cycle.

Key processes in the cycle include:

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 • Photosynthesis: Plants absorb CO2 from the air and convert it into
glucose (a carbon-based compound).
• Respiration: Living organisms release CO2 back into the air by breaking
down food for energy.
• Decomposition: When plants and animals die, decomposers release
carbon back into the environment.
• Fossilization: Over millions of years, carbon from dead organisms can be
turned into fossil fuels.
• Volcanic Activity: Volcanoes release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere during eruptions.
• Ocean Absorption: The ocean absorbs CO2 from the air, helping regulate
atmospheric levels.
• Combustion: The burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and natural gas),
wood, or biomass releases CO2 into the atmosphere. Combustion is a
major human-driven contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2,
especially with the burning of fossil fuels for energy, transportation, and
industrial processes.
• Feeding: Animals consume plants or other animals to obtain carbon in
the form of organic compounds. When they eat, they take in carbon,
which can be stored in their bodies or used for energy.

Overall, the carbon cycle is a critical part of how Earth maintains a balance of
carbon, ensuring that it is continuously recycled through various processes
and stored in different parts of the Earth. However, human activities—especially
combustion—are currently altering the natural balance, contributing to
increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere and impacting the global climate.

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Fossil Fuels and Combustion
Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals
that lived millions of years ago. The process of their formation takes a very long time and happens
under specific conditions of pressure, heat, and time. Here’s how each one forms:

1. Coal:

• Formation: Coal is formed from the remains of ancient plants, mostly in swampy, low-
oxygen environments like marshes or peat bogs. When plants die, they accumulate in layers
and get buried by more plant material or sediments. Over millions of years, the heat and
pressure from the layers of earth above cause the plant material to undergo chemical
changes, eventually turning it into peat, lignite (brown coal), bituminous coal (soft coal), and,
under the most extreme conditions, anthracite coal (hard coal).
• What it is: Coal is primarily made up of carbon and is a solid fossil fuel.

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 2. Oil (Petroleum):

• Formation: Oil is formed from the remains of tiny marine organisms (like plankton) that
settled on the ocean floor millions of years ago. When these organisms died, they mixed
with mud and other sediments. Over time, the organic material was buried by more layers
of sediments. With heat and pressure over millions of years, the organic matter turned into
liquid oil.
• What it is: Oil is a liquid fossil fuel, mostly made up of hydrocarbons (molecules containing
carbon and hydrogen).

3. Natural Gas:

• Formation: Natural gas forms in much the same way as oil, from the remains of marine
organisms, but it usually forms at higher temperatures than oil. Sometimes, natural gas
forms from oil when the oil is subjected to even more heat and pressure. It can also be
found in association with oil deposits or in large pockets underground.
• What it is: Natural gas is mostly methane (CH4), a gaseous fossil fuel that is lighter than oil
and coal.

Difference Between Fossil Fuels and Fossils:

• Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and natural gas) are the energy-rich substances
formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals. They are called "fossil" fuels
because they come from the "fossils" of ancient life, but they are not the actual remains of
organisms you would find as fossils (like bones or shells).
• Fossils: Fossils are the preserved remains or imprints of ancient organisms (plants,
animals, or microbes) that have been turned into stone or preserved in some way. Fossils
can include bones, shells, leaves, and even footprints. They provide evidence of life from
long ago, but they are not used for energy.

Key Differences:

• Fossil fuels are energy sources formed from the decomposition of ancient organic matter
(plants and animals).
• Fossils are the remains or impressions of ancient life forms that have turned to stone over
time.

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 • While both fossil fuels and fossils come from ancient life, fossil fuels are energy-rich
materials used for heat, electricity, and fuel, while fossils are physical records of past life.

Climate Change
Climate change refers to long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric
patterns on Earth. It can happen naturally over thousands or millions of years, but recently, it is
speeding up. It’s mainly driven by human activities, like burning fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas),
deforestation, and industrial processes, which release greenhouse gases (like carbon dioxide) into
the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, leading to a warming of the planet, also known as global
warming.

Some key impacts of climate change include:

• Rising sea levels due to melting ice caps and glaciers.

• More extreme weather events like hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves.
• Shifts in ecosystems that can affect biodiversity.
• Changes in agriculture because of altered rainfall patterns and temperatures.

Greenhouse Gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the
"greenhouse effect." These gases let sunlight in but prevent some of the heat from escaping back into
space, which warms the planet. The main greenhouse gases are:

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – Produced from burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
2. Methane (CH4) – Released from agriculture, especially livestock like cows, and landfills.
3. Nitrous Oxide (N2O) – Comes from fertilizers, agricultural practices, and industrial activities.
4. Water Vapor (H2O) – The most abundant greenhouse gas, but it’s mainly controlled by
temperature.

These gases act like a blanket around Earth, keeping the planet warmer by trapping heat from the
Sun. This process is called the greenhouse effect, and it is natural, but human activities are increasing
the concentration of these gases, which leads to global warming, a major driver of climate change.

When humans burn fossil fuels or deforest large areas (which contains CO2), we release excess
carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. This extra CO2, not only disrupts the carbon cycle, but
also contributes to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat and causing global temperatures to rise,
which is the core of climate change.

Climate Changes in the Past

Great questions! Here’s a breakdown of some major climate changes in Earth’s past:
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1. Ice Ages:

• What are they? Ice ages are long periods of time when Earth’s average temperature is
significantly lower than today, leading to the expansion of glaciers and ice sheets over large
parts of the Earth.
• When did they occur? The most recent ice age, called the Pleistocene Ice Age, started about
2.6 million years ago and ended around 10,000 years ago, marking the end of the last ice age
and the beginning of the current warm period.
• Why did they happen? Ice ages are believed to be caused by factors like changes in Earth’s
orbit, tilt, and wobble, which affect how much solar energy Earth receives. Volcanic activity
and changes in greenhouse gases, like CO2, also played a role in cooling Earth.
• What happened? During ice ages, large ice sheets covered parts of North America, Europe,
and Asia. There were big changes in ecosystems, and many species either adapted or went
extinct.

2. Snowball Earth:

• What was Snowball Earth? Snowball Earth refers to periods in Earth’s history (about 700 to
600 million years ago) when the planet is thought to have been completely or nearly
completely covered in ice.
• When did it happen? Snowball Earth episodes occurred in the Cryogenian period, a part of
the Proterozoic Eon, and there may have been multiple Snowball Earth events.
• Why did it happen? Scientists believe that Snowball Earth was caused by a combination of
factors, including lower levels of carbon dioxide, a decrease in solar output, and changes in
Earth's climate systems.
• What happened? During Snowball Earth, glaciers may have reached all the way to the
equator. Life, mostly microscopic organisms at that time, was severely impacted, but after
these events, Earth warmed up again, and life began to thrive.

3. Asteroid Collisions in Space Near Earth:

• What is the threat? Space is full of asteroids and comets, and occasionally, they can come
close to Earth. These objects could potentially collide with each other near Earth, causing
significant changes in climate.
• What happened historically? In the distant past, about 470 million years ago, two asteroids
collided in space between Earth and Mars, leading to massive impacts on climate. This
collision produced huge quantities of dust which reduced the amount of light and heat from
the Sun reaching the Earth’s surface triggering an ice age. A “nuclear winter” effect.

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 • What might happen? If an asteroid were to strike Earth today, it could release enough energy
to cause massive wildfires, tsunamis, and potentially disrupt the climate for years. The dust
and soot could block sunlight, leading to a "nuclear winter" effect.

4. Asteroid Collisions on Earth:

• The Chicxulub Impact (65 million years ago):

o What was it? The Chicxulub impact is the most famous asteroid collision, believed to
have contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species. A giant
asteroid (about 10 km wide) struck Earth near what is now the Yucatán Peninsula in
Mexico.
o What happened? The impact caused massive wildfires, tsunamis, and released tons
of dust and debris into the atmosphere, blocking sunlight for months or even years.
This "impact winter" led to a dramatic cooling of the planet and disrupted the global
climate, leading to the mass extinction event.
• Other Impacts: Throughout Earth’s history, there have been other large asteroid or comet
impacts, though none as famous as Chicxulub. These impacts have sometimes caused
environmental changes, including warming or cooling due to the release of gases and dust.

5. Volcanic Eruptions and Climate Change:

• Volcanic eruptions also play a role in climate change. Large volcanic eruptions can release
gases like sulfur dioxide, which can cool the Earth temporarily by reflecting sunlight. Some
volcanic events (like the Toba eruption around 74,000 years ago) are believed to have
contributed to sudden climate shifts or even mini ice ages.

Why Does It Matter?

Studying past climate changes helps scientists understand the complex systems that control Earth’s
climate and predict how the planet might change in the future. Right now, human activity (like burning
fossil fuels) is causing rapid climate changes, but understanding past events can help us make more
informed decisions about how to address today's climate crisis.

Impacts of an Asteroid Colliding with Earth:

When an asteroid strikes Earth, the effects depend on the size of the asteroid. The larger the asteroid,
the more devastating the impact. Here’s a breakdown of the potential impacts:

• Immediate Blast: A large asteroid impact can release massive amounts of energy, similar to
millions of atomic bombs going off at once. This energy would cause:

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 o A huge explosion at the impact site, potentially leveling everything within a large
radius.
o Intense shockwaves that can destroy buildings, trees, and anything else in the vicinity.
o Wildfires triggered by the heat of the explosion. These fires could spread across vast
areas, especially if the asteroid strikes a forested region.
• Crater Formation: After the impact, a huge crater is formed. The size of the crater depends
on the size and speed of the asteroid. For example:
o The Chicxulub crater formed by the asteroid that wiped out the dinosaurs is about
180 km (110 miles) wide.
o A large crater can also release molten rock and debris into the atmosphere, adding to
the destruction.
• Atmospheric Changes:
o Ejecta and Dust Clouds: The impact throws up huge amounts of debris and dust into
the atmosphere. This can block sunlight for an extended period, leading to a "nuclear
winter" effect, where temperatures drop drastically around the world.
o This lack of sunlight would disrupt photosynthesis, leading to a collapse of
ecosystems, especially in plant and animal species that rely on sunlight to survive.
o Acid Rain: The impact can release gases like sulfur into the atmosphere, which can
then mix with water vapor and create acid rain. This would further damage plant life,
water sources, and soil.
• Tsunamis: If the asteroid strikes the ocean, the impact would generate massive tsunamis.
These waves could travel across the oceans and devastate coastal regions, wiping out
everything in their path.
• Long-Term Climate Effects: The dust and particles from the impact would linger in the
atmosphere, blocking sunlight for weeks, months, or even longer. This could lead to a global
temperature drop, causing a long-term cooling effect. Some impacts (like the Chicxulub
impact) have been linked to mass extinction events because of these drastic changes in
climate.
• Mass Extinction (in extreme cases):
o Large asteroid impacts have been linked to mass extinctions. For example, the
Chicxulub impact is widely believed to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs
and many other species about 66 million years ago.
o The drastic environmental changes (such as cooling, acid rain, and a lack of sunlight)
could wipe out large numbers of species that are unable to adapt quickly.

1. Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites:

• Meteoroid: A small piece of rock or metal in space, often broken off from a larger asteroid.
• Meteor: When a meteoroid enters Earth’s atmosphere, it burns up and creates a bright streak
of light—this is what we call a meteor (or "shooting star"). They usually present little risk

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 because they burn in the atmosphere due to heat from friction. Some larger ones can create
shockwaves when they explode.
• Meteorite: If a meteoroid survives the atmosphere and lands on Earth, it’s called a meteorite.
If it is large enough, it can cause local or even planetary damage.

2. What is an Asteroid?

• Asteroid: A small rocky body that orbits the Sun, mostly found between Mars and Jupiter in
what’s called the Asteroid Belt. They can range in size from a few meters to hundreds of
kilometers across.

3. Where are Asteroids Found?

• Most asteroids are located in the Asteroid Belt, which is between Mars and Jupiter. But some,
called Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), can get close to Earth’s orbit.

4. What Do Scientists Look at When Observing Space Objects?

When scientists track objects that might hit Earth, they look at:

• Size (bigger objects are more dangerous)

• Speed (faster objects do more damage)
• Orbit (if the object’s orbit brings it close to Earth)
• Trajectory (whether it’s moving toward Earth)
• Composition (whether it’s made of rock, metal, or ice—rocky ones are more likely to survive
the atmosphere)

Impacts of Climate Change

1. Rising Temperatures:

• What happens? Earth’s average temperature increases, leading to warmer weather

everywhere.
• Impact: This can cause more extreme weather, like heatwaves, droughts, and intense storms.
It can also melt glaciers and ice caps, causing sea levels to rise.

2. Melting Ice Caps and Glaciers:

• What happens? Ice in places like the Arctic and Antarctica melts faster than usual.

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 • Impact: Rising sea levels flood coastal areas, threatening cities and habitats. This also disrupts
animal species like polar bears that rely on ice.

3. Sea Level Rise:

• What happens? As the temperature rises, ice melts and seawater expands, raising the ocean
levels.
• Impact: Coastal areas, islands, and low-lying regions could be flooded, forcing people to
move away. It also impacts marine life.

4. Extreme Weather Events:

• What happens? Climate change leads to more frequent and intense storms, hurricanes, and
rainfall.
• Impact: These extreme weather events cause damage to buildings, homes, and infrastructure,
and lead to loss of life and destruction of ecosystems.

5. Ocean Acidification:

• What happens? More CO2 in the atmosphere means more CO2 gets absorbed by the oceans,
making the water more acidic.
• Impact: This harms marine life, especially organisms like corals and shellfish, which rely on
stable, non-acidic conditions to survive.

6. Impact on Ecosystems and Biodiversity:

• What happens? Many species are unable to adapt quickly enough to changing climates,
leading to the loss of habitats and extinction of some species.
• Impact: This disrupts ecosystems, food chains, and agriculture, affecting food supplies for
humans and animals.

7. Human Health Risks:

• What happens? Rising temperatures and changing weather patterns can increase the spread
of diseases, especially those carried by insects like mosquitoes.
• Impact: More people may get sick from diseases like malaria and dengue. Heat stress can also
cause more heat-related illnesses and deaths.

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8. Changes in Agriculture:

• What happens? Changing weather patterns, like more droughts or heavy rainfall, affect
farming.
• Impact: Crops may not grow as well in some areas, leading to food shortages and higher
prices. Farmers may also face difficulties due to extreme weather.

How Scientists predict Effects of Climate Change

Scientists predict future climate change using computer models that simulate how Earth's climate
works. They look at:

• Greenhouse gas levels (like CO2) and how they’re changing.

• Past climate data to see trends and patterns.
• Global temperature rise and how it affects weather, ice, and oceans.

By studying these factors, they can estimate future temperatures, sea level rise, and extreme weather
events.

Plants and Water

Root Hair Cells

Root hair cells are specialized plant cells found on the surface of roots. They play a crucial role in
absorbing water and minerals from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and survival.

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Function:

Root hair cells have two main jobs:

1. Absorbing Water – Water enters the root hair cells from the soil through a process called
osmosis.
2. Absorbing Minerals – Essential minerals (like potassium, magnesium, and nitrate) enter the
root hair cells using active transport.

Once inside the root hair cells, water and minerals are transported to other parts of the plant
through the xylem (the plant’s water-carrying tissue).

These cells are located just behind the tip of the roots where the soil is moist, which makes it easier
for them to take in water and nutrients.

Adaptations (How they’re built for the job):

1. Long, thin projections: Root hair cells have a long, finger-like shape that increases their
surface area, allowing them to absorb more water and minerals efficiently
2. No cuticle: Unlike many other plant cells, root hair cells don’t have a waxy layer (cuticle),
which allows water to easily enter through their cell membranes.
3. Close to soil: Root hair cells are close to the soil particles, so they can directly absorb water
and minerals from the surrounding soil.
4. Thin cell walls: The walls of root hair cells are very thin, making it easier for water and
minerals to pass through.
5. Many root hairs: The root has thousands of these hair-like cells, greatly increasing the area
over which water and nutrients can be absorbed.
6. No Chloroplasts: Since root hair cells are underground and do not perform photosynthesis,
they do not have chloroplasts (which are found in leaf cells).
7. Many Mitochondria: To power active transport, root hair cells have lots of mitochondria
that produce energy (ATP).
8. Large Vacuole: The vacuole inside the root hair cell stores water and nutrients, helping the
cell maintain its structure and keep absorbing more water.

How Root Hair Cells Absorb Water and Minerals

1. Osmosis – Water Absorption

Water moves from the soil into the root hair cells by osmosis, which is the movement of water from
an area of high water concentration (the soil) to an area of low water concentration (inside the

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root hair cell). This happens through a partially permeable membrane, which allows water to pass
through but blocks larger molecules.

Since the root hair cells contain many dissolved substances, they have a lower water
concentration compared to the soil, so water naturally moves into the cell. This water then travels
through other root cells and up the xylem to reach the rest of the plant.

2. Active Transport – Mineral Absorption

Unlike water, minerals do not always move into root hair cells by diffusion. Instead, the plant uses
active transport to absorb minerals from the soil.

• Active transport is when the cell uses energy (from respiration) to move substances against
the concentration gradient (from a low concentration in the soil to a high concentration
inside the root hair cell).
• This is necessary because the concentration of minerals inside the root hair cell is often
higher than in the soil.

Since active transport requires energy, root hair cells contain many mitochondria to supply this
energy through respiration.

Why Are Root Hair Cells Important?

Without root hair cells, plants would struggle to absorb the water and minerals they need to
survive. These cells help:

• Keep the plant hydrated

• Provide nutrients for growth
• Support photosynthesis (by delivering water to the leaves)
• Maintain turgor pressure (which keeps plants firm and upright).

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 How Water Moves Up the Plant

i Biochemistry, study of the chemical substances and processes that occur in plants, animals, and
microorganisms and of the changes they undergo during development and life.

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