U NI T 

MEASUREMENTS AND SCIENTIFIC METHODS

Unit Outcomes

After completing the unit, you will be able to

 use proper SI units;
 identify the causes of uncertainty in measurement;
 express the result of any calculation involving experimental data to the
appropriate number of decimal places or significant figures;
 apply scientific methods in solving problems;
 demonstrate an understanding of experimental skills in chemistry;
 demonstrate a knowledge of basic laboratory apparatuses and safety
rules;
 describe scientific inquiry skills along this unit: observing, inferring,
predicting, comparing & contrasting, communicating, analyzing,
classifying, applying, theorizing, measuring, asking question, developing
hypothesis, designing experiment, interpreting data, drawing conclusion,
making generalizations and problem solving.
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
2.1 Measurements and Units in Chemistry
Learning competencies
At the end of this section, you should be able to
 list the seven SI units and their prefixes;
 describe the seven SI units and their prefixes;
 write the names and symbols of derived SI units;
 use the factor label method for solving problems and making conversion of SI
units;
 describe uncertainty of measurement;
 identify the digits that are certain and the ones that are uncertain given a
number representing measurement;
 identify causes of uncertainty in measurement;
 define precision and accuracy;
 estimate the precision possible for any instrument they use in the laboratory;
 explain systematic and random errors;
 analyze given data in terms of precision and accuracy;
 define significant figures;
 determine the number of significant figures in a calculated result;
 use the scientific notation in writing very large or very small numbers.

Conduct the following activity and present your finding to

the class.
1. In group, discuss and list down different traditional
ways of measuring mass of solid and liquid substances
Start-up Activity sold in the market places in your area.
2. Mention indigenous methods of measurements
(length, mass, time, volume)

Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity to be measured with a unit of

measurement that is, with a fixed standard of measurement. On a centimeter scale, the
centimeter unit is the standard of comparison. In traditional markets people buy and
sell goods by estimating their size in traditional way or use traditional measurement
method. Figure 2.1 shows traditional market and people exchanging goods by
estimating their size using indigenous methods of measurements.

19
Chemistry Grade 9

Figure 2.1 Traditional market.

The study of chemistry depends heavily on measurement. For instance, chemists

use measurements to compare the properties of different substances and to assess
changes resulting from an experiment. A number of common devices enable us to make
simple measurements of a substance’s properties: The meter stick measures length; the
burette, the pipette, the graduated cylinder, and the volumetric flask measure volume
(see Figure 2.2); the balance measures mass; the thermometer measures temperature.

The instruments illustrated on Figure 2.2 provide measurements of macroscopic

properties, which can be determined directly. Microscopic properties, on the atomic
or molecular scale, must be determined by an indirect method. A measured quantity
is usually written as a number with an appropriate unit. To say the distance between
Addis Ababa and Hawassa by car along a certain route is 275 is meaningless. We
must specify that the distance is 275 kilometers. In science, units are essential to state
measurements correctly.

20
 Measurements and Scientific Methods

Figure 2.2 Some common measuring devices found in a chemistry laboratory.

Conduct the following activity and present your finding to

the class.
a. Using thermometer with oC and oF scale measure your
body temperature. Compare the results in oC with the
result in oF.
b. What is the distance between Addis Ababa and your
town (village) in kilometers?
c. Which basic SI units are appropriate to express the:
i. average room temperature, and
ii. time duration for the earth to have one rotation
A ctivity 2.1 around its axis?

2.1.1 SI Units (The International System of Units)

For many years, scientists recorded measurements in metric units, which are related
decimally, that is, by powers of 10. In 1960, however, the General Conference of
Weights and Measures, the international authority on units, proposed a revised metric

21
Chemistry Grade 9
system called the International System of Units.

Table 2.1 shows the seven SI base units. Measurements that we will utilize frequently in
our study of chemistry include time, mass, volume, density, and temperature.

Table 2.1 SI Base Units.

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electrical current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Heat and Temperature
Temperature measures the intensity of heat, the “hotness” or “coldness” of a body.
Heat is a form of energy that always flows spontaneously from a hotter body to a
colder body — never in the reverse direction.

Relationships among the three temperature scales are illustrated in Figure 2.4. Between
the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water, there are 100 steps (°C or
Kelvins, respectively) on the Celsius and Kelvin scales. Thus, the “degree” is the same
size on the Celsius and Kelvin scales. But every Kelvin temperature is 273.15 units
above the corresponding Celsius temperature. The relationship between these two
scales is as follows:

K = 0C + 273.15 0C or 0C = K - 273.150
In the SI system, “degrees Kelvin” are abbreviated simply as K rather than °K and
are called kelvins.

Any temperature change has the same numerical value whether expressed on the
Celsius scale or on the Kelvin scale. For example, a change from 25°C to 59°C
represents a change of 34 Celsius degrees. Converting these to the Kelvin scale,
the same change is expressed as (273 + 25) = 298 K to (59 + 273) = 332 K, or a
change of 34 kelvins.

Comparing the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, we find that the intervals between
the same reference points are 180 Fahrenheit degrees and 100 Celsius degrees,
respectively. Thus, a Fahrenheit degree must be smaller than a Celsius degree. It
takes 180 Fahrenheit degrees to cover the same temperature interval as 100 Celsius
degrees. From this information, we can construct the unit factors for temperature
changes:

22
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
180 0F or 1.8 0C and 100 0C 1.0 0C
or
100 0C 1.0 0F 180 0F 1.8 0F

But the starting points of the two scales are different, so we cannot convert a
temperature on one scale to a temperature on the other just by multiplying by the unit
factor. In converting from °F to °C, we must subtract 32 Fahrenheit degrees to reach
the zero point on the Celsius scale (Figure 2.3).

 1.8o F   9o F  1.0o C o 5o C o
o
F =  x oC × o  + 32o F =  x oC × o  + 32o F and C
o
=
1.8
(
o
F
x F − 32 )
o
F=
9 o (
F
x F − 32o F )
 1.0 C   5 C 

Figure 2.3 The relationships among the Kelvin, Celsius (centigrade), and Fahrenheit
temperature scales.

Example 2.1: Temperature conversion

When the temperature reaches “100.°F in the shade,” it’s hot. What is this temperature
on the Celsius scale?
Solution
1.0o C o
We use the relationship
= o
C o
1.8 F
( x F − 32o F )

1.0o C 1.0o C
to carry out the desired conversion.
= o
C
1.8o F
(100 o
F − =
32 o
F ) 1.8o F
=
(68o
F ) 38o C

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Chemistry Grade 9

Exercise 2.1
Temperature Conversion
When the absolute temperature is 400 K, what is the Fahrenheit temperature?

2.1.2 Derived Units

All other SI units of measurement can be derived from base units (called derived units).
Table 2.2 shows some of the common derived units. Once base units have been defined
for a system of measurement, you can derive other units from them. You do this by
using the base units in equations that define other physical quantities. For example,
area is defined as length times width. Therefore,

SI unit of area = (SI unit of length) × (SI unit of width)

From this, SI unit of area is meter × meter, or m2. Similarly, speed is defined as the
rate of change of distance with time; that is, speed = distance/time. Consequently,

SI unit of distance
SI unit of speed =
SI unit of �me

The SI unit of speed is meters per second (that is, meters divided by seconds). The unit
is symbolized m/s or m s-1. The unit of speed is an example of an SI derived unit, which
is a unit derived by combining SI base units. Table 2.2 displays a number of derived
units. Volume and density are discussed in this section.

Volume
Volume is defined as length cubed and has the SI unit of cubic meter (m3). This is too
large a unit for normal laboratory work, so we use either cubic decimeters (dm3) or
cubic centimeters (cm3, also written cc). Traditionally, chemists have used the liter (L),
which is a unit of volume equal to a cubic decimeter. In fact, most laboratory glassware
(Figure 2.2) is calibrated in liters or milliliters (1000 mL = 1 L). Because 1 dm equals
10 cm, a cubic decimeter, or one liter, equals (10 cm)3 = 1000 cm3. Therefore, a
milliliter equals a cubic centimeter. In summary,

1 L = 1 dm3 and 1 mL = 1 cm3.

24
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
Table 2.2 Derived units.
Quantity Definition of Quantity SI Unit
Area Length squared m2
Volume Length cubed m3
Density Mass per unit volume kg/m3
Speed Distance traveled per unit time m/s
Acceleration Speed changed per unit time m/s2
Force Mass times acceleration of object kg.m/s2 (= newton, N)
Pressure Force per unit area kg/(m.s2)(= pascal,Pa)
Energy Force times distance traveled kg.m2/s2 (= joule,J)

Density
The density of an object is its mass per unit volume. You can express this as

m
d=
v

where d is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. Suppose an object has a
mass of 15.0 g and a volume of 10.0 cm3. Therefore, the density will be

15.0 g
d= = 1.50 g/cm3
10.0 cm3

The density of the object is 1.50 g/cm3.

Density is an important characteristic property of a material. Water, for example, has
a density of 1.000 g/cm3 at 4 oC and a density of 0.998 g/cm3 at 20 oC. Lead has
a density of 11.3 g/cm3 at 20 oC.

Density can also be useful in determining whether a substance is pure. Consider a gold
bar whose purity is questioned. The metals likely to be mixed with gold, such as silver
or copper, have lower densities than gold. Therefore, an adulterated (impure) gold
bar can be expected to be far less dense than pure gold.

Example 2.1: Calculating the density of a substance

A colorless liquid, used as a solvent (a liquid that dissolve other substances), is believed
to be one of the following (Table 2.3):

Table 2.3 Density of different liquids.

Substance Density (in g/mL)
n-butyl alcohol 0.810
ethylene glycol 1.114
isopropyl alcohol 0.785
toluene 0.866

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Chemistry Grade 9
To identify the substance, Chaltu determined its density. By pouring a sample of the
liquid into a graduated cylinder, she found that the volume was 35.1 mL. She also
found that the sample weighed 30.5 g. What was the density of the liquid? What was
the substance?
Solution
The solution to this problem lies in finding the density of the unknown substance. Once
the density of the unknown substance is known, you can compare it to the list of known
substances presented in the problem and look for a match. Density is the relationship
of the mass of a substance per volume of that substance. Expressed as an equation,
density is the mass divided by the volume: d = m/V.

You substitute 30.5 g for the mass and35.1 mL for the volume into the equation.

m 30.5 g
d= = = 0.869 g/mL
v 35.1mL

The density of the liquid equals that of toluene (within experimental error).

Answer Check Always be sure to report the density in the units used when performing
the calculation. Density is not always reported in units of g/ml org/cm3, for example;
gases are often reported with the units of g/L.

Exercise 2.2
A piece of metal wire has a volume of 20.2 cm3 and a mass of 159 g. What
is the density of the metal? We know that the metal is manganese, iron, or
nickel, and these have densities of 7.21 g/cm3, 7.87 g/cm3, and 8.90 g/cm3,
respectively. From which metal is the wire made?

2.1.3 Common Prefixes Used in SI Units

The factor expressed as a factor to the power of ten, SI/ metric prefix, the symbol
used and the actual decimal number are tabulated in Table 2.4. They are widely
used and are easy to add to the basic units. Like metric units, SI units are modified in
decimal fashion by a series of prefixes, as shown in Table 2.4. Measurements that we
will utilize frequently in our study of chemistry include time, mass, volume, density, and
temperature.

26
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
Table 2.4 SI/ Metric Units, Symbols and Numbers.
Factor Prefix Symbol Decimal Example
1012 Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1 Terameter (Tm)=1×1012 m
109 Giga G 1,000,000,000 1 Gigameter (Gm)= 1×109 m
106 Mega M 1,000,000 1 Megameter (Mm)= 1×106 m
103 Kilo k 1,000 1 kilometer (km)= 1×103 m
102 Hecto h 100 1 hectometer (hm)= 1×102 m
101 Deca da 10 1 decameter (dam)= 1×101 m
10-1 Deci d 0.1 1 decimeter (dm)= 1×10-1 m
10-2 Centi c 0.01 1 centimeter (cm)= 1×10-2 m
10-3 milli- m 0.001 1 millimeter (mm)= 1×10-3 m
10-6 Micro µ 0.000 001 1 micrometer (µm)= 1×10-6 m
10-9 Nano n 0.000 000 001 1 nanometer (nm)= 1×10-9 m
10-12 Pico p 0.000 000 000 001 1 picometer (pm)= 1×10-12 m

Examples of SI prefixes
The SI prefixes/ metric prefixes are easily used as demonstrated by the few simple
examples given below:

 1 Megawatt = 1,000,000 watts

 1 kilogram = 1,000 grams
 1 µF = 1 microFarad = 1/1,000,000 Farad

Along with these the abbreviations or symbols can also be used. For example, kV for
kilovolts, kW for kilowatts, and km for kilometer. The other symbols or abbreviations
can be used in exactly the same manner.

2.1.4 Uncertainty in Measurements

Whenever you measure something, there is always some uncertainty. There are two
categories of uncertainty: systematic and random.
1. Systematic uncertainties are those which consistently cause the value to be too
large or too small. Systematic uncertainties include such things as reaction time,
inaccurate meter sticks, optical parallax and miscalibrated balances. In principle,
systematic uncertainties can be eliminated if you know they exist.
2. Random uncertainties are variations in the measurements that occur without a pre-
dictable pattern. If you make precise measurements, these uncertainties arise from
the estimated part of the measurement. Random uncertainty can be reduced, but
never eliminated. We need a technique to report the contribution.

27
Chemistry Grade 9
The uncertainty shall rather be understood as an interval within which the result can be
found with a given probability. Thus, the result will be within the interval but all values
within the interval have the same probability to represent the result.

Except when all the numbers involved are integers (for example, in counting the number
of students in a class), obtaining the exact value of the quantity under investigation
is often impossible. For this reason, it is important to indicate the margin of error in
a measurement by clearly indicating the number of significant figures, which are the
meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity. When significant figures are
used, the last digit is understood to be uncertain. For example, we might measure the
volume of a given amount of liquid using a graduated cylinder (see Figure 2.4) with
a scale that gives an uncertainty of 1 mL in the measurement. If the volume is found
to be 6 mL, then the actual volume is in the range of 5 mL to 7 mL. We represent the
volume of the liquid as (6±1) mL. In this case, there is only one significant figure (the
digit 6) that is uncertain by either plus or minus 1 mL. For greater accuracy, we might
use a graduated cylinder that has finer divisions, so that the volume we measure is now
uncertain by only 0.1 mL. If the volume of the liquid is now found to be 6.0 mL, we may
express the quantity as (6.0± 0.1) mL, and the actual value is somewhere between
5.9 mL and 6.1 mL. We can further improve the measuring device and obtain more
significant figures, but in every case, the last digit is always uncertain; the amount of
this uncertainty depends on the particular measuring device we use and the user’s
ability.

Figure 2.4 Uncertainty in volume measurement using a measuring cylinder.

28
 Measurements and Scientific Methods

Conduct the following activity and present your finding to

the class.
1. Make a chain of paper clips or other objects of
uniform length. Then use a meter stick to measure a
series of lengths on the chain. For example, measure
sections containing one, two, three, etc., clips. Record
your results and share them with your classmates.
2. Using laboratory scale, take several mass reading
for one, two, three objects of uniform size. You can
use any convenient objects you find in the laboratory.
Record your results and discuss them in your group.
Focus especially on the similarities and differences in
your measurement. Did you all find the same reading
for the same object? What do you think are the cause
of the uncertainties, if any? Discuss the results with the
Activity 2.2 rest of the class.

Calculating uncertainties
There are several techniques that will produce an estimate of the uncertainty in the
value of the mean. Since we are expecting students to produce an estimate of the
uncertainty any suitable value that indicates half the range is acceptable.

Example 2.2: A student measures the diameter of a metal canister using a ruler
graduated in mm and records these results:
Diameter/mm
Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Mean
66 65 61 64

The uncertainty in the mean value (64 mm) can be calculated as follows:

a. Using the half range

The range of readings is 61 mm – 66 mm so half the range is used to determine the
uncertainty.
Uncertainty in the mean diameter = (66 mm – 61 mm)/2 = 2.5 mm
Therefore, the diameter of the metal canister is 64 mm ± 2.5 mm.
Since a ruler graduated in mm could easily be read to ± 0.5 mm, it is acceptable to
quote the uncertainty as ± 2.5 mm for this experiment.

b. Using the reading furthest from the mean

In this case, the measurement of 61 mm is further from the average value than 66 mm
therefore we can use this value to calculate the uncertainty in the mean.
Uncertainty in the mean diameter = 64 mm – 61 mm = 3 mm.

29
Chemistry Grade 9
Therefore, the diameter of the metal canister is 64 mm ± 3 mm.

c. Using the resolution of the instrument

This is used if a single reading is taken or if repeated readings have the same value.
This is because there is an uncertainty in the measurement because the instrument used
to take the measurement has its own limitations. If the three readings obtained above
were all 64 mm then the value of the diameter being measured lies somewhere between
63.5 mm and 64.5 mm since a meter rule could easily be read to half a millimeter.
In this case, the uncertainty in the diameter is 0.5 mm. Therefore, the diameter of the
metal canister is 64 mm ± 0.5 mm. This also applies to digital instruments. An ammeter
records currents to 0.1 A. A current of 0.36 A would be displayed as 0.4 A, and a
current of 0.44 A would also be displayed as 0.4 A. The resolution of the instrument
is 0.1 A but the uncertainty in a reading is 0.05 A.

The typical uncertainty of a top loading balance is 0.05 g. How would you report
on weighing of 23.25 g made on this top loading balance? The result should be
reported as 23.25 g ± 0.05 g. Such an item of data means that the correct reading
lies between 23.20 g and 23.30 g.

The uncertainty in a measurement can be expressed in two useful ways:

a. as the absolute uncertainty in the last digit written
b. as the percent uncertainty calculated as follows

absolute uncertainty
% uncertainty = × 100
measurement

% uncertainty = (0.05 g)/( 23.25 g) × 100 = 0.2%

Therefore the answer may be reported as:
Absolute uncertainty: 23.25 g ± 0.05 g
Percent uncertainty: 23.25 g ± 0.2%

Exercise 2.3
Absolute uncertainty and percent uncertainty in a single reading: Use the given
uncertainty to calculate the % uncertainty in each of the following readings and
report the result of measurement in terms of absolute uncertainty and percent
uncertainty:
a. A barometer reading of 723.5 torr. The absolute uncertainty is 0.1 torr
b. 2.75 g weighed on a top loading balance. The absolute uncertainty is 0.05
g
c. 2.7413 g weighed on an analytical balance. The absolute uncertainty is
0.0002 g

30
 Measurements and Scientific Methods

d. A temperature reading of 75.6 °C on a thermometer graduated to the

nearest degree. The absolute uncertainty is 0.2 °C
e. 18.6 ml measured in 100 ml graduated cylinder. The absolute uncertainty
is 0.4 mL
f. 43.7 ml measured in 100 ml graduated cylinder. The absolute uncertainty
is 0.4 mL

2.1.5 Precision and Accuracy

Measurements may be accurate, meaning that the measured value is the same as the
true value; they may be precise, meaning that multiple measurements give nearly
identical values (i.e., reproducible results); they may be both accurate and precise; or
they may be neither accurate nor precise. The goal of scientists is to obtain measured
values that are both accurate and precise.

If you repeat a particular measurement, you usually do not obtain precisely the same
result, because each measurement is subject to experimental error. The measured
values vary slightly from one another. Suppose you perform a series of identical
measurements of a quantity. The term precision refers to the closeness of the set of
values obtained from identical measurements of a quantity. Accuracy is a related
term; it refers to the closeness of a single measurement to its true value.

Example 2.4: Precision and Accuracy

The archery targets in Figure 2.5 show marks that represent the results of four sets of
measurements.
a. a precise but inaccurate set of measurements.
b. an accurate but imprecise set of measurements.
c. a set of measurements that is both precise and accurate.
d. a set of measurements that is neither precise nor accurate.

Figure 2.5 The distribution of darts on a dart board showing the difference between
precise and accurate.

31
Chemistry Grade 9

Form groups, discuss and present your conclusion to

the class
1. Mohammed measured the mass of a sample of
gold using one balance and found 1.896 g. On
a different balance, the same sample was found
to have a mass of 1.125 g. Which measurement
was correct the first or the second measurement?
Careful and repeated measurements made
by Mohammed, including measurements on a
calibrated third balance, showed the sample to
have a mass of 1.895 g. The masses obtained
from the three balances are in the Table 2.5:
Table 2.5 Mass measurement
Balance 1 Balance 2 Balance 3
1.896 g 1.125 g 1.893 g
1.895 g 1.158 g 1.895 g
1.894 g 1.067 g 1.895 g
A ctivity 2.3

Exercise 2.4
a. A 2-carat diamond has a mass of 400.0 mg. When a jeweler repeatedly
weighed a 2-carat diamond, he obtained measurements of 450.0 mg,
459.0 mg, and 463.0 mg. Were the jeweler’s measurements accurate?
Were they precise?
b. A single copper penny was tested three times to determine its composition.
The first analysis gave a composition of 93.2% zinc and 2.8% copper, the
second gave 92.9% zinc and 3.1% copper, and the third gave 93.5% zinc
and 2.5% copper. The actual composition of the penny was 97.6% zinc and
2.4% copper. Were the results accurate? Were they precise?

2.1.6 Significant Figures

We must always be careful in scientific work to write the proper number of significant
figures. In general, it is fairly easy to determine how many significant figures a number
has by using the following rules:
1. Any digit that is not zero is significant. Thus, 845 cm has three significant figures,
1.234 kg has four significant figures, and so on.
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. Thus, 606 m contains three significant

32
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
figures, 40,501 kg contains five significant figures, and so on.
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. Their purpose is to
indicate the placement of the decimal point. For example, 0.08 L contains one
significant figure, 0.0000349 g contains three significant figures, and so on.
4. If a number is greater than 1, then all the zeros written to the right of the decimal
point count as significant figures. Thus, 2.0 mg has two significant figures, 40.062
mL has five significant figures, and 3.040 dm has four significant figures. If a
number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end of the number and
the zeros that are between nonzero digits are significant. This means that 0.090
kg has two significant figures, 0.3005 L has four significant figures, 0.00420 min
has three significant figures, and so on.
5. For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the trailing zeros (that is, zeros
after the last nonzero digit) may or may not be significant. Thus, 400 cm may have
one significant figure (the digit 4), two significant figures (40), or three significant
figures (400). We cannot know which is correct without more information. By using
scientific notation, however, we avoid this ambiguity. In this particular case, we
can express the number 400 as 4×102 for one significant figure, 4.0×102 for two
significant figures, or 4.00×102 for three significant figures.

A second set of rules specifies how to handle significant figures in calculations.

1. In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the right of the
decimal point than either of the original numbers.
Consider these examples:
89.332
+1.1 ← one digit after the decimal point
90.432 ← round off to 90.4

2.097
-0.12 ← two digits after the decimal point
1.977 ← round off to 1.98
The rounding-off procedure is as follows. To round off a number at a certain point we
simply drop the digits that follow if the first of them is less than 5. Thus, 8.724 rounds
off to 8.72 if we want only two digits after the decimal point. If the first digit following
the point of rounding off is equal to or greater than 5, we add 1 to the preceding
digit. Thus, 8.727 rounds off to 8.73, and 0.425 rounds off to 0.43.
2. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the final product
or quotient is determined by the original number that has the smallest number of
significant figures. The following examples illustrate this rule:

2.8×4.5039=12.61092 → round off to 13

6.85 = 0.0611388789 → round off to 0.0611
112.04

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Chemistry Grade 9
3. Keep in mind that exact numbers obtained from definitions (such as 1 ft, 12 in,
where 12 is an exact number) or by counting numbers of objects can be considered
to have an infinite number of significant figures.

Example 2.5 Significant figures

Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements: (a) 394 cm,
(b) 5.03 g (c) 0.714 m, (d) 0.052 kg, (e) 2.720 × 1022 atoms,
(f ) 3000 mL.

Solution: (a)Three, because each digit is a nonzero digit. (b) Three, because zeros
between nonzero digits are significant. (c) Three, because zeros to the left of the first
non zero digit do not count as significant figures. (d) Two. Same reason as in (c). (e)
Four, because the number is greater than one, all the zeros written to the right of the
decimal point count as significant figures. (f) This is an ambiguous case. The number of
significant figures may be four (3.000 × 103), three (3.00 × 103), two (3.0 × 103), or
one (3 × 103). This example illustrates why scientific notation must be used to show the
proper number of significant figures.

Exercise 2.5
Significant figures:
Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following
measurements:
a. 35 mL d. 7.2 × 104 molecules
b. 2008 g e. 830 kg.
c. 0.0580 m 3

Exercise 2.6
1. Arithmetic operations: Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the
correct number of significant figures:
a. 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g d. 0.0154 kg ÷ 88.3 mL
b. 66.59 L – 3.113 L e. 2.64 × 103 cm + 3.27 × 102
c. 8.16 m × 5.1355 cm.
2. Significant Figures (Addition and Subtraction)
a. Add 37.24 mL and 10.3 mL.
b. Subtract 21.2342 g from 27.87 g.
3. Significant Figures (Multiplication)
What is the area of a rectangle 1.23 cm wide and 12.34 cm long?

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 Measurements and Scientific Methods
2.1.7 Scientific Notation and Decimal Places
We use scientific notation when we deal with very large and very small
numbers. For example, 197 grams of gold contains approximately
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 gold atoms.

The mass of one gold atom is approximately 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 327
gram. In using such large and small numbers, it is inconvenient to write down all the
zeros. In scientific (exponential) notation, we place one nonzero digit to the left of the
decimal.

602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 6.02×1023

23 places to the left, therefore exponent of 10 is 23

0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 327 =3.27×10-22

22 places to the right, therefore exponent of 10 is -22.

The reverse process converts numbers from exponential to decimal form.

Example 2.6 Unit Conversions

The Ångstrom (Å) is a unit of length, 1×10-10 m,that provides a convenient scale on which
to express the radii of atoms. Radii of atoms are often expressed in nanometers. The
radius of a phosphorus atom is 1.10 Å. What is the distance expressed in centimeters
and nanometers?

Plan
We use the equalities 1 Å= 1×10-10m, 1 cm = 1×10-2 m, and 1nm = 1× 10-9 m to
construct the unit factors that convert 1.10 Å to the desired units.
Solution: Let x be the length in cm unit and y the length in nm.
1 x 10-10 m x 1cm
x cm = 1.10 0A x 10A 1 x 10-2 m = 1.10 x 10 cm
-8

1 x 10-10 m x 1nm
y nm= 1.10 0A x 10A 1 x 10-9 m = 1.10 x 10 nm
-1

Exercise 2.7
Volume Calculation
Assuming a phosphorus atom is spherical; calculate its volume in Å3, cm3, and
4
nm3. The formula for the volume of a sphere is V = 3 πr
3
Refer to Example
above.

35
Chemistry Grade 9
2.2 Chemistry as Experimental Science
Learning competencies
At the end of this section, you should be able to
 define scientific method;
 describe the major steps of the scientific method;
 use scientific methods in solving problems;
 demonstrate some experimental skills in chemistry;
 describe the procedures of writing laboratory report.

Chemistry is largely an experimental science, and a great deal of knowledge comes

from laboratory research. In addition, however, today’s chemist may use a computer
to study the microscopic structure and chemical properties of substances or employ
sophisticated electronic equipment to analyze pollutants from auto emissions or toxic
substances in a soil. Many frontiers in biology and medicine are currently being
explored at the level of atoms and molecules the structural units on which the study of
chemistry is based.

Chemists participate in the development of new drugs and in agricultural research.

What’s more, they are seeking solutions to the problem of environmental pollution
along with replacements for energy sources. And most industries, whatever their
products, have a basis in chemistry. For example, chemists developed polymers (very
large molecules) that manufacturers use to make a wide variety of goods, including
clothing, cooking utensils, artificial organs, and toys.

Chemistry is evidence based. All chemical statements are based on experiment.

Chemistry is part of the body of modern science. It shares the experimental method
of all sciences. It improves in time also using new discoveries and concepts from other
sciences. In turn, it provides both theoretical and experimental tools to different
sciences. Biology and Geology cannot be studied without a thorough understanding
of chemical phenomena. Indeed, because of its diverse applications, chemistry is often
called the “central science.”
2.2.1 The Scientific Method

Conduct the following activity and present your

finding to the class.
a. Collect a plastic bag filled with different items
provided by your teacher.
b. Decide on the question you would like to answer
about your bag. Write it down. (Do not open the
bag)

36
 Measurements and Scientific Methods

c. Guess what the answer to your question might

be. Write down. (Do not open the bag)
d. Open your bag and answer the questions.
e. Be sure to count the total number of items.
Now, discuss which part of the activity (a, b, c, d, or e)
introduces the scientific terminology: hypothesis, data
A ctivity 2.4 collection, experimentation, etc.

The Scientific method

What is Scientific Method? The Scientific method is a process with the help of which
scientists try to investigate, verify, or construct an accurate and reliable version of
any natural phenomena. They are done by creating an objective framework for
the purpose of scientific inquiry and analyzing the results scientifically to come to a
conclusion which either supports or contradicts the observation made at the beginning.

Scientific Method Steps

The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyze the observation made
at the beginning but there are various steps adopted as per the requirement of
any given observation. However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps of
scientific methods as it is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 The four main steps of the research process in studying chemistry and their
relationships.

37
Chemistry Grade 9
i. Observation and formulation of a Question: This is the first step of a scientific
method. In order to start one, an observation has to be made into any
observable aspect or phenomena of the universe and a question needs to be
asked pertaining to that aspect. For example, you can ask, “Why is the sky black
at night? or “Why is air invisible?”
ii. Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is
to collect all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation.
The hypothesis could be the cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to
any other phenomena.
iii. Testing the Hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested
scientifically. Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these
experiments is to determine whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the
observations made in the real world. The confidence in the hypothesis increases
or decreases based on the result of the experiments.
iv. Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and
other scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on
the analysis, the future course of action can be determined. If the data found
in the analysis is consistent with the hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is
rejected or modified and analyzed again.

It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing

one experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the
data and the result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved
beyond any doubt, it is accepted as a ‘theory’.
2.2.2 Some Experimental Skills in Chemistry
Laboratory Safety Rules
In the home, the kitchen and bathroom are the sites of most accidents. The chemical
laboratory poses similar hazards and yet it can be no more dangerous than any other
classroom if the following safety rules are always observed. Most of them are based
on simple common sense.
1. Responsible behaviour is essential. The dangers of spilled acids and chemicals
and broken glassware created by thoughtless actions are too great to be
tolerated.
2. Wear approved eye protection at all times in the laboratory and in any area
where chemicals are stored or handled. The only exception is when explicit
instructions to the contrary are given by your teacher.
3. Perform no unauthorized experiments. This includes using only the quantities
instructed, no more. Consult your teacher if you have any doubts about the
instructions in the laboratory manual.
4. Do not smoke in the laboratory at any time. Not only is smoking a fire hazard,
but smoking draws chemicals in laboratory air (both as vapours and as dust)
into the lungs.
5. In case of fire or accident, call the teacher at once. Note the location of fire

38
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
extinguishers and safety showers now so that you can use them if needed.
6. Report all injuries to your instructor at once. Except for very superficial injuries,
you will be required to get medical treatment for cuts, burns, or fume inhalation.
7. Do not eat or drink anything in the laboratory.
8. Avoid breathing fumes of any kind.
9. Never use mouth suction in filling pipets with chemical reagents. Always use a
suction device.
10. Never work alone in the laboratory. There must be at least one other person
present in the same room. In addition, your teacher should be quickly available.
11. Wear shoes in the laboratory. Bare feet are prohibited because of the danger
from broken glass. Sandals are prohibited because of the hazard from chemical
spills.
12. Confine long hair and loose clothing (such as ties) in the laboratory. They may
either catch fire or be chemically contaminated.
a. A laboratory apron or lab coat provides protection at all times. A lab
apron or lab coat is required when you are wearing easily combustible
clothing (synthetic and light fabrics).
b. It is advisable to wear old clothing to laboratory, because it is both generally
not as loose and flammable as new clothing, and not as expensive to replace.
13. Keep your work area neat at all times. Clean up spills and broken glass
immediately. Clutter not only will slow your work, but it leads to accidents.
Clean up your work space, including wiping the surface and putting away all
chemicals and equipment, at the end of the laboratory period.
14. Be careful when heating liquids; add boiling chips to avoid “bumping”.
Flammable liquids such as ethers, hydrocarbons, alcohols, acetone, and carbon
disulfide must never be heated over an open flame.
15. Always pour acids into water when mixing. Otherwise the acid can spatter,
often quite violently. Pour acid into water.
16. Do not force a rubber stopper onto glass tubing or thermometers. Lubricate the
tubing and the stopper with glycerol or water. Use paper or cloth towelling to
protect your hands. Grasp the glass close to the stopper.
17. Dispose of excess liquid reagents by flushing small quantities down the sink.
Consult the teacher about large quantities. Dispose of solids in crocks. Never
return reagents to the dispensing bottle.
18. Carefully read the experiment and answer the questions in the prelab before
coming to the laboratory. An unprepared student is a hazard to everyone in
the room.
19. Spatters are common in chemistry laboratories. Test tubes being heated or
containing reacting mixtures should never be pointed at anyone. If you observe
this practice in a neighbour, speak to him or her or the teacher, if needed.
20. If you have a cut on your hand, be sure to cover with a bandage or wear
appropriate laboratory gloves.
21. Finally, and most important, think about what you are doing. Plan ahead. Do

39
Chemistry Grade 9
not cookbook. If you give no thought to what you are doing, you predispose
yourself to an accident.

The first and foremost rule of any laboratory is to be safe! This may seem obvious, but
people often disregard safety protocols for one reason or another, putting themselves
and those around them in danger. The best thing you can do is to make sure you follow
all safety protocols at all times.

Safety goggles are required wear in all chemistry labs. Not wearing them puts
you in danger of eye irritation and possibly blindness in the case of an accident.
A small droplet of acid could splash out of the container at any time. Better safe
than permanently blinded! Latex gloves should be used when there is a possibility
of corrosive chemicals spilling onto your hands. A lab apron or coat can also prevent
injury in case of spills or splashes.

A beaker is a common container in most labs. It is used for mixing, stirring, and heating
chemicals. Most beakers have spouts on their rims to aid in pouring. They also commonly
have lips around their rims and markings to measure the volume they contain, although
they are not a precise way to measure liquids. Beakers come in a wide range of sizes.
Because of the lip that runs around the rim, a lid for a beaker does not exist. However,
a watch glass can be used to cover the opening to prevent contamination or splashing.
Figure 2.7 shows some of the commonly used laboratory equipments.

Crucible tongs Ring support Bunsen burner Ring stand Scoopula Test tube
brush

Utility clamp Clay triangle Wire gauze Test tube Spatula

holder Test tube
rack

Beaker Elenmeyer Florence Graduated Funnel Evaporating

dish
flask flask cylinder Crucible &
cover

Medicine Watch
Wash bottle Test tube Buret Graduated Volumetric dropper glass
pipet pipet
Figure 2.7 Commonly used Laboratory Equipment.

40
 Measurements and Scientific Methods

Conduct the following activity and present your finding

to the class.
Laboratory equipment
List down laboratory equipment you know and that are
not shown in Figure 2.7. Describe their use. Which of
A ctivity 2.5 them are used for measurement?

2.2.3 Writing a Laboratory Report

A. The Pre-laboratory Report
Each experiment in this manual includes a pre-laboratory (prelab) report. The prelab
report is to be completed before the experiment is begun in the laboratory. Its purpose
is to ensure familiarity with the procedure and provide for a more efficient utilization
of limited laboratory time. The prelab questions can be answered after a careful
reading of the introduction and procedure of the experiment. Sample calculations
are sometimes included to provide awareness of data that needs to be collected and
how it is treated. Your teacher may prefer to administer prelab quizzes instead of
collecting prelab reports.

B. The Laboratory Report

A good laboratory report is the essential final step in performing an experiment. It is
in this way that you communicate what you have done and what you have discovered.
Since it is the only means, in many instances, of reporting results, it is important that it
be prepared properly.

A laboratory report is a final draft. As such it is always written in ink or typed. A

typed laboratory report is necessary if your handwriting is hard to read. There must
be no erasures or crossed out areas. The initial draft of a laboratory report belongs
in your laboratory notebook for two reasons.
1. It is unlikely that you will get everything correct on the first attempt and, thus, a
first draft written on the report form itself could be very messy.
2. If the report itself is lost or destroyed, you can easily and quickly rewrite the
report from the notebook.

It is essential that a laboratory report be neat. Studies have shown that when the same
work is submitted in both neat and sloppy form, the neat version makes the better
impression. Neat work indicates that the writer knows and cares about the subject
matter.

All data should be presented with the correct significant figures and units. The omission
of units makes it difficult for the reader to know the size of the numbers being reported.
And writing down the wrong number of significant figures amounts to lying about the

41
Chemistry Grade 9
precision of the data. Too many significant figures imply that you know a number more
precisely than you actually do.

All questions should be answered with complete and grammatically correct sentences.
Abbreviations should not be included in written answers. Read the sentence out loud
to make sure that it makes sense.

Your sample computations should be labeled with their purpose, for example; “mass
of the liquid”. Within the computation, all numbers must have the correct units and the
correct number of significant figures.

Laboratory reports that extend to more than one page should either be stapled
together or have your name and the page number at the top right of each page. For
example: Terhas Asgedom, page 2 of 4 pages. This makes it more difficult for the
instructor to inadvertently misplace pages. Using a paper clip or tearing corners to
hold pages together is not acceptable. Reports should also be dated.

Graphs
Graphs are used to present the data in picture form so that they can be more readily
grasped by the reader. Occasionally, a graph is used to follow a trend. Notice
that the best smooth curve is drawn through the data points. This is not the same as
connecting the dots; all of the data points will not fall on the line. Often, however,
a graph is used to show how well data fit a straight line. The line drawn may either
be visually estimated (“eyeballed”) or computed mathematically. There are many
essential features of a good graph.
1. The axes must be both numbered and labeled. The abscissa is the right-to-left
or the horizontal axis or x-axis.
2. The graph must have a title. When we speak of graphing, we always mention
the quantity plotted on the ordinate first.
3. The data points are never graphed as little dots. One may use small circles,
small circles with a dot inside, crosses, asterisks, or X’s. If dots are used, data
are too easily lost on the graph or “created” by stray blobs of ink.
4. Any lines that appear on the graph in addition to data points should be
explained. Thus, the line drawn is explained in the title as “(visually estimated
best straight line).”
5. The scales of the axes should be adjusted so that the graph fills the page as
much as possible.
Measurements and Density
Chemistry is very much an experimental science in which careful and accurate
measurements are the very essence of meaningful experimentation. It is, therefore,
essential for the beginning student to learn how scientific measurements are carried
out properly through the use of common measuring instruments. It is equally important
for the student to acquire an appreciation of the significance of measurements and to

42
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
apply learned technique to a common specific experiment.

In the following experiment you will become familiar with how mass and volume
measurements are carried out and how an evaluation of the measurements is reflected
in the number of significant figures recorded. These mass and volume measurements
will then be used to determine the density of (1) a metal bar and (2) a salt solution
by two different methods. Finally, the results of the density measurements will be
evaluated with respect to their precision and accuracy.

The density of an object is one of its most fundamental and useful characteristics. As
an intensive property it is independent of the quantity of material measured since
it is the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume. The density of an object can
be determined by a variety of methods. In this experiment you will practice using a
balance to measure mass. In addition, you will learn how to measure volume using a
graduated cylinder and a pipet and learn how to calibrate the pipet. A comparison
of the results allows for the calculation of the relative average deviation, which is a
measure of the precision of the experiment.

Intensive and extensive properties

Define the terms intensive and extensive properties. List
down examples of intensive and extensive property.
A ctivity 2.6

Also, in the case of the metal bar, the results of measuring the density of the bar may
be compared with the accepted density value for the bar. Thereby the relative error
(a measure of accuracy) for the density of the bar may be determined. The sections in
the Introduction to this laboratory manual pertaining to precision, accuracy, significant
figures, and the laboratory notebook should be studied carefully before performing
this experiment.

Materials and Chemicals

Cylindrical metal bars (Al, Cu, brass), approximately 51 cm (diameter), measuring
rules (graduated in mm), 20or 25 mL transfer pipets, 50 mL beaker, graduated
cylinders (10 and 50 mL or 100 mL), 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask, stopper, thermometers,
and balances with precision to 1 mg. Saturated salt solutions (NaCl and/or KCl are
convenient) – about 36 g NaCl is required/100 mL. Estimated Time: 2-3 hours

Safety Precautions
Review the safety rules. Take special care in inserting the bar into the graduated
cylinder. Do not drop it in! The glass cylinder may break. Pipeting should always be
done using a suction device. Never suction by mouth.

43
Chemistry Grade 9
Procedures
Record all measurements in your laboratory notebook in ink. The proper use of a
sensitive balance is critical to useful mass measurements. Also, pipeting is a very
useful, accurate, and common method for transferring exact volumes of liquids.
Therefore, the instructor should demonstrate good balance and pipet techniques to
the class at the beginning of the laboratory period. Please note that when a portion
of the experiment contains the instruction “Repeat . . . twice,” each portion is to be
performed all the way through three times: initially and two repetitions.

Part I: Measurements
A. Mass Measurements
After balance instruction, you will be assigned or allowed to select a balance for use
during the experiment.
1. Zero the balance after cleaning the pan.
2. Measure the mass of a clean dry 50 mL beaker to the nearest ±0.001 g.
3. Record, in ink, your observation directly into the lab notebook.
4. Remove the beaker from the pan. Again, clean the balance pan and zero the
balance.
5. Weigh the same beaker as before (step 2) and record the result.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 one more time.
7. From the three mass measurements, calculate the average mass of the beaker.
8. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using a second balance (just one weighing).
9. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using a third balance (just one weighing).

B. Volume Measurements
Use of a pipet: In order to accurately measure a liquid volume using a pipet, you
must consider several things. Most volumetric pipets are designed to deliver rather
than to contain the specified volume. Thus, a small amount of liquid remains in the tip
of the pipet after transfer of liquid. This kind of pipet is marked with the letters “TD”
somewhere on the barrel above the calibration line. Also, for purpose of safety, never
pipet by mouth; that is, never use your mouth to draw liquid into the pipet. Always use
a suction device.

Use a clean but not necessarily dry 20 or 25 mL pipet. Rinse the pipet several times
with small portions of the liquid to be transferred. To measure the desired volume,
a volume of liquid greater than that to be measured is needed in order to keep the
pipet tip under the liquid surface while filling.

While holding the pipet vertically, squeeze the air out of the suction device and hold
it against the large end of the pipet, tight enough to obtain a seal. Keep the suction
device evacuated and dip the pipet tip below the surface of the liquid, but do not
touch the bottom of the container (A chipped tip causes error). Now release the suction
device gently and allow liquid to fill the pipet until it is one to two cm above the

44
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
calibration line etched onto the upper barrel. Quickly remove the suction device and
cover the end with your index finger before the liquid level falls below the line (some
practice may be necessary). Wipe the outside of the tip with a clean piece of towel
or tissue. With the tip touching the wall of the source container above the liquid level,
allow it to drain until the meniscus rests exactly on the line. Now hold the pipet over
the sample container and allow it to drain, but be careful to avoid loss from splashing.
When the swollen part of the pipet is nearly empty, touch the tip to the wall of the
container and continue draining. When the liquid level falls to the tip area, hold the
tip to the glass for an additional 20 seconds and then remove. Do not blow out the
remaining liquid.
1. Measure the temperature in the laboratory. Your teacher will provide you with
the density of water at this temperature.
2. Use the same 50 mL beaker from Section A for determining the mass of each
aliquot of water. Rather than re-weighing the empty beaker, the average mass
of the beaker determined in Section A may be used as the mass of the dry
beaker.
3. Measure 20 or 25 mL of water (depending on the size of pipet available) into
the 50 mL beaker.
4. Record the volume of water measured with the pipet to the appropriate number
of significant figures.
5. Record the number of significant figures in the volume measurement.
6. Weigh the beaker and water to the nearest mg (±0.001 g).
7. Calculate the mass of water in the beaker.
8. Use the mass and density of water to determine the volume of water measured.
9. Repeat steps 3 – 8 using a 50 or 100 mL graduated cylinder instead of the
pipet to measure the 20 or 25mL of water. Repeat steps 3 – 8 again using a
graduated 50 mL beaker to measure the water.

PART II: Density

A. Density of a Metal Bar (Use the same metal bar for all trials.)
1. Zero your balance. Weigh a metal bar on a balance sensitive to the nearest
mg (±0.001 g).Repeat the entire weighing operation twice. Do not allow the
first measurement that you obtain to influence subsequent measurements that
you make. Make sure you zero the balance before proceeding with each
measurement.
2. Determine the volume of the metal bar by each of the following methods,
making at least three measurements for each method. Do not allow the first
measurement to influence subsequent measurements as your data will then be
less significant for the purpose of measuring the precision of this experiment.

45
Chemistry Grade 9
Method I
Insert the bar into a graduated cylinder filled with enough water so that the bar
is immersed. Note and record as precisely as possible the initial water level, and
the water level after the bar is immersed. Read the lowest point of the meniscus in
determining the water level and estimate the volume to one digit beyond the smallest
scale division. Discard the water and repeat this measurement twice with a different
initial volume of water. Calculate the average density of the bar.

Method II
Measure the dimensions of the bar with a measuring stick ruled in centimetres. Repeat
these measurements twice. Calculate the volume of the bar from these dimensions.
Because the bar is cylindrical in shape, note that the formula for the volume of a
cylinder should be used (V= πr2h).Calculate the average density of the bar.
3. For each method, determine the relative error of your result comparing it with
the accepted value as provided by your instructor or as found in a reference
such as the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
Which one of the two methods is more accurate? Explain.

B. Density of a Salt Solution

1. Weigh a 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask and stopper. With a clean 20.00 or 25.00
mL volumetric pipet, pipet the salt solution into the flask and reweigh. Repeat
this measurement twice, with a different sample of the same solution. Calculate
the average density of the salt solution.
2. Weigh an empty, dry 10 mL graduated cylinder. Fill with about 9-10 mL of salt
solution, record the volume as precisely as possible, and reweigh. Repeat this
measurement twice, with a different sample of solution each time. Calculate the
average density of the salt solution.
3. For each method determine the relative average deviation of your results.
Which method is more precise? Explain.

Disposal
Salt solutions: Do one of the following, as indicated by your teacher.
a. Recycle: Return the salt solution to its original container.
b. Treatment/disposal: Dilute the salt solution 1:10 with tap water and flush
down the sink with running water.
c. Disposal: Put the salt solution in a waste bottle labeled inorganic waste.

Questions
1. From your data, calculate the volume occupied by 100 g of the following:
b. salt solution
c. metal bar
2. From your answers to question 1 determine whether the metal bar or the salt
solution occupies the larger volume. Explain your answer in the context of the
densities of solids and liquids in general.

46
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
3. Define the terms precision and accuracy in such a way as to distinguish between
them.
4. Are your results for the metal bar more precise or more accurate? Explain.
5. From your data for the salt solution, evaluate the two methods in terms of their
precision. Which method should lead to greater precision? Which method
actually is more precise? Explain.

Prelab
Measurements and Density
The following data were obtained in order to determine the density of a cylindrical
metal bar.
Trial 1 1 2 3
Height (cm) 6.50 6.45 6.44
Diameter (cm) 1.25 1.26 1.22
Mass (g) 46.683 46.332 47.014

In the following calculations on this data, show the formula used, the substituted
numbers, and the result.
1. Calculate the average density of the bar.
2. Calculate the percent relative average deviation of the measurements.
3. If the accepted value for the density of the bar is 6.70 g/cm3, what is the
percent relative error?
4. Are these measurements more precise or more accurate? Explain.
5. What is the purpose of repetition in measurements?

Key terms
 Accuracy  Measured numbers
 Calibration  Significant figures
 Derived units  Scientific notations
 Decimal places  Scientific method
 Error  SI units
 Exact numbers  Prefixes
 Laboratory safety  Precision
 Laboratory equipment  Uncertainty
 Measurement
Unit Summary
The International System (SI) uses a particular selection of metric units. It employs
seven base units combined with prefixes to obtain units of various sizes. Units for other
quantities are derived from these.

To obtain a derived unit in SI for a quantity such as the volume or density, you merely
substitute base units into a defining equation for the quantity. SI units are used to
express physical quantities in all sciences, including chemistry.
47
Chemistry Grade 9
Scientific notation helps us handle very large and very small quantities. Most measured
quantities are inexact to some extent.

The number of significant figures indicates the exactness of the measurement. Accuracy
is defined as how closely a measured value agrees with the correct value.Precision is
defined as closely repeated measurements of the same quantity agree with one
another.

Chemistry is an experimental science in that the facts of chemistry are obtained by

experiment. The scientific method is a systematic approach to research that begins with
the gathering of information through observation and measurements. In the process,
hypotheses, laws, and theories are devised and tested.

The key to significance in experimental measurements is repetition. Only with repeated

measurements of the density, concentration, or other quantities can the experimenter
have some confidence in the significance of measurements.
Review Exercise
Part I: Basic Level Questions.
Indicate True or False for the following Statements.
1. There is always a degree of uncertainty involved with every measurement.
2. Multiplication of 36,000 and 52.00 give the significant value 1872.000.
3. There are four significant numbers in 70.03.
4. While adding or subtracting a quantity, the answer contain no more decimal
places than the least accurate measurement.
5. The significant figures in a number include all of the certain digits plus one doubtful
digit.
6. In the following expression 0.01208 0.0236 , the answer should be reported up
to four decimal places.
7. It is desirable for the sides of a graduated cylinder to be perfectly vertical.

Part II: Intermediate Level Questions.

For each question, four alternative choices are given, of which only one is correct. You
have to select the correct alternative and mark it in the appropriate option.
8. Calculate the following using proper number of significant figures:
(20.035×0.03120)/(4×0.333)
a. 0.47 c. 0.469
b. 0.40 d. 0.4692
9. A sample of nickel weighs 7.5425 g and has a density of 8.8 g/cm3. What is the
volume with the correct number of significant figures?
a. 1.33 cm3 c. 0.86 cm3
b. 9.2 cm 3
d. None o f the above

48
 Measurements and Scientific Methods
10. The mass of copper is 0.063546 kg and the density is 8.940 g/cm3. Calculate the
volume using scientific figures.
a. 7.108 cm3 c. 7.1080 cm3
b. 7.10 cm 3
d. 7.1 cm3
11. Which of the following statements are correct for a burette?
a. The burette is designed to accurately deliver a volume of liquid
b. The burette is used for measuring the volume of liquid used from the burette
c. The burette volume can be measured to the hundredths place
d. All of the above
12. When expressed as 7.5×104, only the significant figures of _____ are to be
considered.
a. 7.5 c. 7.005
b. 7.05 d. None of the above
13. The mass of an element is .007502 × 10−26 g. Find the number of significant
figures when the mass is converted to mg. (Both mass values have same order of
magnitude)
a. 4 c. 3
b. 5 d. 2
14. A cube like crystal structure has length 6.000 cm, width 6.00 cm and height 0.0600
m. Calculate its volume with correct significant figures.
a. 216 cubic cm c. 18.00 cm
b. 21.600 cubic cm d. None of the above
15. What is the sum of 22.82 + 2.2457 with the correct number of significant figures.
a. 25.065 c. 25.06
b. 25.09 d. 25.0651
16. The weights of sodium chloride salt in three petri dishes are 99.99 g, 100.13 g,
and 100.23 g respectively. Which of the following is the average mass of salt?
a. 100.1166 g c. 100.11 g
b. 100.116 g d. 100.1 g
17. Which of the following expresses the one millionth of one in 3 significant places?
a. 0.01×10−6 c. 0.001×10−6
b. 0.10×10 6
d. 1.00×10−6
18. Calculate the number of significant figures up to which (2.36×0.07251)/(2.103 )
will be expressed.
a. 2 c. 4
b. 3 d. 5

Part III: Advanced Level Questions.

Answer the following questions.
19. Give the SI units for expressing these:
a. length, d. mass, g. energy,
b. area, e. time, h. temperature.
c. volume, f. force,

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Chemistry Grade 9
20. Write the numbers for these prefixes:
a. mega- d. centi- g. nano-
b. kilo- e. milli- h. pico-
c. deci- f. micro-
21. Define density. What units do chemists normally use for density?
22. Write the equations for converting degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit and
degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
23. Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct number of significant
figures:
a. 12,343.2 g + 0.1893 g d. 0.0239 kg ÷ 46.5 mL
b. 55.67 L – 2.386 L e. 5.21 × 103 cm + 2.92 × 102 cm
c. 7.52 m × 6.9232
24. Carry out the following arithmetic operations and round off the answers to the
appropriate number of significant figures:
a. 26.5862 L + 0.17 L, d. 6.54 g ÷ 86.5542 mL,
b. 9.1 g – 4.682 g, e. (7.55 × 104 m) – (8.62 × 103m).
c. 7.1 × 10 dm × 2.2654 × 10 dm
4 2

25. Carry out each of the following conversions.

a. 18.5 m to km; c. 247 kg to g; e. 85.9 dL to L;
b. 16.3 km to m; d. 4.32 L to mL; f. 8251 L to cm3
26. Express
a. 283°C in K; c. 32.0°C in °F;
b. 15.25 K in °C; d. 100.0°F in K.
27. Express
a. 0°F in °C; c. 298 K in °F;
b. 98.6°F in K; d. 11.3°C in °F.
28. Percent error is often expressed as the absolute value of the difference between
the true value and the experimental value, divided by the true value:

|True value - Experimental value| x 100

Percent error =
|True value|

Where the vertical lines indicate absolute value. Calculate the percent error for these
measurements:
a. The density of alcohol (ethanol) is found to be 0.802 g/mL. (True value: 0.798 g/
mL.)
b. The mass of gold in an earring is analyzed to be 0.837 g. (True value: 0.864 g.)

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UN IT
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Unit Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to

 discuss the development of Dalton’s Atomic Theory and Modern Atomic
Theory;
 explain the discovery of the proton, electron, neutron and the nucleus;
 differentiate the terms like atomic number, mass number, atomic mass,
isotope, energy level, valence electrons and electronic configuration;
 develop skills in determining the number of protons, electrons and neutrons
of atoms from atomic numbers and mass numbers;
 develop skills in
 calculating the atomic masses of elements that have isotopes;
 writing the ground-state electron configurations of atoms using main
energy levels and drawing diagrammatic representations of atoms;
 demonstrate scientific inquiry skills: observing, comparing and contrasting,
communicating, asking questions, and applying concepts.