Communication Processes, Lecture compilation:

Principles and Ethics Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS

Faculty, CEAS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
• increase knowledge in
communication, its processes and
principles hence become more
skillful communicators;
• heighten awareness on
communication ethics resulting
conscientious and respectful
interactions; and
• apply the gained knowledge
through class exercises
True or False?

❑ Man can not communicate.

❑ Communication is very powerful.
❑ Everything created by the great
Creator is incessantly engaged in
various forms of communication.
❑ We are always engaged in almost
all sorts of communication.
❑ Communication is something
continuous and may not have a
definite end.
“If you can communicate,
you can get by. But if you
can communicate
skillfully, you can work
miracles.”
JIM ROHN
What is communication?
The word ‘communication’ is
derived from Latin word
‘communis’, which means
common.
It is a process of exchange of
facts, ideas, opinions and a means
that individuals or organizations
share the meaning and
understanding with one another.
What is communication?
• Is a human act of sending (verbal or
nonverbal; online of offline) and
receiving of messages where
interpretations are normally
constructed in the process.

• Is a process whereby people create

and transmit meaning through the
exchange of verbal and nonverbal
messages in particular context
(Oetzel, 2009:11).

• A natural activity of people.

What is then purposive
communication?

Purposive communication
• is an intentional communication
that happens within the bounds
of specific contexts.
• is a communication applied in a
specific setting, environment,
scene, social relations and
culture.
 “Communication
works for those who
works at it.”
JOHN POWELL
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
The Communication Process

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 10

Elements of Communication
SENDER / SPEAKER
❑ The source of the information
(WHO)
❑ Who had the chance to speak?
❑ Must be able to use the language
that the receiver understands.
◦ Correct grammar
◦ Phonetics
◦ Choice of words or jargons for an
appropriate audience
◦ Sentence construction
◦ Discourse competence
20XX 11
Elements of Communication
SENDER / SPEAKER
❑ Delivery
◦ Good voice projection “The message will only be as
◦ Use of appropriate eye contact
◦ Proper articulation of words and
good and valid as its source”.
emphasis on important words.

20XX 12
Elements of Communication
MESSAGE
❑ The information or ideas
conveyed by the speaker in
words or actions. (WHAT)
❑ What did you talk about?
❑ Messages contain the 7 Cs
of effective communication.
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ What is your purpose in
communicating with this person? If
you’re not sure, then your audience
won’t be sure either.
❑ Minimize the number of ideas in
each sentence. Make sure that it’s
easy for your reader to understand
your meaning.
CLEAR
❑ People shouldn’t have to “read
between the lines” and make
assumptions on their own to
understand what you’re trying to say.
❑ Information and actions required,
must be clear so the reader has the
information they need to take action.

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ Stick to the point and keep it brief.
❑ Say what needs to be said in as few words
as possible. Avoid flowery words.
❑ Are there any unnecessary sentences?
❑ Have you repeated the point several times,
in different ways? CONCISE
REMEMBER:

“Our goal is to communicate and not to

impress.”

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ Be specific.
❑ Providing example when necessary,
makes a message more comprehensible.
❑ When your message is concrete, then
your audience has a clear picture of what
you’re telling them. CONCRETE
❑ There are details (but not too many!) and
vivid facts, and there’s laser-like focus.
Your message is solid.

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ When your communication is correct, it
fits your audience. And correct
communication is also error-free
communication.
❑ Do the technical terms you use fit your
audience’s level of education or
knowledge?
❑ Have you checked your writing for
CORRECT
grammatical errors? Remember, spell
checkers won’t catch everything.
❑ Are all names and titles spelled
correctly?

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ It’s logical!
❑ All points are connected and relevant to
the main topic.

COHERENT
❑ The tone and flow of the text is
consistent.

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ To avoid ambiguity, messages should not
leave out important details that a receiver
expects to know.
❑ What, Who, When, Where, Why and
How

COMPLETE
❑ The audience has everything they need
to be informed and, if applicable, take
action.
❑ Does your message include a “call to
action,” so that your audience clearly
knows what you want them to do?
❑ Have you included all relevant
information – contact names, dates,
times, locations, and so on?

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
The 7 Cs in Communication:
❑ Friendly, open, and honest.
❑ There are no hidden insults or passive-
aggressive tones.
❑ You keep your reader’s viewpoint in
mind, and you’re empathetic to their
needs.
❑ Using polite words and tone to show
respect to the receiver of the message. COURTEOUS
❑ Applying tact and diplomacy.
❑ Developing the “WE” attitude using
positive words instead of negative.
❑ Being considerate of the feelings of the
receiver.
❑ Selecting gender-free terms.
❑ Responding promptly to important
messages.

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
 Key Points:
There are a few variations of the 7 Cs of All of us communicate every day.
Communication:
The better we communicate, the more
• Credible – Does your message improve or credibility we’ll have with our clients, our
highlight your credibility? This is especially
boss, and our colleagues.
important when communicating with an
audience that doesn’t know much about
you. Use the 7 Cs of Communication as a
checklist for all of your communication.
• Creative – Does your message
communicate creatively? Creative By doing this, you’ll stay clear, concise,
communication helps keep your audience
concrete, correct, coherent, complete,
engaged.
and courteous.

https://edexec.co.uk/the-seven-cs-of-communication/
Elements of Communication
ENCODING
❑ The process of converting
the message into words,
actions and other forms that
the speaker understands.
❑ How did you communicate to
your fellow groupmates?
❑ Did you use a technique to
let others understand?
Elements of Communication
CHANNEL
❑ The medium or the means in which
encoded message is conveyed.
◦ Telephone
◦ Radio
◦ Television
◦ Printed texts (books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, posters, etc.)
◦ Communication technologies (smart
phones, tablets, computers)
Elements of Communication
DECODING
❑ The process of interpreting the
encoded message of the speaker by
the receiver.
❑ How did your groupmates interpret
the message.
Elements of Communication
RECEIVER
❑ The recipient of the message or
someone who decodes the
message.
❑ Must have good listening and
comprehension skills
❑ Eliminate all possible distractions
or noises. Types of noise (physical,
environmental, psychological,
emotional)
❑ Sharpness of cognition through
continuous studies and acquisition
of information and knowledge.
Elements of Communication
FEEDBACK
❑ Reactions, responses or information provided by the receiver.
Elements of Communication
BARRIER
❑ The factors that affect the
flow of communication.
It can be:
- Organizational
- Psychological
- Physical
- Mechanical
- Perceptional
Organizational Barriers
These barriers arise when duties
and line of authority are not clearly
defined.
Various types of organizational
barriers are:
✓ Policy
✓ Rules and regulations
✓ Facilities
✓ Complex organization
✓ Status and position
Psychological Barriers
Things that occur in the minds or inner self
of a person. It comes from within the
listeners.
✓ Poor pronunciation
✓ Confused thinking.
✓ Communication overload
✓ Attitude
✓ Fear and anxiety
✓ Suspicious, jealousy, anger
✓ Resentment, antagonism and
prejudices.
✓ Lack of interest and lack of listening.
Physical Barriers
Things that can actually be heard,
smelled using one or more of the
senses which keep messages from
being heard.
✓ Blaring siren from the ambulance
✓ Ringing of cellphone
✓ Crying of baby
✓ Physical health
✓ Poor hearing
Mechanical Barriers
✓ Non availability of proper
machines
✓ Presence of defective machines
✓ Interruption
✓ Power failure
✓ Weak/poor signal/internet
connection
Perceptional Barriers
✓ Lack of common experience.
✓ Linguistic- different languages and
vocabulary.
✓ Lack of knowledge of any
language.
✓ From receiver’s side: interrupting
the speaker; asking too many
questions for the sake of probing
✓ From sender’s side: unclear
messages; incomplete sentences,
no clarification.
Elements of Communication

❑ Contexts affects the

process of sending and
receiving of messages;
semantics or meanings,
choice of channels,
words and methods of
delivery.
Communication Contexts

Settings or environment – family,

school, workplace, religious
communities
Communication Contexts

Social relationships – friends,

husband and wife, parent child,
colleagues/boss-subordinate in
the office.
Communication Contexts

Scenes which include place,

time and occasion – business
meeting, job interview, social
gathering – parties, weddings, etc.)
Communication Contexts

Culture – history, tradition,

beliefs, norms, values.
“An absence of effective
communication will
ultimately lead to
conflict.”
JOHN HOOVER
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication
Is an exchange of information
using words including both the
spoken and the written word.
The most important aspects of
verbal communication are the
following:
✓ Language
✓ Pacing
✓ Intonation
✓ Clarity and Brevity
✓ Timing and relevance
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 40
 Non - Verbal Communication
Information is exchanged through non-
verbal communication in various ways.
It is sometimes referred as body
language.
Duribleby and Brutan (1992) suggest
that body language has several
elements:
✓ Gesture
✓ Facial expression
✓ Posture
✓ Body space and proximity
✓ Personal appearance
✓ Eye contact
✓ Sounds
✓ Silence
Symbolic Communication
It involves the verbal and nonverbal symbolism to convey meaning.

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 42

Metacommunication

It is ‘communication about
communication’ so that the
deeper ‘message within a
message’ can be uncovered
and understood.
It occurs when people give
non-verbal or verbal cues
about how their messages
should be understood.

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 43

Written Communication

Another important form of

communication is written
communication.

It is the best method when the

communicator and the recipient are
beyond oral communication media.
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 44
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal Communication
is language use or thought internal
to the communicator. Intrapersonal
communication is the active
internal involvement of the
individual in symbolic processing
of messages.
Intrapersonal communication is the
thought process or communication
with one person or oneself.
The individual becomes his or her
own sender and receiver, providing
feedback to him or herself in an
ongoing internal process.

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 46

Interpersonal Communication
is communication among a
relatively small number of people.
Much of our communication takes
place at this level.

Types of interpersonal
communication:
Dyadic- This communication
between two people. It may be
face to face, or such as ordinary
conversation, dialogs, or
interviews. Telephone
conversation is also dyadic.
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 47
Interpersonal Communication
Types of interpersonal
communication:
Triadic-This communication is
participated by three people.
Small Group- More than three
people communicate. This is
the enlarge type of
communication usually done
to solve problems.
Ex: committee, panel,
symposium.

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 48

Interpersonal Communication
Principles of Interpersonal Communication
1. It is inescapable.
2. It is irreversible.
3. It is complicated.
4. It is contextual.
- psychological context (needs, desires,
values, personality)
- relational (reactions towards the other
person)
- situational (where you are
communicating i.e classroom, bar)
- environmental (noise level, temperature,
season, time of day)
- cultural (learned behaviors, attitudes, beliefs)
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 49
Public Communication
This involves
communication between
one and several other
people.
This is the large group
type of communication.
Ex: public speaking

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 50

Mass Communication
is communicating with a large
number of people using the
mass media like television,
radio and newspaper.

SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 51

ETHICS AND PRINCIPLES OF
COMMUNICATION
Principles of Communication
1. Communication is an
interaction situation wherein
the participants are affected by
each others behavior.
2. One does communicate even
when we are ignoring the
message of another or
maintaining complete silence.
3. The message received is not
necessarily the message sent.
4. Communication occurs
simultaneously at more than
one level.
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 53
Ethical Communication
Jone Johnson Lewis (2015) developed the list
below using principles learned in Straight
Talk™ and Nonviolent Communication™ as
well as “best practices” for small group work in
general.
Ten Basics of Ethical Communication
1. Seek to “elicit the best” in communications
and interactions with other group members.
2. Listen when others speak.
3. Speak non-judgmentally.
4. Speak from your own experience and
perspective, expressing your own thoughts,
needs, and feelings.
5. Seek to understand others (rather than to be
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT
“right” or “more ethical than thou”).

https://www.rysec.org/10-basics-of-ethical-communication/
Ethical Communication
Ten Basics of Ethical Communication
6. Avoid speaking for others, for example by
characterizing what others have said without
checking your understanding, or by
universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values,
and conclusions, assuming everyone shares
them.
7. Manage your own personal boundaries:
share only what you are comfortable
sharing.
8. Respect the personal boundaries of others.
9. Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
10. Make sure that everyone has time to speak,
that all members have relatively equal
“airtime”
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT if they want it.

https://www.rysec.org/10-basics-of-ethical-communication/
“To effectively communicate, we
must REALIZE that we are all
DIFFERENT in the way we
perceive the world and use this
UNDERSTANDING as a guide
to our COMMUNICATION with
others”.

TONY ROBBINS
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 57
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 58
Understanding
and Evaluating
Multimodal Texts

Lecture compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
❑ Understand the different modes
of communication and that
combining these modes can
enhance meaning of any
message.
❑ Critically analyze and evaluate
multimodal texts to determine
factuality of a certain piece of
information
What is multimodal
communication?
❑ The way we communicate is not
simply through text or reading
material but also through many
different modes.
❑ A mode, quite simply, is a means
of communicating.
❑ When a given text makes use of
more than one mode, the text can
be characterized as multimodal.
❑ A multi-modal text employs more
than one “mode” to communicate
meaning beyond the written word
alone.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
The Five Modes
❑ According to the New London Group,
there are five modes of communication:
- visual
- linguistic
- spatial
- aural
- gestural

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
Visual includes images, video, color, visual layout, design, font, size, formatting,
symbols, visual data (charts, graphs), animation (like gifs)

❑ The visual mode refers to the images and

characters that people see.
❑ Sometimes people must see to believe,
and visuals can be helpful and even
persuasive.
❑ For example, if you want to showcase
how climate change has devastated the
arctic ecosystem, you might include a
video that shows real-world footage, like
this one by National Geographic. This
video is considered a multi-modal text
since words, visuals, and audio are used
together for a stronger effect.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
Linguistic includes written and spoken words, word choice, vocabulary,
grammar, structure, and organization of sentences and paragraphs

❑ The linguistic mode refers to written

or spoken words. The mode
includes word choice, the delivery
of written or spoken text, the
organization of words into
sentences and paragraphs, and the
development and coherence of
words and ideas.
❑ Shopping lists, emails, text
messages, academic essays, and
the automated voice you hear as
you’re on hold with customer
service use the linguistic/alphabetic
mode since they rely on words to
create meaning.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
Linguistic includes written and spoken words, word choice, vocabulary,
grammar, structure, and organization of sentences and paragraphs

❑ The linguistic mode refers to written

or spoken words. The mode
includes word choice, the delivery
of written or spoken text, the
organization of words into
sentences and paragraphs, and the
development and coherence of
words and ideas.
❑ Shopping lists, emails, text
messages, academic essays, and
the automated voice you hear as
you’re on hold with customer
service use the linguistic/alphabetic
mode since they rely on words to
create meaning.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
 Spatial includes physical arrangement―spacing, position, organization,
proximity, direction, and distance of elements in text or objects.

❑ The spatial mode, as the name

implies, refers to the
arrangement of elements in
space.
❑ It involves the organization of
items and the physical closeness
between people and objects.
❑ Writers use the spatial mode of
communication in the physical
layout and organization of a text.
❑ Features like menus, headers,
physical layout, and navigation
tools (such as links) help the
audience to interact with the site
spatially.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
Aural includes spoken words, sound, music, volume, rhythm, speed of delivery,
pitch, tone, voice.

❑ The aural mode is focused on

sound including, but not limited
to, music, sound effects, ambient
noises, silence, tone of voice in
spoken language, volume of
sound, emphasis, and accent.
❑ An example of an aural mode—
one that depends almost
exclusively on sound—might be
the recording of a public speech
that is delivered orally to a live
audience, a radio address, or a
podcast.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
Gestural includes movement, speed, expression, body language, facial
expression, physical proximity, interactions between people

❑ The gestural mode “refers to the way

movement is interpreted.
❑ Facial expressions, hand gestures,
body language, and interaction between
people are all gestural modes.
❑ The gestural mode is often used in
combination with other modes, such as
linguistic/alphabetic (written/spoken),
spatial (physical arrangement), and aural
(sound) to provide an enhanced sensory
experience for the audience.
❑ Traditionally, this mode was used
primarily in face-to-face interaction;
however, but it has become more
apparent on the web lately with the wide
use of YouTube and other content
creators.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/englishcomp1/chapter/the-five-modes/
https://openenglishatslcc.pressbooks.com/chapter/multi-modal-communication-writing-in-five-modes/
“Multimodal presentations have
an inherent critical potential to
the extent that we learn how to
use the images to deconstruct
the viewpoint of the text., and
the text to subvert the
naturalness of the image”.
JAY LEMKE
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 12
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 13
Communication
Aids and Strategies
Using Tools of
Technology

Lecture compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
❑ Familiarize yourself with the
different technological/online tools
which can facilitate effective
communication.
Online Communication
is a form of communication, using the various channels
available on the Internet to communicate and interact
online to relay a message to a targeted audience.
Digital Natives
individuals who were born and
raised in a world of gadgets,
computers, and internet.
Digital Natives
Digital Natives
Digital Communication Tools
❑ They focus on establishing
and maintaining a
connection among users,
facilitating the mechanics of
conversation and talk.
❑ Captures, stores, presents
and communicates the
information, usually written
but increasingly includes
audio and video as well.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ INSTANT MESSAGING application
allows one to communicate with
another person over a network in
real time, in relative privacy.
❑ One can add friends to a contact or
“buddy” list by entering the person's
email address or messenger ID.
❑ If the person is online, their name
will typically be listed as available for
chat. Clicking on their name will
activate a chat window with space to
write to the other person, as well as
read their reply.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ EMAIL or electronic mail is a
computer-based system for
exchanging messages through mail
servers.
❑ is a store-and-forward system: A
message delivery system in which
messages are forwarded between
servers and then stored on those
servers until they are picked up.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ TEXT CHAT technologies
allow users to join chat
rooms and communicate
with many people at once,
publicly.
❑ Users may join a pre-
existing chat room or
create a new one about
any topic.
❑ Once inside, you may type
messages that everyone
else in the room can read,
as well as respond to
messages from others.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ INTERNET FORUM a web-based
discussion and advice- sharing
site; more feature-rich type of
newsgroup.
❑ Users register on the web site so
that their posts will be identifiable.
❑ A forum thread is a post along
with all the comments to it.
❑ These allow users to post a
“topic” for others to review.
❑ Other users can view the topic
and post their own comments in a
linear fashion, one after the other.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ BLOGS short for web logs, are
like online journals for a
particular person.
❑ Blog platform: a web server that
hosts the blogs of individuals,
either free or for a small fee. i.e,
WordPress, Typepad, and
Blogge
❑ Topics often include the owner's
daily life, views on politics or a
particular subject important to
them
Digital Communication Tools
❑ MICROBLOG: A
service that allows the
posting of short
messages.
❑ A status update
service such as
Twitter, limited to a
very few characters
per post.
❑ Microblogs can be
seen by anyone and
can be commented on
by anyone.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ Newsgroup is an Internet-based
discussion group, similar to a
bulletin board system (BBS), where
people post messages concerning
whatever topic around which the
group is organized.
❑ Newsgroups are typically found on
USENET, a network of discussion
groups where millions of users read
postings, or articles, using software
called a newsreader.
❑ Users can then make comments
and ask questions in response to
the postings.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ A Social Networking Service
(SNS) is an online vehicle for
creating relationships with other
people who share an interest,
background, or real
relationship. Social networking
service users create a profile
with personal information and
photos and form connections
with other profiles.
❑ These users then use their
connection to grow
relationships through sharing,
emailing, instant messaging,
and commenting.
❑ Social networking services may
also be referred to as a "social
networking site" or simply
"social media."
Digital Communication Tools
❑ VOICE OVER IP (VOIP) is
used to make voice calls
via the Internet.
❑ Turns the voice message
into data packets and
sends them as if they were
other Internet data.
❑ IP, short for Internet
protocol, is used to identify
individual devices that are
connected to the Internet
and to route calls between
them.
❑ Skype, Viber, Facetime,
Whatsapp are popular VoIP
apps.
Digital Communication Tools
❑ VIDEO CONFERENCE is a
feature-rich, group video
chat.
❑ Can include computer
application sharing, voice,
text chatting, and document
collaboration.
❑ Uses the same underlying
protocols as VoIP uses, but it
requires much more
bandwidth.
❑ Enables multiple people to
video chat at the same time.
 “Information and
communications technology
unlocks the value of time,
allowing and enabling multi-
tasking, multi-channels, multi-
this and multi-that”.
LI KA-SHING
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 21
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 22
Local and Global Communication in
Multi-cultural Settings
Lecture compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
• Determine culturally-appropriate
terms, expressions and images
(sensitivity to gender, race, class
etc.)
• Adopt cultural awareness and
sensitivity in communication of
ideas.
CULTURE
❑ A group which shapes a
person's values and identity.

❑ Culture is formed through:

✓Race
✓Ethnicity
✓Gender
✓Class & Religion
✓Country of origin
✓Geographic region
Fundamental Patterns of
Cultural Differences

❑ Different Communication Styles

❑ Different Attitudes towards Conflicts
❑ Different Approaches in Completing Tasks
❑ Different Decision-Making Styles
❑ Different Attitudes towards Disclosure
❑ Different Approaches to Knowing
COMMUNICATION
❑ Draws on speech patterns, language and non- verbal messages.
CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
❑ is a field of study that looks
at how people from differing
cultural backgrounds
communicate, in similar and
different ways among
themselves, and how they
endeavor to communicate
across cultures.
CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
❑ Important to companies due to the
growth of global business,
technology, and the Internet.

❑ Understanding of how people from

different cultures speak,
communicate, and perceive the
world around them.

❑ Language differences, High-

Context vs. Low- Context cultures,
Non-Verbal differences, and power
distance are major factors affecting
cross- cultural communication.
CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION

Why is it important?
❑ Business Opportunities
❑ Job Opportunities
❑ Globalization
❑ Sharing of views and ideas
❑ Talent Improvisation
❑ Understanding of Diverse Market
High Vs. Low Context Cultures
 HIGH CONTEXT CULTURES LOW CONTEXT CULTURES
Rely heavily on non-verbal & subtle Refers to societies where people tend to
situational cues in communication. have many connections but of shorter
duration or for some specific reason.

Societies or groups where people have Brief communication with only necessary
close connections over a long period of information.
time.
Many aspects of cultural behavior are Cultural behavior and beliefs may need
not made obvious because most to be spelled out openly so that those
members know what to do and what to coming into the cultural environment
think from years of interaction with each know how to behave.
other.
Prefer indirectness, politeness and Value directness.
ambiguity. Value written words more than oral
statements.
Infer information from message context Rely more on content rather than
rather than content. context.
Asian, Latin American, Middle Eastern European, North American
 “If you talk to a man in a
language he understands,
that goes to his head.
If you talk to him in his
language, that goes to his
heart”.
NELSON MANDELA
 UNDERSTANDING CROSS
CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Use of sounds and words to express
yourself. (face to face communication,
telephone conversation, public
speaking, radio/tv)
NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Communication through sending and
receiving wordless clues. (eye contact,
gestures, touch, voice or paralanguage
 EYE CONTACT
❑ Some cultures, looking people in the eyes is
honesty and straight forwardness and in others
it is seen as challenging and rude.

❑ In US, if you have good eye contact with a

person, it generally signifies that you are
interested in the person.

❑ In Middle East, eye contact is much less

common and considered less appropriate.

❑ In many Asian, African and Latin American

cultures, extended eye contact can be taken as
an affront or a challenge of authority.

❑ In Western Europe, it is considered proper and

polite to maintain almost constant eye contact
with another person.
GESTURES
A gesture is a form of non-verbal
communication in which visible bodily
actions communicate particular messages,
either in place of, or in conjunction with,
speech.

Gestures include movement of the hands,

face, or other parts of the body.
https://www.rw-3.com/blog/global-interpretations-of-body-language-an-infographic
TOUCH
❑ In the US, other than shaking hands,
physical contact, such as holding hands or
hugging, is reserved for people we are close
with.

❑ Middle East, Latin America and Southern

Europe prefer a lot more physical contact
during normal conversations. A common
greeting is kissing on the cheek. In Spain,
many conversations with men clasping each
other’s arm or placing a hand on the other
person’s shoulder.

❑ In Northern Europe, you have to apologize if

you accidentally brush by someone. They do
not appreciate touching at all.

https://lizprovasi.wordpress.com/2012/04/04/physical-contact-varies-by-culture/
TOUCH
❑ The Japanese though, are culturally
most opposed to the touch of a
stranger. If you think about it, they
greet each other with a bow, not a
kiss or handshake.

❑ Muslims also have strict cultural rules

about touching. Men and women
cannot touch, even casually, in public.
You will not see couples, even
married, walking down the street
holding hands.

https://lizprovasi.wordpress.com/2012/04/04/physical-contact-varies-by-culture/
COLOR
❑ A single color can have many
different meanings in
different cultures.

❑ In Asia orange is a positive,

spiritually enlightened, and
life-affirming color. In US it is
a color of road hazards,
traffic delays, and fast-food
restaurants.

❑ Green is considered the

traditional color of Islam. It is
also the national color of
Egypt.
COLOR
❑ Green is a symbol of Ireland; green is
a strong trend in the Irish holiday St.
Patrick’s Day.

❑ White is the traditional color of bridal

dresses in Western cultures.

❑ China: blue-colored gifts are

associated with death
CLOTHING
❑ Traditional clothing is an
important part of a region’s
history and identity.

❑ Men tend not to wear suit

jackets and ties in Colombia
and the Middle East.

❑ The traditional dress for an

Indian woman is a Sari.

❑ Gulf countries women have to

wear Pardha & compulsory for
every women who visits Saudi.

❑ Western Countries, the women

can wear what they want
GREETING
❑ Bow is the customary
greeting in Japan.

❑ Westerner’s always start with

a handshake.

❑ Most Latinos are more

accustomed to physical
contact. Even people who
know each other only slightly
may embrace when greeting.

❑ People from France, Spain,

Italy, and Portugal greet
friends by kissing on both
cheeks.

❑ Indians usually collide their

hands for greeting others.
CULTURAL CONFLICTS IN THE
WORKPLACE
DIFFERENT SITUATIONS
❑ It arises because of the difference in
value and norms of behavior from
different cultures.

❑ Misunderstanding or conflict between

different nationalities, religious or
ethnic groups.

❑ Cultural ignorance and insensitivity.

❑ Lack of awareness of social lifestyle

practices.

❑ Miscommunication and
misinterpretation.

❑ Perception of illness and treatment.

BLOCKS TO CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
❑ Ethnocentrism : Inability to accept another
cultures world view.
Ex: “ my way is the best way”

❑ Discrimination : Treatment to an individual

due to minority status, actual and perceived.
Ex: “we just aren't equipped to serve
people like that.”

❑ Stereotyping: Generalizing about a person.

Ex: “she’s like that …because she is
Asian”
BLOCKS TO CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
❑ Cultural Blindness: Differences are
ignored, and one proceeds though
differences did not exist.

Ex: ‘there is no need to worry

about a person’s culture”

❑ Cultural Imposition: Belief that

everyone should conform to majority.

Ex: “we know what's best for you,

if you don’t like it, you can go
elsewhere”

❑ Tone Difference: Formal tone change

becomes embarrassing and off-putting
in some culture.
IMPROVING CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
✓ Overcome ethnocentrism.
✓ Recognize cultural variation.
✓ Learn about cultures.
✓ Remove language barrier.
✓ Help others adapt to our culture.
✓ Write and speak clearly.
✓ Improve communication skill.
✓ Listen carefully.
✓ Respect style preferences.
IMPROVING CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
✓ Slow down
✓ Avoid negative questions
✓ Separate questions
✓ Take turns
✓ Write it down
✓ Check meanings
✓ Be supportive
✓ Avoid slang
✓ Maintain etiquette
✓ Watch the humor
IMPROVING CROSS-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
✓ Don’t assume sameness.
✓ “ Normal” behavior is not universal.
✓ “ Yes” can mean many things.
✓ Don’t assume you were understood.
✓ Don’t assume that you understand.
✓ You don’t have to like “different”.
behavior but try to understand where it
comes from.
✓ Most people do behave rationally; you
just have to discover the rationale.

Nancy G. Abney, Communicating Across Cultural Barriers

 “The essence of cross-cultural
communication has more to do
with releasing responses than
with sending messages. It is
more important to release the
right response than to send the
right message”.
EDWARD T. HALL
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 35
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 36
ACADEMIC
WRITING
DEFINITIONS

• It is the process of writing analytically — the breaking

down of ideas with the purpose of presenting information
that depicts a clear understanding of a certain subject.
• Academic writing is the process of presenting ideas in a
rational, organized, systematic, reasonable, and logical way
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACADEMIC
WRITING (HTTPS://LIBRARY.LEEDS.AC.UK/INFO/14011/WRITING/106/ACADEMIC_WRI TING)

• Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an

understanding of the subject.
• Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together
related points and material.
• Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports opinions
and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.
• Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and is clear,
concise and balanced.
A LIST OF DOCUMENTS WHERE ACADEMIC WRITING IS
USED
• Book reviews
• Essays
• Research report
• Research proposal
• Scientific paper
• Academic journal
• Dissertation and Thesis - These are written to obtain an advanced
degree at a college or university.
• Abstract - This is a short summary of a long document.
TYPES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
(SOURCE:HTTPS://ACADEMICPLAGIARISM.COM/RESOURCES/STUDENTS/ACADEMIC -WRITING-PURPOSE-AND-AUDIENCE/)

• EXPOSITORY
• NARRATIVE
• DESCRIPTIVE
• ARGUMENTATIVE
EXPOSITORY

• The purpose of an expository paper is explain, discuss, or

inform your audience about a given topic.
• Therefore, the expository approach offers an ideal
structure for identifying features and characteristics in a
given topic as in most research-driven papers, comparison-
contrast essays, reaction essays, and business writing.
NARRATIVE

• When you write a narrative paper, you are “narrating” or

telling a story.
• A strong narrative essay is one that paints a vivid image of
the story using a variety of writing techniques
(characterization, descriptions, plot…etc).
• Like other types of essays, a narrative paper must have a
clear structure and must include an introduction, body
paragraphs and a conclusion.
DESCRIPTIVE
• In a descriptive essay, you describe an experience, a
character, an object, a state of mind…etc.
• While this essay form comes with a level of freedom by
allowing you to decide how to approach the task, you still
need to effectively structure your ideas.
• Use vivid structures that are rich in sensory language to
help your readers not only understand what you are
describing, but visualize it.
ARGUMENTATIVE
• The primary objective of an argumentative essay is to
establish a point of view in regards to a particular topic
and defend that point of view using logical arguments and
relevant examples.
• Your point of view or perspective must be clearly stated in
the thesis statement (generally in the introduction) that
needs to be supported in the body of the essay using
supporting evidence, counter-arguments and refutations.
PURPOSE OF ACADEMIC WRITING
(SOURCE: HTTPS://WWW.SLIDESHARE.NET/IBCSCHOOLS123/ACADEMIC -WRITING-60177364)
AUDIENCE OF ACADEMIC WRITING
• Audience is the actual person(s) who will be reading your
paper.
• In an academic setting, your audience is generally your
professor, your classmates and sometimes other
professors who may be assessing your work at the end of
the semester.
• It is, therefore, critical to consider how you will articulate
your ideas in order to reach the desired objective for that
specific audience.
RHETORIC AND STYLE OF ACADEMIC WRITING
Academic papers are written in formal academic tone, so they must be free of
cliches and slang language.You must also ensure that your writing does not
include language that may be considered offensive or sexist.
• Ex: “I think the author is wrong about this issue” vs. “ I disagree with the
author’s perspective on this issue”
• Ex: “She was acting crazy” vs. “Her behavior was unacceptable”
• Avoid making generalizations about a given point, especially when you are
providing strong evidence to defend your claim. Instead, use like “most”,
“may”, “it seems”…etc
• Ex: “Teenagers love Apple products” vs. “Most teenagers love Apple
products” or “It seems that most teenagers are attracted to Apple products”
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
• While your goal is not to impress your audience, academic writing is
certainly more involved and requires a higher level of sophistication
compared to high school writing.
• You are, therefore, expected to vary your sentence forms, using
complex and compound sentence structures.
• Transitions help you establish relationships between ideas and
paragraphs and improve the overall quality of your writing.
• The most common transitions are conjunctive adverbs such as
“moreover, therefore, consequently…etc” and transitional phrases like “
in addition, in contrast…etc)
CONTENT

• Consider your readers’ familiarity with the content of

your writing.
• Assess your readers’ background knowledge of the topic
and their ability to understand implications and
references.
• In general, the less your audience knows about your topic,
the more details you must present to ensure clarity.
STRUCTURE OF
ACADEMIC
WRITING
S O U R C E : . S L I D E S H A R E C D N . C O M / A C A D E M I C W R I T I N G V
INTRODUCTION

❑The introduction (opening paragraph) basically accomplishes the

following goals:
✓Gives an overview or background on the topic in broad terms
✓Then narrows the scope of the topic to the presentation
✓Prepares the reader for what is to come in the following writing
✓Provides main points that will be discussed and why those are
most important to the subject matter
✓Grabs the readers attention
BODY
❑Developmental paragraphs (body paragraphs) are the heart of an essay.
✓Contains only one main idea stated by the topic sentence of that paragraph
✓Analyzes the evidence
✓Directly supports the thesis statement*
✓Paragraphs are arranged in logical progression
✓The paragraphs should flow smoothly from one to the next and have internal
fluidity while presenting supporting evidence to the paragraph’s main point
*a short statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes the main point or claim of an essay,
research paper, etc., and is developed, supported, and explained in the text by means of examples and
evidence (www.dictionary.com)
CONCLUSION
❑The conclusion is the summary paragraph. It should
accomplish the following:
✓Clearly restates the thesis sentence but not in verbatim
form
✓ Briefly summarizes the evidence presented in the writing
✓Provides a final judgement on the subject matter
discussed by tying all themes and ideas together
CITING SOURCES
❑ Why use quotations, paraphrases, and summaries?
✓Are required for each main point since the author cannot include
personal feelings or opinions
✓Are clearly identified in proper required formatting form and style
✓ Provide evidence to support the argument of the writing
✓ Are used at strategic places in the writing to support statements
made
THANK YOU!
S O U R C E : D I A N A . N . N U R M A L A D E W I ,
H T T P S : / / W W W . S L I D E S H A R E . N E T / L A L A F I R D A U S / A C A D E M I C - W R I T I N G
WRITING TO
ANALYZE
ANALYTICAL WRITING
SOURCE: HTTPS://WWW.SLIDESERVE.COM/KARLYN/ANALYTICAL -WRITING

➢Writing that asks the questions “Why” and “How”

➢Writing that challenges both its writer and its readers to look
beyond surface presentations, and disassemble “complete things”
to examine their parts.
➢ Writing that proposes and expresses an informed and supported
point of view
 LITERARY
PERSPECTIVES
• Helps to explain why people interpret the same story in different
ways
• Perspective is likened to a lens to which one can look to examine a
text
• Using different perspectives/lenses in reading a literary text often
helps one to discover something new, intriguing, or unexpected
DIFFERENT
LITERARY
PERSPECTIVES/
LENSES
READER-RESPONSE
➢asserts that a great deal of meaning in a text lies with how the reader
responds to it.
Focuses on the act of reading and how it affects our perception of meaning
in a text (how we feel at the beginning vs. the end)
Deals more with the process of creating meaning and experiencing a text
as we read. A text is an experience, not an object.
The text is a living thing that lives in the reader’s imagination.

READER + READING SITUATION + TEXT = MEANING

2 IMPORTANT IDEAS IN READER-
RESPONSE

1. An individual reader’s interpretation usually changes

over time.
2. Readers from different generations and different time
periods interpret texts differently.
GUIDE QUESTIONS

✓What does the text have to do with you, personally?

✓How much does the text agree with your view of the
world?
✓What is your over-all reaction of the text?
FORMALIST
➢emphasizes the form of a literary work to determine its meaning,
focusing on literary elements and how they work to create
meaning.
– Examines a text as independent from its time period, social
setting, and author’s background. A text is an independent
entity.
– Focuses on close readings of texts and analysis of the effects of
literary elements and techniques on the text.
TWO MAJOR PRINCIPLES OF
FORMALISM

1. A literary text exists independent of any particular

reader and, in a sense, has a fixed meaning.
2. The greatest literary texts are “timeless” and “universal.”
GUIDE QUESTIONS

✓How do various elements of the work reinforce its

meaning?
✓What recurring patterns (repeated or related
words, images and others) can you find?
✓What figures of speech are used?
PSYCHOLOGICAL/PSYCHOANALYTI
CAL

➢views a text as a revelation of its author’s mind and

personality. It is based on the work of Sigmund Freud.
–Also focuses on the hidden motivations of literary
characters
–Looks at literary characters as a reflection of the writer
GUIDE QUESTIONS

✓What forces are motivating the character?

✓What conscious or unconscious conflicts exist between the
characters?
✓Are the theories of Freud or other psychologists applicable to this
work? To what degree?
✓What do the characters’ emotions and behaviors reveal about
their psychological states?
MARXIST

➢emphasizes economic and social conditions. It is

based on the political theory of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels.
Concerned with understanding the role of power,
politics, and money in literary texts
GUIDE QUESTIONS

✓What does the work say about economic or social power?

✓Does the story address issues of economic exploitation?
✓Does the work challenge or affirm the social order it depicts?
✓Can the protagonist’s struggle be seen as symbolic of a larger class
struggle?
FEMINIST

➢is concerned with the role, position, and influence of

women in a literary text.
Asserts that most “literature” throughout time has
been written by men, for men.
Examines the way that the female consciousness is
depicted by both male and female writers.
TAKE THIS RIDDLE…

• A father and his son are in a car accident. The father

dies at the scene and the son is rushed to the
hospital. At the hospital the surgeon looks at the
boy and says "I can't operate on this boy, he is my
son" .... How can this be?
THE SURGEON IS THE CHILD’S
MOTHER

• What does this simple riddle reveal about our assumptions

regarding gender?
GUIDE QUESTIONS
✓How are women’s lives portrayed in the work?
✓Is the form and content of the work influenced by the
writer’s gender?
✓How do the male and female characters relate to one
another?
✓Does the work challenge or affirm traditional views of
women?
HISTORICAL

➢ A branch of history which looked at literature of evidence about

economic and political events going on at the time at which the
works were produced, and that also looked at historical events to
explain the content of literary works.
➢insisted that to understand a literary piece, we need to understand
the author’s biography and social background, ideas circulating at
the time, and the cultural milieu
GUIDE QUESTIONS

✓What literary or historical influences helped to shape the

form and content of the work?
✓How does the story reflect the attitudes and beliefs of the
time in which it was written or set?
✓What historical events or movements might have
influenced this writer?
ARCHETYPAL/MYTH

• assumes that there is a collection of symbols, images, characters,

and motifs (i.e. archetypes) that evokes basically the same
response in all people
• identifies these patterns and discusses how they function in the
works
• asserts that these archetypes are the source of much of literature's
power.
SOME ARCHETYPES
➢ archetypal women - the Good Wife/Mother, the Terrible Mother, the Virgin (often a Damsel in
Distress), and the Fallen Woman.
➢ water - creation, birth-death-resurrection, purification, redemption, fertility, growth
➢ garden - paradise (Eden), innocence, fertility
➢ desert - spiritual emptiness, death, hopelessness
➢ red - blood, sacrifice, passion, disorder
➢ green - growth, fertility
➢ black - chaos, death, evil
➢ serpent - evil, sensuality, mystery, wisdom, destruction
➢ seven - perfection
➢ hero archetype - The hero is involved in a quest (in which he overcomes obstacles). He
experiences initiation (involving a separation, transformation, and return), and finally he
serves as a scapegoat, that is, he dies to atone.
GUIDE QUESTIONS

• How does this story resemble other stories in plot,

character, setting, or symbolism?
• What universal experiences are depicted?
• How and why are these archetypes embodied in the
works?
SOURCES

• Lim, Hamada, Alata , (2019). A Course Module for Purposive Communication

Literary Theories www.wsfcs.k12.nc.us
• Critical Approaches to Literature, dinus.ac.id
THANK YOU
WRITING TO
INVESTIGATE
INVESTIGATIVE WRITING DEFINED
✓Investigative writing sets out to investigate a topic and
report the findings to the reader.
✓It is a document that sparks some sort of action based on
the official findings it presents.
✓The investigation report is also a record of the steps of
the investigation. It can be used to prove that your
investigation was timely, complete and fair.
RESEARCH
✓ is careful, systematic study in a field of knowledge, undertaken to
discover or establish facts or principle (Webster in David, 2002;
Garcia, 2008)
✓ finding new truths about specific discipline (Javier, 2004)
✓A systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find an answer to
a question or a solution to a problem to validate or test an existing theory;
a process that follows systematic procedures, ask appropriate questions
and use reliable & valid instruments (David, 2002)
✓- The collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose
of prediction & explanation (Quinton,2006)
CRITERIA OBSERVED BY THE
RESEARCHER
✓ACCURACY
✓PRECISION
✓RELIABILITY
✓REPLICABILITY
✓VALIDITY
✓BEING SYSTEMATIC
CRITERIA OBSERVED BY THE
RESEARCHER

ACCURACY
PRECISION
✓the correctness or
truthfulness of something
exactness or accuracy
✓ability to avoid errors:
the ability to be precise and
avoid errors
CRITERIA OBSERVED BY THE RESEARCHER

REPLICABILITY VALIDITY
✓ faithful copy of ✓effective: bringing about
something: an accurate
reproduction of an object
the results or ends
✓ faithful copy of artwork: intended
a scrupulous copy of a work of ✓justifiable: reasonable or
art, especially one made,
authorized, or supervised by
justifiable in the
the original artist circumstances
RELIABILITY (RELIABLE) BEING SYSTEMATIC
✓done methodically: carried out
✓trustworthy in a methodical and organized
manner
✓able to be relied on ✓well organized: habitually using
a method or system for
organization
✓based on system: constituting,
based on, or resembling a
system
GENERAL
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N S O F
RESEACH
ACCORDING TO WHO DOES THE
RESEARCH

✓Academic Research- ex. Term paper, reports, theses,

dissertations, seminar paper, etc.
✓Professional Research – ex. Proposals, feasibility studies
✓Government Research- ex proposals, feasibility studies
✓Private Research – ex. Position paper
ACCORDING TO USE
BASIC/PURE RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

✓If it answers questions ✓is conducted when a

with theory decision must be made
✓This is done purely to about a specific real-life
verify the acceptability of problem
a given theory or to know
more about a certain
concept.
ACCORDING TO DISCIPLINE

✓Science, applied science, technology

✓Social science, health, education, psychology
✓Humanities, history, philosophy
ACCORDING TO RESEARCH GOALS

✓Descriptive- describes phenomenon/na includes

case study, survey, field, library, documentary
✓Exploratory- uncovers data not previously or fully
known to answer research
✓Explanatory- tests & predicts causal relationships,
effects of intervention
ACCORDING TO RESEARCH GOALS
✓ Pilot Studies- research on new systems, new setups or
intervention
✓Evaluative- comes up with impact results, effects, outcomes &
assessment research
✓Policy Analysis- generates information relevant to policy-making &
its impact
✓Feasibility Studies- decide the factors for viability or success of any
plan or course of action
ACCORDING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

✓Case study- having a detailed study about one person’s

situation within a considerable unit of time
✓Survey- gathering relatively limited data from a relatively
large number
✓Library research- making use of a working bibliography
available in the library
ACCORDING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

✓Field Research
✓Documentary- gathering information by examining
records and documents
✓Participatory- the people themselves who develop their
own theories participate in the research for solutions to
problems
WRITING A
RESEARCH
REPORT
RESEARCH REPORT

✓A research report is a completed study that

reports an investigation or exploration of a
problem, identifies questions to be addressed,
and includes data collected, analyzed, and
interpreted by the researcher.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH REPORT &
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
RESEARCH
RESEARCH REPORT PROPOSAL

✓is prepared after a study ✓is prepared before a

is completed. study begins.
✓communicates what was ✓communicates a
actually done in a study, researcher's plan for a
and what resulted. study.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH REPORT
& ARTICLE
RESEARCH REPORT ARTICLE
✓is a primary source ✓is a secondary source
✓it reports the methods ✓ it does not report
and results of an original original research by the
study performed by the author.
researcher.
STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH REPORT

• The research report format mainly consists of three main sections:

1) The Introductory Section
2) The Main Body Of The Report
3) The Reference Section
THE INTRODUCTORY SECTION

a) Title Page
b) Acknowledgments (if any)
c) Table of Contents d) List of Tables (if any)
e) List of Figures (if any)
f) Abstract
THE BODY OF THE REPORT
2.1. Introduction
✓a) Statement of the Problem
✓b) Significance of the Problem
✓c) Purpose
✓d) Statement of Hypothesis e)
✓ Assumptions f) Limitations
✓g) Definition of important Terms
THE BODY OF THE REPORT

• 2.2. Review of Related Literature (analysis of previous research)

• 2.3. Design of the Study
✓Description of Research Design and Sources of Data
✓ Sampling Procedures
✓Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
✓Statistical Treatment
THE BODY…
2.4. Analysis of Data text with appropriate
✓ Tables
✓Figures
2.5. Results and Discussion
✓Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
2.6. Summary and Conclusions
✓Conclusions
✓Recommendations for Further Investigation
3. THE REFERENCE SECTION

✓References/ Bibliography
✓Appendices
THE INTRODUCTORY SECTION

• Title page
✓identifies the title of the report, the name of the researcher, the
name of the guide, institution, month and year of submission.
✓The title should communicate what the study is about. A well
constructed title makes it easy for the reader to understand and
determine the nature of the topic .
• Acknowledgments
✓This page permits the writer to express appreciation to persons
who have contributed significantly to the research
THE INTRODUCTORY SECTION
• Table of Contents
✓The table of contents is an outline of the report that indicates the
page number on which each major section and subsection begins
• List of Tables
✓A list of all the tables included in the report along with the page
numbers should be provided.
• List of Figures
✓A list of all the figure included in the report along with the page
numbers should be provided.
THE INTRODUCTORY SECTION

• Abstract
✓The abstract is a brief but comprehensive summary of the
research report
✓ It includes a concise statement of the goal of the
research, the type of participants and instruments, outlines
the methods, major results and conclusions.
✓Abstract must be limited to a specific number of words,
usually between 100 and 500 words.
THE BODY OF A REPORT
• Introduction
✓The Introduction section provides the theoretical framework of the study
within which the research has been conducted, background information of the
topic as well as the need for and rationale for the research, to make the
material more logical, useful and interesting for readers.
✓The introduction begins with a description of the research problem or topic
and includes objectives, significance of the problem, research questions,
statement of hypothesis(if any)
✓ It also includes the assumptions of the study(if any), definition of important
terms, limitations and delimitations of the study.
THE BODY OF THE REPORT
▪ Review of Literature
✓The Review of Related Literature indicates what is known about the problem
or topic.
✓Its function is to educate the reader about the area under study.
▪ Design of the Study
✓This section provides a detailed description of the methodology used in the
study. e.g. population, sample size and sampling techniques and tools used in
the study.
✓The purpose of this section is to describe in detail how a researcher
performed the study so that someone should be able to replicate the study
based on the information that a researcher provide in this section.
THE BODY OF THE REPORT
✓For a qualitative study, this section may also include a detailed
description of the nature and length of interactions with the
participants. The description of participants includes information
about how they were selected and mainly representative of the
population.
✓The description indicate the purpose of the instrument and the
validity and reliability of the instrument.
THE BODY…

▪ Analysis of Data
✓ This section describes the statistical techniques or the
inferential interpretations that were applied to the data
and the result of these analyses.
✓Tables and figures are used to present findings or graphic
form which add clarity in findings for a reader.
THE BODY…
▪ Results and Discussion
✓ The Results section is to tell the reader what was found in the study.
✓ it includes the descriptive statistics for the relevant variables (e.g mean,
standard deviation).Then tell the reader what statistical test you used to test
your hypothesis and what you found.
✓ The Discussion section is where the researcher interprets and evaluates
the results.
✓The discussion of a research report section presents the theoretical and
practical implications of the findings and make recommendation for the future
research.
THE BODY…
✓Discuss the results of the current study, explaining exactly
what was found.
✓Account for the research findings, relate back to the
previous research and theories highlighted in the
introduction
✓Discuss the limitations of the current study and provide
ideas for future research.
✓End with a conclusion.
THE BODY…
▪ Summary and Conclusions
✓Conclusions is a summary of the main ideas that come out from
the discussion.
✓it draws all arguments and findings together.
✓ It indicates whether hypothesis were accepted or rejected.
✓It summarizes major findings of the study.
✓The purpose of this section is to evaluate interpret the result,
especially with respect to the original research question.
THE REFERENCE SECTION REFERENCES/
BIBLIOGRAPHY
▪ The References section
✓ provides the reader with all the information needed to seek out
and obtain all original sources used in the research. it is written in
the alphabetical order.
▪ Appendices
✓provides a place for important information.it includes tools
prepared by the researcher and used in the study.it may be
lettered, interview, names, raw data and data analysis sheets
SOURCES

• Lomer, D. (2016). The Ultimate Guide to Writing Investigation Reports. https://i-

sight.com/resources/ultimate-guide-to-writing-investigation-reports
• Zaina, A. (2015). Research Report. https://www.slideshare.net/zulfazoufishan/research-report-
45426923
 AVOIDING
PL AGIARISM
PLAGIARISM
SOURCE: OLAZO, J. (2014). HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER. RETRIEVED: HTTPS://W WW.SLIDESHARE.NET/JAM18/HOW -
TO-WRITE-A-RESEARCH-PAPER

❑ Passing of someone else’s work as your own, whether

done deliberately or not.
❑Not acknowledging when using information (i.e. data,
tables, figures or graphics) from other writers.
❑Inadequately paraphrasing a source.
❑THE ACT OF PRESENTING ANOTHER’S WORK OR
IDEAS AS YOUR OWN
WHAT DOES PLAGIARISM LOOK LIKE?
❑Copying someone’s work
❑Citing a source improperly
❑ Failure to cite a source
❑ Creation of false sources
❑Turning in another person’s work as your own
T YPES OF
PL AGIARISM
SOURCE: BOWDOIN.EDU (2020). TYPES OF PLAGIARISM.
R E TR IE VEDHTTP S:/ / WW W.BOW DOIN.E DU/ DE AN - OF-
STUDE NTS/ JUDICIAL - BOAR D/ ACADE M IC -HONE STY- AND-
P LAG IAR ISM / E XAM P LE S.HTM L
DIRECT PLAGIARISM
❑Direct plagiarism is the word-for-word transcription of a
section of someone else’s work, without attribution and
without quotation marks.
❑The deliberate plagiarism of someone else's work is
unethical, academically dishonest, and grounds for
disciplinary actions, including expulsion.
EXAMPLE OF DIRECT PLAGIARISM
S T U D EN T W R I T ER A : S OU R CE:

Long ago, when there was no written • "In ages which have no record these islands
history, these islands were the home of were the home of millions of happy
millions of happy birds; the resort of a birds, the resort of a hundred times
hundred times more millions of fishes, more millions of fishes, of sea lions, and
sea lions, and other creatures. Here lived other creatures whose names are not so
innumerable creatures predestined from the common; the marine residence, in fact, of
creation of the world to lay up a store of innumerable creatures predestined from the
wealth for the British farmer, and a store of creation of the world to lay up a store of
quite another sort for an immaculate wealth for the British farmer, and a store of
Republican government. quite another sort for an immaculate
Republican government."

o Writer A has included a word-for-word passage from his/her source without any indication that it is a
direct quotation.
SELF PLAGIARISM

❑Self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits his or her own

previous work, or mixes parts of previous works, without
permission from all professors involved. For example, it would be
unacceptable to incorporate part of a term paper you wrote in
high school into a paper assigned in a college course.
❑Self-plagiarism also applies to submitting the same piece of work
for assignments in different classes without previous permission
from both professors.
MOSAIC PLAGIARISM
❑Mosaic Plagiarism occurs when a student borrows
phrases from a source without using quotation marks, or
finds synonyms for the author’s language while keeping to
the same general structure and meaning of the original.
❑Sometimes called “patch writing,” this kind of
paraphrasing, whether intentional or not, is
academically dishonest and punishable – even if you
footnote your source
EXAMPLE OF MOSAIC PLAGIARISM
S T U DE N T W R I T ER A : SOURCE:
• "In ages which have no record these islands
were the home of millions of "Contrast the
• Only two years later, all condition into which all these friendly
these friendly Sioux were Indians are suddenly plunged now, with
suddenly plunged into new their condition only two years previous:
martial law now in force on all their
conditions, including starvation, reservations; themselves in danger of
martial law on all their reservations, starvation, and constantly exposed to the
and constant urging by their friends influence of emissaries from their friends
and relations, urging them to join in fighting
and relations to join in warfare against this treacherous government that had kept
the treacherous government that had faith with nobody--neither with friend nor
kept faith with neither friend nor foe. with foe.
o Writer A has borrowed with slight variations an uncited phrase from his/her source. As it's written, the passage would not
constitute a paraphrase (even if Writer A had acknowledged his/her source) because it contains keywords from the original
source that do not appear in quotation marks
ACCIDENTAL PLAGIARISM

❑Accidental plagiarism occurs when a person neglects to

cite their sources, or misquotes their sources, or
unintentionally paraphrases a source by using similar
words, groups of words, and/or sentence structure
without attribution.
❑Students must learn how to cite their sources and to take
careful and accurate notes when doing research.
HOW TO AVOID
PL AGIARISM
SOURCE: BAUTISTA, R. (2017). PLAGIARISM. RETRIEVED
HTTPS://WWW.SLIDESHARE.NET/ROCIOBAUTISTA/PLAGIARISM
-PPT-81071937
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
✓SUMMARIZE
❑ You must reference the original source
❑ Your summary should be shorter than the text you are
summarizing
❑ You must use your own words, usually with a very limited
use of quotations
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
✓ Paraphrase
❑You must reference the original source
❑The text you produce may be shorter or longer
than the original text
❑You must use your own words
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
✓Quote
❑ You must reference the original source
❑ The text produced is the exact length of the original text quoted (unless
ellipses are used)
❑You must use the original author’s exact words and you must put quotation
marks around them
❑ You must include the page number of the source from which you borrowed
the author’s original language
❑ You can introduce quotes with phrases like According to Bob Jones, “xxx” or
Bob Jones stated,
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
✓Provide a References page
❑All the sources cited in the paper must be put in the References
page found after the Recommendation part of the paper

✓Include documentation
❑All visual images, charts, and graphs from printed and electronic
sources must be properly documented
Language Registers
Lecture Compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
• Identify features of formal and
informal language registers.
• Analyze text in terms of language
use and style.
• Name situations when formal,
informal and intimate registers
are applicable and;
• Write reviews using appropriate
language register.
Do you agree?
In different situations, people use
different language styles.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
What is a register?
❑ In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a
particular purpose or in a particular social setting.
❑ Different language styles used for different purposes in different
social settings whether public or private.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
What is a register?
❑ Halliday (1978) defines language
registers based on three well-
known parameters:
- field (what is happening or
activities involved),
- tenor (participants’ status
and roles), and
- mode (type of language and
communication channels).

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
How do you decide which language
register is appropriate to use?
Deciding which language register is
appropriate depends on the: ❑ AUDIENCE

❑ TOPIC

❑ PURPOSE

❑ LOCATION

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
How do you decide which language
register is appropriate to use?
AUDIENCE
Different audiences require
differing types of language.
For example, the way people
speak with their parents may differ
from how they speak with their
siblings.
The language used likely changes
when speaking with friends and
should change again when
speaking with classmates at
school.
Similarly, when writing, people
adjust the formality, tone, and
vocabulary used based on who the
writing is intended for.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
How do you decide which language
register is appropriate to use?
TOPIC
Different areas in school and
differing topics require differing
styles of speech and writing.
Mathematicians, scientists,
historians, artists, musicians and
others use differing styles when
speaking about or writing about
the subject and topic at hand.
For example, when writing in
science, students avoid the use of
metaphors or unnecessary
language, being as concise as
possible while getting the
appropriate principle, findings,
descriptions, etc. across the
reader.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
How do you decide which language
register is appropriate to use?
PURPOSE
People should clearly
understand the purpose of their
writing or speech.
Is it to inform, argue, persuade,
describe, narrate, share cause
and effect, or some other
purpose?
When they are clear on the
purpose of writing or speech,
they can more accurately
choose the language register to
use.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
How do you decide which language
register is appropriate to use?
LOCATION
It can, and often does, dictate
the appropriate register to use.
In a school setting, the language
and formality used in the
classroom differ from the
language used in the hallways or
on the playground.
Similarly, the vocabulary and
syntax used to answer a simple
question versus giving a formal
speech in the classroom differs.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
How do you decide which language
register is appropriate to use?
PLEASE TAKE NOTE THAT..
A person can go from one register to the next without any conflict if it
is the register next to it. More moves than that, then your language,
would seem inappropriate, offensive or just crazy!

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
Five (5) Language Registers
PUBLIC:
❑ Frozen
❑ Formal
❑ Consultative

PRIVATE:
❑ Casual
❑ Intimate

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
Five (5) Language Registers
FROZEN or STATIC REGISTER
❑ At this level, language is literally
“frozen” in time and form.
❑ It DOES NOT change.
❑ This type of language is often
learned and repeated.
Examples:
- Pledge of Allegiance
- Laws
- The Lord’s Prayer
- Words in a song

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
Five (5) Language Registers
FORMAL REGISTER
This style is impersonal and often
follows a prescriptive format.
The speaker uses complete sentences,
avoids slang and may use technical or
academic vocabulary.
It is likely that the speaker uses fewer
contractions, rather opt for complete
words.
Examples:
- Announcements
- Speeches

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
Five (5) Language Registers
CONSULTATIVE REGISTER
This is the register used when
consulting an expert such as a doctor.
The language used is more precise.
The speaker is likely to address the
expert by a title such as ‘Doctor,’ ‘Mr,’ or
‘Mrs.’
Examples:
student – teacher
doctor – patient
employer – employee
lawyer – judge

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
Five (5) Language Registers
CASUAL REGISTER
This register is conversational in
tone.
It is the language used among and
between friends.
Words are general, rather than
technical.
This register may include more
slang and colloquialisms.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
Five (5) Language Registers
INTIMATE REGISTER
The register is reserved for close
family members such as parents
and children and siblings, or
intimate people such as spouses.
Often a “secret language” or finish
each other’s sentences.

https://www.acadshare.com/language-registers-ppt/
 “A language is an exact
reflection of the character
and growth of its speakers”.

CESAR CHAVEZ
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 19
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 20
Obtaining
Information
from Various
Sources

Lecture compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
❑ Differentiate primary source to
secondary source.
❑ Observe guidelines in evaluating
and selecting appropriate
information or material.
❑ Analyze a multimodal text and
the source of its information.
Primary and Secondary Sources
In today's digital age, there are various information available from different
sources. However, not all information out there is reliable, relevant,
authoritative or well-researched. To communicate effectively, it is important
to select information for its quality and usefulness to the topic.
Information may come from two sources:
1. Primary sources
2. Secondary sources

https://purposivecommunication.tech.blog/
Primary Sources
Are documents and original artifacts from people who participated in and
witnessed an actual event in history.
Examples:
1. Audio materials (memoirs, interviews, music)
2. Images (photographs, film, fine art, videos)
3. Objects and artifacts (clothing, tools, memorabilia, inventions)
4. Statistics (census, population statistics, weather accounts)
5. Text (diaries, letters, legal agreements, journals, autobiography, laws,
lectures, treaties, maps)

https://purposivecommunication.tech.blog/
Primary Sources

https://purposivecommunication.tech.blog/
Primary Sources

https://purposivecommunication.tech.blog/
Secondary Sources
They are documents, images, texts and objects created by someone who
referenced primary sources through analysis, synthesis, interpretation and
evaluation.
Examples:
1. Journal articles that comment on or analyze research.
2. Textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias.
3. Political commentary, biographies, dissertations.
4. Newspaper editorial, opinion, columns
5. Criticism of literature, art works or music.

https://purposivecommunication.tech.blog/
Secondary Sources

https://purposivecommunication.tech.blog/
https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-primary-and-secondary-sources/
https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-primary-and-secondary-sources/
Questions to Ask When Determining
If Something Is a Primary Source:
Primary sources often enable the researcher to
experience the flavor of the original event or
information, rather than relying upon someone else’s
interpretation.
Keep in mind that primary sources, because of their
first-hand nature, may not be completely well-
reasoned, objective, or accurate.
• Did the author conduct original research on the
topic?
• Is the information the result of a survey?
• Is the information uninterpreted data or statistics?
• Is the source an original document or a creative
work?
• Did the information come from personal
experience?

https://libguides.palni.edu/instruction_resources/ILModule5
Questions to Ask When Determining
If Something Is a Secondary Source:
Secondary sources can provide valuable
interpretation or historical context, provided the
sources are trustworthy.
• Did the author consult multiple sources to
create this work?
• Is this information an interpretation or
paraphrasing of another author's work?
• Did the information come from second-hand
reporting?
• Is the source a textbook, review, or
commentary?
• Does the source include quotations or
images?

https://libguides.palni.edu/instruction_resources/ILModule5
Types of information sources:
WEB RESOURCES
The Web has become the largest
repository of information available
to the public and plays an
important role in research- for
academics and for everyday life.
Anyone can publish on the internet
though, and information can be
biased, inaccurate, or outdate.
One must evaluate each site
carefully.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
PERIODICALS
Are items published at regular
intervals like weekly, monthly, or
quarterly.
Periodicals include magazines,
scholarly journals, trade journals,
and newspapers.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
MAGAZINES
• provide general information on
topics of popular interest
• are written for the general
public
• publish shorter articles
• are written by staff writers
• contain no references or
bibliographies
• contain a lot of pictures and
advertising

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
SCHOLARLY
JOURNALS
• analyze and report on original
research
• are written by experts/scholars
in the field
• publish longer articles using
scholarly language
• have articles reviewed by peers
before they are published
• include references used to write
articles
• often include charts, graphs, or
tables

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
TRADE JOURNALS
• report on trends and issues in a
given industry
• are written by experts in the
industry
• publish articles that address
standards from the field
• often include charts, graphs,
tables, or illustrations
• contain advertising that relates
to the given industry

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
NEWSPAPERS
• provide current
news/information about
international, national, and
local events
• are written by journalists
and freelance writers
• are written for the general
public
• publish short articles
• contain no references or
bibliographies

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
BOOKS
• are written on many different
topics and can be considered
fiction or non-fiction.
• Libraries divide books into
reference sources and those
found in the general collection.
• Books can come in print and
electronic (called eBook) format.
• In order to find information for
your research, it is important to
learn some common types of
reference and general collection
books.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of information sources:
REFERENCE BOOKS
• are kept in a special area of a library and
are not checked out (do not leave the
library)
• are good starting points for any research
project or problem
• contain facts, statistics, and/or biographical
information
• are generally referred to --not read
beginning to end
• are used to locate brief bits of information

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
ENCYCLOPEDIAS
• are great places to start when one is unfamiliar
with a topic because reading an encyclopedia
article is a good way to get a grasp of the range
and depth of the topic, he/she is investigating.
• Use an encyclopedia when looking for
background information on a topic and when
trying to find key ideas, important dates, or
concepts.
• Articles are usually written by subject experts
for beginners. Information is reliable, but you
don’t need to be an expert to understand it.
• Articles often include a bibliography—a list of
books and articles used to write the article.
Bibliographies are useful for identifying
additional sources of information on the topic.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
General Encyclopedia
• provide broad coverage of many topics,
contain shorter articles, and can include
definitions, descriptions, history, and statistics
(ex. World Book or Britannica).
• Reading an article in a general encyclopedia
can be an excellent way to begin a research .
• Articles in general encyclopedias lack the
depth necessary to complete a college level
research assignment.
• Consult other resources, including a subject
encyclopedia, for specific and more in- depth
information.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
Subject Encyclopedia
• Provide specific information on
one subject or field and contain
longer articles with references
• Similar to general
encyclopedias, subject
encyclopedias are written by
subject specialists for non-
experts.
• Examples: Gale Encyclopedia
of Mental Health Social Issues
in America: An Encyclopedia

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
DICTIONARIES
• are used to define words, to verify
spelling, to divide words into syllables,
for word pronunciation, to check on
usage, or to determine the history of a
word.
• consist of general language or
specialized format.
Unabridged dictionaries attempt to include
all the words in the language available at
the time of publishing. The resulting book
can get very large, heavy, and
cumbersome to handle.
Abridged dictionaries are much smaller and
contain only a select amount of the words
found in the larger unabridged version.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
SPECIALIZED DICTIONARIES
• Slang dictionary defines words used in ordinary speech. Words
may include jargon or obscenities. Example: McGraw-Hill's
Essential American Slang Dictionary [electronic resource]
• Thesaurus contains synonyms (similar) and antonyms
(opposite) of specific words. A thesaurus is used when a writer
wants to find an alternate term and/or a word that means the
opposite of a specific word. Example: Oxford American Writer's
Thesaurus
• Dual-language dictionary – has two parts:
1. words in one language with definitions in a second language;
and 2) words in the second language with definitions in the first
language.
Example: Larousse diccionario = dictionary : English-Spanish,
español-inglés
• Subject specific dictionary contains words and meanings based
on a particular field, such as a medical or scientific dictionary.
Example: Stedman’s Medical Dictionary

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
BIOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
• Current Biography Yearbook –
Provides biographical essays on
mostly American individuals currently
making history and headlines.
• Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in
World History –captures the
experiences of women throughout
world history.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• provide information about a location. Some
geographical sources may include:
• Maps–Available in paper or electronic formats
• Atlases–Bound collections of maps that are
divided into three groups: current, historical,
and thematic
• Gazetteers–A geographical dictionary or
directory. A gazetteer is used in combination
with a map or atlas and lists geographical
names, locations, and/or physical features.
• Travel Guides –Helpful in planning trips. A
travel guide will give information about a
place such as where to find hotels,
restaurants, tourist attractions, and so on.

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
DIRECTORIES
• list people, associations, organizations, and
companies.
• They provide information such as names,
addresses, telephone numbers, websites, and
other unique data.
• Directories come in print and electronic format.
A common directory is the telephone book.
• Most directories are arranged alphabetically. In
some specialized directories, entries are also
grouped based on similar characteristics, such
as location, organization type, product, or
service.
• Example: The Directory of Business Information
Sources Community College Directory

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
ALMANAC
are typically annual publications and contain
statistics and other general information in a
particular subject.
Example: The Facts on File World Almanac
The Old Farmer’s Almanac

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
Types of reference books:
HANDBOOKS
provide a range of basic information
and serve as handy guides on a
particular subject.
Many handbooks include a mix of
definitions, short articles, statistics,
and bibliographies; therefore, it may
function as a specialized
encyclopedia.
A handbook may also be called a
companion, guide, or manual.
Example: CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics The Oxford
Companion to American Food and
Drink Professional Guide to Diseases

https://www.slideshare.net/eheilman1/types-of-information-sources
 “The closer you can get to your
setting and to primary sources,
the more authentic your history
is going to be”.

DAVID B. COE
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 32
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 33
PERSUASION AND RHETORICAL APPEALS
Lecture compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Learning
Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are
expected to:
❑ Describe the three types of
rhetorical appeals.
❑ Determine the rhetorical
appeals that apply to diverse
target audience.
❑ Create a poster applying the
appropriate rhetorical appeals.
 Over 2,000 years ago, the
Greek philosopher Aristotle
argued that there were three
basic ways to persuade an
audience of your position:
Ethos, Logos and Pathos

“Rhetoric is the art

of ruling the minds
of men” - Plato
 Rhetoric
1.The art of writing
and speaking
effectively.

2.An art of persuasion

through language.
An appeal to ETHICS (Ethos = Ethics)

A means of convincing someone of the

character or credibility of the speaker.

ETHOS
Why should the audience trust the
speaker?
What makes the speaker someone whom
I should listen to regarding this topic?
The Greek word ethos is related to our
word ethics or ethical, but a more
accurate modern translation might be
“image.”
Aristotle uses ethos to refer to the
speaker’s character as it appears to the
audience.
Aristotle says that if we believe that a
speaker has good sense, good moral
character, and goodwill, we are inclined to
believe what that speaker says.
Today we might add that a speaker
should also appear to have the
appropriate expertise or authority to speak
knowledgeably about the subject matter.
Ethos is often the first thing we notice, so
it creates the first impression that
influences how we perceive the rest.
Ethos: the source's
credibility / authority
▪ Is the source trustworthy,
educated, reliable,
credible, honest, fair,
and respectable?

Examples:
▪ Client testimonials
▪ Success stories
▪ Celebrity endorsements
▪ Personal anecdotes
LOGOS
An appeal to LOGIC (Logos = Logic)

A way of persuading an audience by

reason.
Where is logic and reasoning being
used to support the argument?
How can ideas be set up in a way that
uses logic and reasoning to persuade?
In our society, logic and rationality are
highly valued and this type of
persuasive strategy is usually privileged
over appeals to the character of the
speaker or to the emotions of the
audience.
Logos: the
logic/reasoning used to
support a claim; the facts
and statistics used to help
support the argument.

Examples:
▪ Case studies
▪ Cause and effect
reasoning
▪ Facts and statistics
▪ Analogies
PATHOS
An appeal to EMOTION
(Pathos = Passion)

A way of convincing an audience

of an argument by creating an
emotional response.
In what ways is the speaker trying
to get at the emotions of his or
her audience?
In what parts of the speech do I
FEEL something?

Aristotle points out that emotions

such as anger, pity, fear, and their
opposites, powerfully influence
our rational judgments.
Due to this fact, much of our
political discourse and much of
the advertising we experience is
directed toward moving our
emotions.
Children who witness
domestic violence are
more likely to become
victims or abusers as
adults.
This advertisement shows
water gushing from a pasta
strainer that holds the
planet Earth.

Using this visual, the ad

targets our concern for the
planet and emphasizes that
we need to develop
renewable methods of
using our natural resources
before we have none left.
Educating adults and
children about the harmful
effects of cyber-bullying is
something schools and
advertisers have been
strongly promoting.

In this ad, a hurt teen is seen

with mouse pointer stab
wounds all over his body.

It’s easy to type and send a

hurtful message, but those
messages can cut deep and
seriously harm others.
In this graphic ad, fear of losing something awesome may motivate
people to take action and help save the forests.
This ad could make anyone’s
stomach turn. It shows a baby
bottle full of water - dirty, sandy,
yellow water.

According to the ad, 4,100 kids

die each day from water-related
diseases around the world.

It then expresses the need for

sustainable freshwater solutions
and encourages readers to
donate to the cause.
The ad states that research shows how important skin-to-skin contact is for
infants, and questions what kind of razor-smooth finish they want to share.
While the ad is directed at new fathers, those without children will still
understand the message.
This type of advertising
appeal communicates a
sense of empowerment
to turn dreams into a
reality.

In this Lego ad, the

clear connection is that
Lego helps children
imagine, solve problems
and work toward a
better future.
Coke boosted their brand appeal with a limited time campaign that personalized bottles with names and titles. People rushed out
looking for the names of their family and friends to keep, photograph or gift.

While the scarcity was part of the appeal, Coke took this campaign a step further by allowing customers to personalize their own
Coke bottles and even search their website to see where (or if) their names were on bottles somewhere in the US.

Scarcity increases the feeling of value and makes the customer buy on impulse.
Pathos: appeals to the
audience’s capacity for
empathy; wants you to
care about the subject
matter.

Typical Emotional
Appeals:
▪ Love
▪ Pity
▪ Patriotism
▪ Hope
▪ Jealousy
▪ Anger
▪ Fear
Pathos: appeals to the
audience’s capacity for
empathy; wants you to
care about the subject
matter.

Typical Emotional
Appeals:
▪ Love
▪ Pity
▪ Patriotism
▪ Hope
▪ Jealousy
▪ Anger
▪ Fear
KAIROS
Kairos: establishes
the timeliness of the
issue; appeals to the
viewer’s or reader’s
sense of urgency
(“it’s the right time to
say or do the right
thing”)
Kairos Factors:
▪ Setting
▪ Time
▪ Place
 RHETORICAL APPEALS
The hook is an opening that grabs the reader’s Pathos, or emotional appeals, attempt to
attention and establishes a connection between persuade the reader or listener by
the reader and the writer. appealing to the senses and emotions.
The claim is a clear and straightforward statement Ethos are ethical appeals that attempt to
of the writer’s belief and what is being argued. persuade the reader or listener by focusing
Concessions and refutations are restatements of on the qualifications or the character of the
arguments made by the other side (concessions) speaker or by claiming that “it” is the ethical
and the writer’s arguments against those opposing “thing” to do.
viewpoints (refutations) and why the writer’s Logos, or logical appeals, attempt to
arguments are more valid. persuade readers or listeners by leading
Support is the reasoning behind the argument. them down the road of logic and causing
Support can include evidence as well as logical them to come to their own conclusions.
and emotional appeals (logos and pathos). It may Logical appeals state the facts and show
also anticipate objections and provide reasoning to how the facts are interrelated.
overcome those objections. Kairos is the attempt to convince the
Summary/Call to action, which is a closing audience that the issue is so important that
statement with a final plea for action. they must act now.

ELEMENTS OF AN ARGUMENT
Repetition: using the same words frequently to
emphasize a message or point

Parallelism: is repetition of the same pattern of

words/phrases and grammatical structure within a
sentence or passage to show that two or more
ideas have the same level of importance; may
create a sense of rhythm and momentum

**All parallelism is repetition, but not all repetition

is parallelism!**

Analogy: a comparison in which the subject is

compared point by point to something far different,
usually with the idea of clarifying the subject by
comparing it to something familiar
Sample Footer Text 20XX 35
 EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION IN
VIRTUAL SETTING
Effective
Communication
Whatever your role in a company,
business, or institution is, it is
imperative that you communicate
effectively. An age old aphorism
goes, “It is not what you say, but how
you say it.” Communication is what
separates a poor leader, team
member, or employee from an
exceptional one. Using effective
communication skills is the key to
good work and relationship in school
or in the workplace. Effective
Communication is not just
exchanging information. It is about
understanding the intentions beyond
the information.
Components of Communication
 1. Source/Sender
The sender should be competent
in his field to create a clear
message with enough details to
be easily understood by the
receiver. His competence is
based on his wide experience
and exposure to matters of
content and expression.
2. The Context of the
message
The context is how the message is
delivered by the sender. Context
in oral communication involves
nonverbal communication such as
gestures, body language, facial
expressions, and elements such as
tone of voice. For written, it
involves style and diction. The
sender should know his audience,
listeners, or readers, for his to use
the right context.
3. The Receiver or decoder
The receiver should listen
actively and intently and asks
questions to clarify. The
source should ascertain that
the receiver shares meaning
with the sender. If the
receiver trusts the source,
there is high chance of
understanding..
4. The Method of Delivery
The delivery method should be chosen
by the source based on the medium
he thinks most effective to convey the
meaning of the message to his
receivers. Since there is a diversity of
ways with the computers and mobile
devices, decisions about the delivery
method have become more complex.
Communication methods include
verbal communication, instant
messages (IM), letters, email, videos,
screenshots, telephones, notes,
business forms, signs, posters,
tarpaulins, written documents, etc.
5. Content
The content of the message must be
complete and clear and presented
and described in detail to obtain
understanding with both sides. The
content must basically answer who,
what, where, when, why, and how
of the matter. Before sending any
message, the source must check
his details.
 Questions that Enhance Effective
Communication

When the source in verbal communication misses some

details, it is appreciated when the listener of receiver is active in
listening. The listener may then ask questions. These are
valuable tools of efficiency, competence, and rapport-building.
1. Direct – The listener may pose simple questions with a basic
interrogative.
+What place was affected?
+How many were affected?
+What do they need?
2. Control. The listener already knows the answer to it when he
asks it. It’s a way of finding out whether or not the person is
lying, uninformed, and/or not paying attention.
3. Repeat. The listener may ask two different questions that are
after the same information. The second question is given later
in the discussion.
* How much have we collected for the relief operation?
* How many are the intended beneficiaries?
It is not an absolute test, but it gives value and credence to
what was said before.
4. Persistent. You ask the same question in different ways to
explore all facets of the desired information. Like repeat
questions, persistent questions are asked if the listener is
doubtful.
*How many are our target beneficiaries? What do they need?
How are we going to get in the area?
The inquirer/listener can get a picture of what the source is
telling.
5. Summary. The listener asks questions that allow the source
an opportunity to revisit the answer and confirms the idea
acquired by the listener.
* Are the collected funds enough to our target beneficiaries?
* * How would you like to do the distribution of relief goods?
* Do we have enough manpower?
6. Non-pertinent. This isn’t about what the inquirer/listener
wants to know about, but it serves the purpose of seeing what
it “looks like” and getting the person to open.
(In an interview)
How are you? How are you coping with the pandemic?
“ We have been given two ears and but a single mouth in
order that we may hear more and talk less.”

-Zeno of Citium
Tips on Becoming a Good Listener
(Guffey, 2018):
1. Stop talking
The first step to becoming
a good listener is to stop
talking. Let others
explain their views. Learn
to concentrate on what
the speaker is saying,
not on what your next
comment will be.
2. Control
your
surroundings
Whenever possible, remove
competing sounds. Close
windows or doors, turn off
radios and noisy appliances
and gadgets and move away
from loud people or engines.
Choose a quite time and
place for listening.
3. Establish a receptive mind-
set
Expect to learn something by
listening. Strive for a positive
and receptive frame of mind.
If the message is complex,
think of it as mental
gymnastics. It is hard work but
good exercise to stretch and
expand the limits of your
mind.
4. Keep an open mind.
We all sift and filter information
through our own biases and
values. For improved
listening, discipline yourself
to listen objectively. Be fair to
the speaker. Hear what is
really being said, not what
you want to hear.
5. Listen for main points.
Concentration is enhanced and
satisfaction is heightened
when you look for and
recognize the speaker’s
central theme.
6. Capitalize on lag time.
Make use of the quickness of
your mind by reviewing the
speaker’s points. Anticipate
what’s coming next. Evaluate
evidence the speaker has
presented. Don’t allow
yourself to daydream.
7. Listen between the lines.
Focus both on what is spoken
and what is unspoken. Listen
for feelings as well as for
facts.

8. Judge ideas not

appearances. Concentrate
on the content of the
message, not on its delivery.
Avoid being distracted by the
speaker’s looks, voice, or
mannerisms.
9. Hold your fire. Force yourself
to listen to the speaker’s entire
argument or message before
reacting. Such restraint may
enable you to understand the
speaker’s reasons and logic
before you jump to false
conclusions.

10. Take selective notes. For

some situations thoughtful
note-taking may be necessary
to record important facts that
must be recalled later. Select
only the most important
points so that the note-taking
process does not interfere
with your concentration on
the speaker’s total message.
11. Provide feedback. Let the
speaker know that you are
listening. Nod your head and
maintain eye contact. Ask
relevant questions at
appropriate times. Getting
involved improves the
communication process for
both the speaker and the
listener.
Barriers to Effective Listening
1. Physical barriers. You cannot listen when you cannot hear
what is being said. Physical impediments include hearing
disabilities, poor acoustics, and noisy surroundings It is also
difficult to listen if you’re ill, tired, uncomfortable, or worried.
2. Psychological barriers - This is the psychological make-up
every person brings to the communication process. Each of
us has an idea of what is right and what is important. If other
ideas run counter to our preconceived thoughts, we tend to
tune out the speaker and thus fail to hear.
3. Language problems. Unfamiliar words can destroy the
communication process because they lack meaning to the
receiver. In addition, emotion-laden or “charged” words can
adversely affect listening. If the mention of words like “Covid-
19”, “swab test”, or “exposed” has an intense emotional
impact, a listener may be unable to think about the words that
follow.
4. Nonverbal distractions. Many of us find it hard to listen if a
speaker is different from what we view as normal. Unusual
clothing, speech mannerisms, body twitches, or a radical
hairstyle can cause enough distraction to prevent us from
hearing what the speaker has to say.
5. Thought speed. Because thought speed is over three times
as great as speech speed, listener concentration flags. Our
minds are able to process thoughts much faster than speaker
can say them. Therefore, we become bored and our minds
wander.
6. Faking attention. Most of us have learned to look as if we
are listening even when we are not. Such behavior was
perhaps necessary as part of our socialization. Faked
attention, however, seriously threatens effective listening
because it encourages to flight of unchecked fancy. Those
who practice faked attention often find it hard to concentrate
even when they want to.
7. Grandstanding. Would you rather talk or listen? Naturally,
most of us would rather talk. Since our own experiences and
thoughts are most important to us, we grab the limelight in
conversations. We sometimes fail to listen carefully because
we’re just waiting politely for the next pause so that we can
have our turn to speak.
References:
1. Tejada, K.C.M., et.al. (2018) Purposive Communication, Panday-Lahi
Publishing House, Inc. Muntinlupa City, Metro Manila
2. Guffey, Mary Ellen (2018) Essentials of Business Communication,
South-Western College Publishing, Ohio, USA
Communication for
Work Purposes

Lecture compilation:
Ms. Rechiel Abarquez – Garcia, MAELS
Faculty, CEAS
Workplace Communication
❑ is a discipline of its own that is
unlike academic or scholastic
writing.
❑ serves specific purposes for
particular individuals, groups,
organizations, or departments.
Things to consider in
communicating in the workplace
1. Purpose
a) Am I writing primarily to create a record,
to request/provide information, or to
persuade?
b) What am I trying to say?
Things to consider in
communicating in the workplace
2. Audience
a) Who will read what I have
written?
b) What are their job titles and/or
areas of responsibility?
c) What do they already know
about the specific situation?
d) Why do they need this
information?
e) What do I want them to do as a
result of receiving it?
f) What factors might influence
their response? (Searles, 2014) .
Things to consider in
communicating in the workplace
3. Tone
it will set how your target audience will
accept what you are trying to say. - you do
not have to sound tough, demanding, or
condescending in your discourse especially
in sensitive subjects or issues
Categories of Workplace
Communication
a) Upward Communication - from
your position to an audience
above you in the job hierarchy
Example: a response to a letter
from your manager
b) Lateral Communication -
between you and an audience
within your level of hierarchy
Example: a phone call to/from a
co-worker you are collaborating
with.
Categories of Workplace
Communication
c) Downward Communication - from
your position to an audience below
you in the job hierarchy
Example: an oral reminder to a
trainee
d) Outward Communication -
between you and a company that you
do business with or an audience
outside your workplace
Example: a letter of inquiry addressed
to a supplier regarding a delivery to
your office.
Business Letters
A business letter is written in formal
language.
It is used for various purposes like offering a
business deal to other organization,
accepting an offer, denying an offer, new
schemes for customer, extending
the contract with a client.
Business Writing
❑ refers to memorandums, reports,
proposals, e-mails, and other forms of
writing used in organizations to
communicate with internal and external
audiences.
❑ Business writing is a type of
professional communication.
❑ Also known as business communication
and professional writing (Nordquist,
2017).”
❑ “Writing business correspondence like
letters and memos is a skill or potential
that must be developed and possess by
a person regardless by his work,
profession, or specialization (Mosura, et
al., 199).”
Styles in writing business letters
❑ Full block style
❑ Block style
❑ Semi-block standard punctuation
❑ Indented style standard punctuation
❑ Simplified letter style standard punctuation
Full Block Style
In this style, all the parts
beginnings start at left margin.
Block Style
In this type of format, the entire
text is aligned to the left side of
the paper and the paragraphs
are not given indent.
Semi-Block Style
In this format, the text is left
aligned and all the paragraphs
in the letter are indented.
Simplified Style
Similar to that of full blocked
style, except that the letterhead
or heading is place at the upper
center of the stationary.
Simplified Style
Similar to that of full blocked
style, except that the letterhead
or heading is place at the upper
center of the stationary.
Parts of a
Business Letter
Parts of a Business Letter
1. The Heading (The Return Address) or Letterhead
Companies usually use printed paper where heading or letterhead
is specially designed at the top of the sheet. It bears all the
necessary information about the organization's identity.

2. Date / Date of writing.

The month should be fully spelled out and the year written with all
four digits October 12, 2005
(12 October 2005 - UK style).
Parts of a Business Letter
3. Inside Address
❑ In a business or formal letter, you should give the address of the
recipient after your own address.
❑ Include the recipient's name, company, address and postal
code. Add job title if appropriate.
❑ Separate the recipient's name and title with a comma. Double
check that you have the correct spelling of the recipient 's name.
❑ The Inside Address is always on the left margin. If an 8 1/2" x
11" paper is folded in thirds to fit in a standard 9" business
envelope, the inside address can appear through the window in
the envelope.
Parts of a Business Letter
4. Subject Line (optional)
❑ Its inclusion can help the recipient in dealing successfully with
the aims of your letter.
❑ Normally the subject sentence is preceded with the
word Subject: or Re:
❑ Subject line may be emphasized by underlining, using bold font,
or all capital letters.
❑ It is usually placed one line below the greeting but alternatively
can be located directly after the "inside address," before the
"greeting.“

5. Attention Line
Is used when it is important that the letter reaches first the person
who should give attention to the letter.
Parts of a Business Letter
6. Greetings / Salutation
❑ The type of salutation depends on your relationship with the
recipient.
❑ It normally begins with the word "Dear" and always includes the
person's last name. Use every resource possible to address
your letter to an actual person.
❑ If you do not know the name or the sex of your receiver, address
it to Dear Madam/Sir (or Dear Sales Manager or Dear Human
Resources Director).
❑ As a general rule the greeting in a business letter ends in a
colon (US style). It is also acceptable to use a comma (UK
style).
Parts of a Business Letter
7. Body Paragraphs / Body of the Letter
❑ The body is where you explain why you’re writing.
❑ It’s the main part of the business letter.
❑ Make sure the receiver knows who you are and why you are
writing but try to avoid starting with "I".
❑ Use a new paragraph when you wish to introduce a new idea or
element into your letter. Depending on the letter style you
choose, paragraphs may be indented.
❑ Regardless of format, skip a line between paragraphs.
Parts of a Business Letter
8. Complimentary Close
❑ This short, polite closing ends always with a comma.
❑ It is either at the left margin or its left edge is in the center,
depending on the Business Letter Style that you use.
❑ It begins at the same column the heading does.
❑ The traditional rule of etiquette in Britain is that a formal letter
starting "Dear Sir or Madam" must end "Yours faithfully", while a
letter starting "Dear " must end "Yours sincerely". (Note: the
second word of the closing is NOT capitalized)
Parts of a Business Letter
9. Signature
❑ The signature is the last part of the letter.
❑ You should sign your first and last names.
❑ The signature line may include a second line for a title, if
appropriate.
❑ The signature should start directly above the first letter of the
signature line in the space between the close and the signature
line.
❑ Use blue or black ink.
Parts of a Business Letter
10. Postscript
❑ Maybe written for the purpose of covering a point after the letter
has been typed or to give special emphasis to a particular idea.
❑ This can be avoided by careful planning , because it can give
the impression that the writer is disorganized and indecisive.
❑ This may include 'Enclosure', 'Enc.', or ' Encs.’.
Proper placement of parts of a
business letter
1. The Stationery
❑ Stationery, according to Webster’s Dictionary, is "paper cut to an
appropriate size for writing letters, usually with matching
envelopes."
❑ The word comes from its cousin "stationary," which
was originally used to describe peddlers who sold goods from a
fixed location, as opposed to the peddlers who travelled the
countryside to sell their wares.
❑ A standard size of a stationery for a formal business letter is 8-
1/2x 11 inches.
❑ Other business however use the executive stationary
❑ 7x10 or 7-1/2 x 10-1/2 inches
❑ For legal documents, the size of the stationery is 8-1/2 x 14
inches.
❑ The paper should be of good quality – sufficiently smooth
and considerable thick to avoid crumpling.
Proper placement of parts of a
business letter
1. The Stationery
❑ As to color , taste calls for white , mostly accepted in formal
business letters in certain companies; colored paper maybe
used to identify, to give a distinctive character, and to suggest
worth.
❑ But remember the principle that the stationery should never
draw attention from the contents of the letter.
Proper placement of parts of a
business letter
2. The letterhead
❑ This refers to the heading printed on the stationery, including
the name of the firm, address, nature of business firm, with
additions such as names of members of the firm, telephone
number, and the cable address that give the letter a stamp of
formality and prestige.
❑ It should be in black, must be simple and dignified and should
not occupy more than 1/5 of the whole sheet.
Proper placement of parts of a
business letter
3. The envelop address
❑ The outside envelope address should be the same as the inside
address.
❑ This is usually written vertically a little bit below the center point.
❑ A two –line address requires double spacing while a four or five
line address of the sender always appears on the upper left
hand corner of the envelope.
❑ It follows used the style used in the letter. At least ½ inch of
space is allotted before starting to write the return address. The
left and the right margins should be placed squarely in the
center.
Types of business letters
1. Letter of Inquiry
This is common letter received by companies asking information on
new products, course offerings, seminars, etc.

2. Request Letter
❑ A favor is requested from a person or company only when it is
necessary and when it will be use for a good purpose.
❑ It includes the reason for asking favor, the request itself, its
possible effect to the reader if granted, and a brief statement of
appreciation.
❑ Do not be demanding in your letter. Be courteous.
Types of business letters
3. Order Letter
An order letter should contain the following elements:
❑ name of article ordered
❑ description of each items –size, style, finish, quality, material, weight
and other specifications.
❑ catalog number of the item, if available
❑ quantity of each item
❑ unit price of each item and the total price of the order
❑ mode of payment
❑ mode of delivery desired
❑ date and address by which goods are to be delivered
Types of business letters
4. Recommendation Letters
Requesting References
The letter should indicate the specific position applied for, the reasons why,
you wish to use the individual as reference, and a self-addressed, stamped envelope
or e-mail ad.
Writing a Recommendation
The letter should include the following:
• Length of time you have known he person
• Nature of the relationship or familiarity with the applicant
• Assessment of the person’s character
• Qualifications
This is done in order to give the prospective employer relevant information
about the applicant.
Types of business letters
5. Letter of Resignation
❑ This letter is written when the person has a valid reason for
leaving the company that he is connected with.
❑ The resignation letter should be courteous and positive, should
include the reasons for leaving, your appreciation and gratitude
to the employer for the knowledge, training and valuable things
gained during your stay in the present company.
❑ Also state the affectivity of your resignation which should be at
least 15 to 30 days before you leave, or as stated by the
company policy.
Types of business letters
6. Reservation Letter
❑ This letter should be brief and specific.
❑ It should indicate the type of reservation wanted, the number of
guests, the date of the function, the location desired and other
specifications or relevant information needed.
Types of business letters
7. Application Letter
The main objective of this letter is to inform the employer that you
want to render your service to them.
“Effective teamwork begins and
ends with communication”.
MIKE KRZYZEWSKI
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 36
SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20XX 37