Agenda 21 and Rio +20

The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development, known as the Rio Earth Summit,
was a pivotal event where representatives from 172 countries, including 108 heads of states
and governments, convened to address pressing environmental issues and sustainable
development. The summit resulted in several crucial outcomes, including Agenda 21, the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, the Statement of Forest Principles, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity.

Agenda 21 is a comprehensive program of action aimed at addressing environmental and

developmental issues from the early 1990s into the twenty-first century. It emphasizes the need
for sustainable development, which involves meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The document outlines
several principles, including the centrality of human beings in sustainable development, the
sovereign right of states to exploit their own resources, the right to development, and the
integration of environmental protection with development processes. It also highlights the
importance of cooperation in eradicating poverty, addressing the special needs of developing
countries, and promoting sustainable production and consumption patterns.

The Rio+20 conference, held in 2012, was convened to assess the progress made since the
Earth Summit and to renew global commitment to sustainable development. The conference
focused on two main themes: a green economy in the context of sustainable development and
poverty eradication, and the institutional framework for sustainable development. India, as a
developing country, advocated for non-binding legal commitments and the transfer of green
technologies from developed to developing countries on concessional terms. India also called
for the operationalization of the Nagoya Protocol and the creation of a Sustainable
Development Fund to provide financial support to developing countries.

Despite the significant international commitments made at these conferences, challenges

remain in implementing these agreements at the national level. An "implementation gap" exists
between international goals and practical achievements on the ground. This gap is evident in
areas such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) legislation, where delays and uneven
effectiveness hinder progress. The Rio+20 conference aimed to address these challenges and
streamline future implementation efforts.
 Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on December 11, 1997, in Kyoto, Japan, as an amendment to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The protocol
aimed to establish specific targets for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which the
UNFCCC had not specified. The Kyoto Protocol introduced mandatory targets for developed
countries to reduce emissions of six major GHGs: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride.

The protocol's first commitment period was from 2008 to 2012, with the goal of reducing GHG
emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels. The targets varied by country, with the European
Union committing to an 8% reduction, Canada, Hungary, Japan, and Poland to a 6% reduction,
and the United States to a 7% reduction. However, the United States did not ratify the protocol,
and Canada withdrew in 2011, citing the lack of participation from major emitters like the
United States and China.

The Kyoto Protocol introduced mechanisms such as the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM), which allowed developed countries to earn credits by sponsoring emission reduction
projects in developing countries. Joint Implementation allowed countries to earn credits by
investing in emission reduction projects in other developed countries. Emission Trading
permitted countries to sell unused emission units.

The Doha Amendment, adopted in 2012, introduced a second commitment period from 2013
to 2020 and added Nitrogen Trifluoride to the list of GHGs. However, as of the latest update,
only 108 parties have ratified the Doha Amendment, short of the 144 required for it to enter
into force. Major emitters like the United States, China, and Russia have not ratified it, limiting
its global impact.

The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, aimed to replace the Kyoto Protocol by involving all
countries in efforts to mitigate climate change. The agreement set a goal to limit the average
global temperature increase to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with
an ambition to limit it to 1.5 degrees. It also emphasized adaptation strategies and financial
support for developing countries. The Paris Agreement entered into force on December 4, 2016,
after being ratified by the required number of states.
World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission), 1984

The World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Gro Harlem

Brundtland, published the report "Our Common Future" in 1987. The report, also known as the
Brundtland Report, was a response to the urgent need for sustainable development in the face
of environmental degradation and resource depletion. It highlighted the interdependence of
environmental health and economic development, emphasizing that sustainable development
must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

The report addressed several critical issues, including rapid population growth, food security,
biodiversity loss, energy use, industrial pollution, urbanization challenges, and the North-South
divide. It underscored the need for international cooperation and institutional reforms to
address these challenges effectively. The report called for the stabilization of population
growth, the transfer of environmentally friendly technologies to developing countries, and the
establishment of a global environmental management system.

The Brundtland Report also emphasized the importance of managing global commons such as
Antarctica and outer space, advocating for international treaties to ensure their peaceful and
sustainable use. It highlighted the need for improved relations among nations to prevent
conflicts over natural resources and to address the environmental impacts of weapons testing
and proliferation.

The report's influence extended to the creation of several international conventions and
agreements, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) and the Convention on Biological Diversity. It also inspired national and
international policies aimed at promoting sustainable development and environmental
protection.
 World Conference on Human Environment (1972)

The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, held in June 1972, was a landmark
international gathering where over 107 states participated to address the growing concerns
about environmental degradation and its impact on human well-being. The conference adopted
the Stockholm Declaration, which included 26 principles aimed at protecting and improving
the human environment. These principles emphasized the fundamental right to a healthy
environment, the need for sustainable development, and the responsibility of states to prevent
environmental harm.

The declaration highlighted several key themes, including human rights, sustainable
development, precautionary actions, prevention of environmental harm, compensation for
victims of pollution, and international cooperation. It called for the protection of natural
resources, the safeguarding of renewable resources, and the wise management of wildlife and
habitats. The declaration also underscored the importance of integrating environmental
considerations into development planning and the need for rational planning to reconcile
development with environmental protection.

The Stockholm Conference led to the adoption of several global conventions, such as the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
and the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter. It also inspired national legislations aimed at protecting the environment, such as the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1974, and the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 in India.

The conference marked a significant step in global environmental governance, emphasizing

the interconnectedness of environmental and developmental issues. It laid the groundwork for
future international efforts to address environmental challenges and promote sustainable
development.