Tropical rainforest

Emergent

●​ Trees are very tall and can reach up to 50m

●​ Trees are far apart and have small waxy leaves and winged seeds as the wind
is strong
●​ Buttress roots which grow up to just 3m of the forest floor
●​ Deep and shallow roots
●​ High temperature, strong winds, low humidity and heavy rain

Canopy

●​ Trees can grow up to 30m

●​ Continuous canopy that covers up to 99% of the rainforest (sunlight is blocked)
with hanging epiphytes(bird nest fern etc)
●​ Vines root in ground and uses trees for support to grow towards the light
source and roots are shallow
●​ Dark green leaves for photosynthesis
●​ High temperature with high humidity

Undergrowth

●​ Leaves have drip tips to allow water to run off

●​ Large leaves(bird nest fern) to trap any sunlight or fallen leaves
●​ Lack of sun and is dark
●​ Air is still with high humidity
Factors of deforestation
Agriculture

●​ Refers to the growing of crops and raising of animals to provide food

●​ Agriculture especially shifting cultivation have been the main cause for
deforestation
●​ Due to rapid population growth and large scale commercial agriculture
activities like growing crops for sale to meet local and global needs, this will
cause a greater scale of deforestation.
●​ E.g. by 2010, about 242,000 square km of the Amazon rainforest had been
converted into soya bean farms.
●​ In Borneo and Sumatra, large parts of the rainforest are converted into
commercial oil palm plantations
●​ 80% of the Amazon is cleared for cattle ranching
●​ E.g. In 1986 the Amazon had less than 10 million cattle, this has increased to 79
million in 2011.
●​ Thus, the growth of agriculture has caused large scale deforestation

Logging

●​ Refers to cutting down trees for timber and firewood. Commercial logging of
tropical hardwoods such as teak, mahogany, and rosewood. is a major cause of
deforestation in SEA and Africa
●​ Globally, commercial logging is responsible for destroying 50,000 square km
of tropical rainforest each year.
●​ Logging also damages the rainforest as a whole for every tree extracted, five
are badly damaged because the falling tree will destroy the surrounding trees
or smaller-sized plants. The removal of the tree also leaves the soil exposed to
erosion
●​ E.g. much of the rainforest in Borneo are cleared for hardwood which is
supplied to the Japanese
●​ China: High demand for chopsticks and paper has resulted in deforestation in
Congo and Cameroon in Centra
●​ l Africa, Brazil and Indonesia
Mining

●​ Forests are cleared for mining activities such as mining of gems, gold, copper
and diamonds.
●​ Forests are also cleared for roads that leads to the mining areas
●​ E.g. Carajas Mine in Brazil: 296 million tonnes of iron ore were extracted from
the mine, which produced 18 billion tonnes of minerals including gold and
copper
Impacts of deforestation
Loss of biodiversity

●​ Due to deforestation, it is estimated that millions of plants and animals have

become extinct
●​ With the loss of biodiversity, the variety of resources that we can obtain from
the rainforest such as food, medicine and timber wood, will also be gone.
●​ E.g. Researchers in 1991 isolated a compound found in twigs from a certain
Malaysian gum tree that blocked the spread of AIDs in human cells. When the
team sent biologists back to Malaysia for more samples, the tree had already
been cut down and no tree found since has produced the same compound.
No identical trees have been found in the immediate area and samples from
the same species found elsewhere did not yield the same compound.
●​ The changes in biodiversity in the area may increase the occurrence of
insect-borne diseases.
●​ E.g. Deforestation can significantly alter a mosquito population by reducing
predators of insects or by giving mosquitoes more breeding grounds. This
may increase the likelihoods of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.

Loss of water catchment areas

●​ The Amazon Basin is said to produce half of its rainfall through the forest's
transpiration process in the water cycle.
●​ Countries surrounding the Amazon rainforest depend on water from the
Amazon Basin
●​ Trees absorb water through their roots and release it into the atmosphere
through evaporation and transpiration. The water in the atmosphere
eventually falls again as rain.
●​ When trees are removed, the water cycle is affected, leading to a drier climate
and drier soils. Hence, the ground no longer contains and receives as much
water.
●​ The loss of water catchment areas results in decreased water supply and
higher water prices. In Tanzania, deforestation caused by charcoal production
is predicted to reduce half of the water catchment area by 2020. The cost of
water is expected to rise by four times.
Increased risk of flooding, sedimentation and soil erosion

●​ When rain falls, forests intercept the rain and allow the rainwater to seep into
the ground through infiltration. The soil slowly releases water into rivers.
●​ However, when trees are cut down, the ground is left bare and rainwater falls
directly on the ground and flows over the surface more rapidly as surface
runoff. When the sediments are washed into rivers in the area, it decreases the
river's carrying capacity and this causes flooding(and sedimentation) in the
surrounding areas.
●​ When trees are cut down, the soil loses its capacity to retain water as topsoil is
washed away thus infiltration rate is ineffective, causing water to drain away
and groundwater is depleted.
●​ Soil erosion refers to removal of soil by rainwater, wind and destructive human
activities like logging. Tree roots hold the soil firmly to the ground and keep
the ground stable.
●​ When the trees are removed, the ground is exposed and the soil is loose. The
roots that once held the soil together would not be able to function effectively.
This will cause the soil to be washed away by water/wind actions which will
lead to more removal of topsoil and eventually other layers as well, causing
more erosion at the area.
●​ E.g. The Great Red Island in Madagascar has lost so much soil to erosion (400
tonnes for every 0.01 square kilometres) that even its rivers are blood-red,
affecting even the surrounding Indian Ocean.
●​ When the sediments are washed into the rivers, it causes the depletion of
oxygen in the river, affecting water quality and thus, aquatic life. The
sediments can also smother fish eggs and kill aquatic plants, which will
eventually cause the destruction of aquatic life.
Enhanced greenhouse effect

●​ Refers to more heat trapped on earth due to the increase of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere due to deforestation
●​ Deforestation is one of the human activities contributing to the enhanced
greenhouse effect. Deforestation increases the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere as trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it
as carbon. Scientists estimate that about 4.8 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide
are absorbed by rainforests each year. The Amazon rainforest is the largest
store of carbon. The stored carbon is released into the atmosphere when trees
are cut down. Less trees means that less carbon dioxide is absorbed and more
of it remains in the atmosphere.
●​ More than half of the carbon dioxide released from deforestation comes from
Brazil and Indonesia where large areas of tropical rainforest are found.
●​ The increased temperatures from enhanced greenhouse effect can affect
people and the environment. For example, increased temperatures can cause
ice caps to melt. This can result in a rise in sea levels and flooding of low-lying
coastal areas. According to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF),
low-lying islands such as Kiribati and Vanuatu in the Pacific Ocean may be
submerged and disappear into the sea. People living on these islands may
lose their homes.

Economic impact: Depletion of natural resources

●​ Tropical rainforests provide important natural resources that contribute

greatly to the economic growth of many countries. They provide timber, food
and water which are essential for many industries.
●​ Rapid deforestation often destroys the rainforest faster than it can replenish
itself. Thus, many natural resources are depleted. This affects the earning of
industries that rely on these resources.
●​ E.g. Timber trade Timber is used to make furniture. As trees are cut down at a
faster rate, younger ones cannot grow as quickly to replace the cut down ones,
which makes forest resources increase in value.
Social impact: Effects on indigenous people

●​ Deforestation destroys their homes and they are forced to adapt to a new way
of living. Traditionally, they live in harmony with the forest, getting any
resources they need from it.
●​ However, with the loss of tropical rainforests, they have to find other ways to
survive and it often causes these tribes to disperse and disappear.
●​ E.g. Malaysia is the world's second largest producer of palm oil. Currently,
around 40,000 square kilometres in the Malaysian Peninsular are planted with
oil palms. They have decided to move the plantations to Sarawak. However,
indigenous tribes feel that without the forests, they will not be able to get food
and water to survive.
Strategies to manage deforestation
Protection of forested areas

●​ Refers to the setting of laws to protect an area from unfavourable activities like
logging, deforestation etc.
●​ Such activities might endanger the biodiversity of natural resources found in
the area and indigenous and traditional communities living in these areas are
preserved.
●​ Unsustainable logging and agricultural practices are banned in these areas
through laws or other measures.
●​ e.g. The Central Amazon Conservation Complex is the largest protected area in
the Amazon Basin, which is one of the places with the highest biodiversity in
the world. It is located west northwest of Manaus, the capital of the Amazonas
state, Brazil and between the Solimoes and Negro Rivers. There are four
protected areas in the complex. Some of these areas conserve biodiversity
through working with indigenous communities, some are protected for
research and education while others are totally protected. The entire site
covers 60,000 square kilometres.

Reforestation

●​ Refers to planting of trees in areas where the original forest has been cleared.
Rainforest canopies take 15 years to form.
●​ There have been some reforestation projects in the Amazon rainforest in
which organisations partner local communities.
●​ E.g. One such project is Reforestation in Peru, organised by a company called
LATA Foundation. LATA Foundation buys seedlings from and pays local
communities to plant trees. In this way, a large amount of the money goes
back to the local communities. A total of 70,000 trees were planted in 2011
Controlled logging

●​ Refers to careful management of forests that are being logged. Controlled

logging only allows logging in certain areas and in a SUStainable manner.
○​ Penalties such as fines and imprisonment are enforced on irresponsible
timber companies that carry out illegal logging
○​ Education and research programmes are arranged to inform timber
companies of the damage caused by deforestation. Such programmes
may also discuss measures to take to manage the extent of the
damage.
●​ E.g. In 2006, private companies were allowed to log in some parts of the
rainforest.
●​ Another way to control logging is to reduce the impact of logging by cutting
down selected species of trees. For example, the Brazilian Institute of
Environment and Renewable Natural Resources started a programme in
which every tree that is logged is accounted for. This prevents the total
clearance of a forest. The benefits of the programme are shared with the locals
who help run this programme.