Functional Units:

A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory, arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), output and control unit.

Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e., high level language. This is either
stored in the memory or immediately used by the processor to perform the desired operations. The
program stored in the memory determines the processing steps. Basically, the computer converts one
source program to an object program. i.e., into machine language. Finally, the results are sent to the
outside world through output device. All of these actions are coordinated by the control unit.

CPU:

A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or just processor, is the
electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer program. The CPU performs basic
arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions in the
program.

Memory:
In computing, memory is a device or system that is used to store information for immediate use in a
computer or related computer hardware and digital electronic devices. The term memory is often
synonymous with the term primary storage or main memory. An archaic synonym for memory is store.

I/O units:
In computing, input/output (I/O, or informally io or IO) is the communication between an information
processing system, such as a computer, and the outside world, possibly a human or another information
processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system and outputs are the signals or
data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input
or output operation.

Information representation:
Every description of a computer needs to explain how the computer handles information: numbers,
text, pictures, sound, movies, instructions.

The computer is an electronic device. Each of its wires can either carry electric current or... not carry
current. So, like a light switch, it understands only two states. It turns out that this is enough to make
the whole idea work. In fact, any system that can represent at least two states can represent
information.

Integral and real representation:

In computer science, an integer is a datum of integral data type, a data type that represents some range
of mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed
to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits
(bits). Real numbers are numbers that include fractions/values after the decimal point. For example,
123.75 is a real number. This type of number is also known as a floating-point number.
Character representation:

Computers work in binary. As a result, all characters, whether they are letters, punctuation or digits, are
stored as binary numbers. All of the characters that a computer can use are called a character set.

Alphanumeric codes:

The alphanumeric codes are the codes that represent numbers and alphabetic characters. Mostly such
codes also represent other characters such as symbol and various instructions necessary for conveying
information. An alphanumeric code should at least represent 10 digits and 26 letters of alphabet i.e.,
total 36 items.

BCD:

Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a system of writing numerals that assigns a four-digit binary code to each
digit 0 through 9 in a decimal (base-10) numeral. The four-bit BCD code for any particular single base-10
digit is its representation in binary notation, as follows: 0 = 0000. 1 = 0001. 2 = 0010.

Gray:

The reflected binary code or Gray code is an ordering of the binary numeral system such that two
successive values differ in only one bit (binary digit). Gray codes are very useful in the normal sequence
of binary numbers generated by the hardware that may cause an error or ambiguity during the
transition from one number to the next.

ASCII codes:

ASCII is a 7-bit character set containing 128 characters. It contains the numbers from 0-9, the upper- and
lower-case English letters from A to Z, and some special characters. The character sets used in modern
computers, in HTML, and on the Internet, are all based on ASCII.

Computer software and operating system:

An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the
computer's memory and processes, as well as all of its software and hardware. It also allows you to
communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's language. Without an
operating system, a computer is useless.

The operating systems we've been talking about so far were designed to run on desktop and laptop
computers. Mobile devices such as phones, tablet computers, and MP3 players are different from
desktop and laptop computers, so they run operating systems that are designed specifically for mobile
devices.

System software and application software:

System Software is the type of software which is the interface between application software and
system. Low level languages are used to write the system software. Application Software is the type of
software that runs as per user request. It runs on the platform which is provided by system software.
High level languages are used to write the application software.

Classification of operating system:

Operating systems can be classified as follows:

Multi-user: is the one that concede two or more users to use their programs at the same time.

Single-User: just allows one user to use the programs at one time.

Multiprocessor: Supports opening the same program more than just in one CPU.

Multitasking: Allows multiple programs running at the same time.

Single-tasking: Allows different parts of a single program running at any one time.

Real time: Responds to input instantly. Operating systems such as DOS and UNIX, do not work in real
time.

Elements of DOS and windows:

MS-DOS is one of the oldest and widely used operating system. DOS is a set of computer programs, the
major functions of which are file management, allocation of system resources, providing essential
features to control hardware devices.

Basic commands:

Basic commands are useful to perform different task using MS-DOS. Few of the MS-DOS commands
are:Cd.dir,copy,del,edit,move,ren (rename),deltree.

CPU RISC and SISC:

RISC stands for ‘Reduced Instruction Set Computer Whereas, CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set
Computer. The RISC processors have a smaller set of instructions with few addressing nodes. The CISC
processors have a larger set of instructions with many addressing nodes.

Storage system primary and secondary memory:

Primary storage refers to the main storage of the computer or main memory which is the random-
access memory or RAM. What is this? Secondary storage, on the other hand, refers to the external
storage devices used to store data on a long-term basis.

Semiconductor, magnetic and optical memory:

Semiconductor memory is a type of semiconductor device tasked with storing data. There are two
electronic data storage mediums that we can utilize, magnetic or optical. Magnetic storage: Stores data
in magnetic form.

Cache memory:

cache memory, also called cache, supplementary memory system that temporarily stores frequently
used instructions and data for quicker processing by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
The cache augments, and is an extension of, a computer's main memory.
Virtual memory:

Virtual memory is a section of volatile memory created temporarily on the storage drive. It is created
when a computer is running many processes at once and RAM is running low.

Memory Management:

Memory Management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory, assigning
portions known as blocks to various running programs to optimize the overall performance of the
system. It is the most important function of an operating system that manages primary memory.

IO units-keyboard-mouse-VDU-printers:

I/O devices are the pieces of hardware used by a human (or other system) to communicate with a
computer. For instance, a keyboard or computer mouse is an input device for a computer, while
monitors and printers are output devices.