Vector Calculus

CONTENTS
Chapter CHAPTER NAME Page no.
no.
3. Vector Calculus 3
3.1 Introduction to Vector, dot, cross product
3.2 Unit vectors, Normals and bases
3.3 Vector equations of straight lines and planes
3.4 Divergence, Gradient, Curl & the Laplacian
3.4.1 Divergence
3.4.2 Gradient
3.4.3 Curl
3.4.4 The Laplacian
3.5 Change of coordinates
3.5.1 Streamlines for Fluid Flow
3.6 Some Vector Identities
3.7 Line, Surface and Volume Integral
3.7.1 Line Integral
3.7.2 Surface Integral
3.7.3 Volume Integral
3.8 Stokes Theorem
3.9 Divergence Theorem
3.10 Green’s Theorem
SET-7

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Chapter - 3 Vector Calculus

3.1 Introduction to Vector, dot, cross product:

1. Vectors: A vector has a direction, and a length. It is represented by a directed line segment. In a coordinate system it’s
expressed by components; in space.

The displacement vector of a particle can be represented in Cartesian components by

r t x t ,y t ,z t →

where t is a parameter (time or angle or distance along a curve, etc.)

The distance of the particle from the origin at any value of t is given by the scalar function

2 2 2
r t r t x t y t z t

Note:- the various alternative conventions for a vector and its magnitude:

r r r and r r r

2. Scalar product (dot product):

u v uv cos

The component of vector u in the direction of vector v is

uv u vˆ u cos

u v 0 u 0 or v 0 or u v (" u at right angles to v ")

The scalar product is commutative:

vu u v u, v

A B
Application. 1) computing lengths and angles: cos .
A B
Example: triangle is space with vertices P = (1,0,0), Q = (0,1,0), R = (0,0,2), find angle at P:
PQ PR 1,1, 0 1, 0, 2 1
cos , 71.5O
PQ PR 2 5 10

Note the sign of dot product: positive if angle less than 90 O, negative if angle more than90O zero if perpendicular.

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a1 a2
Determinant. Definition: det A, B a1 b2 a2b1
b1 b2
a1 a2
Geometrically: of parallelogram
b1 b2

The sign of 2D determinant has to do with whether B is counter clockwise or clockwise from A without details
a1 a2 a3
b b a b b b
Determinant in space: det A, B, C b1 b2 b3 a1 2 3 a2 1 3 a3 1 2
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

Geometrically: det A, B, C volume of parallelepiped

3. Vector product (cross product):-

Cross-product. (only for 2 vectors in space): gives a vector, not a scalar (unlike dot-product).
^
i j k
a2 a3 ^ a1 a3 ^ a1 a2
Definition: A B a1 a2 a3 i J k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

(the 3 x 3 determinant is a symbolic notation, the actual formula is the expansion)

Geometrically: A B = area of space parallelogram with sides A, B; direction = normal to the plane containing A and

B
How to decide between the two perpendicular directions = right – hand rule. 1) extend right hand in direction of A; 2 )
curl fingers towards direction of B;3 ) thumb points in same direction as A B.

The vector product of two vectors u , v is

in a direction n̂ at right angles to both u and v .

u v uv sin nˆ

The area of the parallelogram is

A u v and h u sin u  vˆ

The orientation of the plane containing vectors u and v is defined by the direction of the vector product n u v .

u v 0 u 0 or v 0 or u v (" u parallel to v ")

The vector product is anti-commutative:

vu u v v v 0

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The product rule of differentiation is valid for scalar and vector products:

d du dv d du dv du dv
u v v u and u v v u v u
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

The orientation of the plane containing vectors u and v is defined by the direction of the vector product n u v .

u v 0 u 0 or v 0 or u v (" u parallel to v ")

Example 1:-
For the vectors u 4, 3, 2 and v 2, 1, 2
find u v, uv , u  v, (= the angle between u and v )
and the equation of the plane parallel to u and v that passes through the origin.

Recap of above topics:-

• Vectors are directed line segments - they can be represented in component form or by direction and magnitude.
We can use trigonometry and Pythagoras’ theorem to switch between the forms
• If a ( x, y, z ) then a x2 y2 z2 .
• If a ( x, y, z ) and b ( , , ) then a b (x ,y ,z )
• If a ( x, y, z ) then Ka ( Kx, Ky , Kz ) for any value K
• The scalar product of two vectors is used to find the angle between them and the orthogonal projection of one
onto the other. The formula is: a b a b cos where is the angle between the vectors and a b means
multiply each pair of corresponding coordinates together and then add the results.
• The cross product of two vectors is used to find a vector that is perpendicular to both vectors. The formula is :
iˆ ˆj kˆ
a b a1 a2 a3 (a2 b3 a3b2 ) iˆ (a1b3 a3b1 ) ˆj (a1b2 a2b1 )kˆ It can be checked that the vector is indeed
b1 b2 b3
perpendicular by performing the scalar product with the new vector and each of the original vectors.

3.2 Unit vectors, Normals and bases:

1. Unit Vectors:

A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1. A unit vector is usually denoted by the addition of a ‘hat’ symbol, â . It is
possible to make any vector (except the zero vector, 0 ) into a unit vector. The formula for this transformation is:

a
aˆ
a

The method is to find the modulus of the vector and then to divide the vector by the modulus.

Example:-
a (2,3,5) . a 22 32 52 38
1 2 3 5
aˆ (2,3,5) or, alternatively aˆ ).
( ' '
38 38 38 38
It is normally best to keep the square root sign (the surd), rather than use a decimal approximation, in order
to preserve accuracy.

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Exercise 1:-
Convert the following vectors into unit vectors:
a) a (1, 6, 2) b) b (3, 2,1) c) c (5,9, 3)

2. Normal vectors:-

A normal vector is a special type of vector. It is a vector which is perpendicular to a given line or plane.

Normal vectors are used in the process of determining the equation of a plane and are usually denoted n .

2D Normals:

If you are working in two dimensions then you can find the normal to a line by using one vector on the line.

The simplest way to produce this normal is to swap over the iˆ and ĵ components and then change the sign on one
component.

For example:

Given a (2, 3) a normal to the line containing a is n ( 3, 2) . Equivalently, n (3, 2) is also a normal to this
line.

Each line has two normals. These normals face in opposite directions. It is usually unimportant which one you use.

In order to check that you have found a normal, you can use the dot product with the vector on the line; the result should
be zero.

For example:

Is (7, 5) normal to the line containing (5, 7) ? (5, 7) (7, 5) 35 35 0 . The vectors are perpendicular, so
(7, 5) is normal to the given line.

3D Normals:-

In three dimensions we look for vectors which are normal to a given plane. To do this we need to find a vector
perpendicular to two vectors which lie within the plane.

The usual method for this is to use the cross product.

For example:- to find the normal to the plane containing a (2, 1, 3) and b ( 2, 4, 1) you would work out:

iˆ ˆj kˆ
a b 2 1 3 (( 1) 1 3 4) iˆ (2 1 3 ( 2)) ˆj (2 4 ( 1) ( 2)) kˆ
2 4 1

( 1 12) iˆ (2 6) ˆj (8 2) kˆ
13 iˆ 8 ˆj 6kˆ

So the normal to the plane is n ( 13, 8, 6) which can be checked via the scalar product as before.

Once you have found one normal, you can find the normal that goes in the opposite direction by multiplying it by -1.

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Exercise 2:-
1. Find a normal to the line containing:
a) (6, 8) b) (23, -2) c) (197, 356)
2. Find a normal to the plane containing the following points:
a) a (6, 3, 1), b (0, 2, 5)
b) c (3, 1, 2), d (4, 0, 3)
c) e ( 6, 2, 4), f (1, 7, 2)

3. Bases:

A basis is a set of vectors which can be used to produce every other vector. A basis is said to ‘span’ a space. The vectors
in a basis must be linearly independent, i.e. there is no way of adding multiples of the vectors together to produce the zero
vector, other than when you multiply them all by 0.

If the vectors which form a basis are orthogonal to each other, i.e. at right angles to each other, then they are said to form
an orthogonal basis.The basis which is used most frequently is the iˆ , ˆj , kˆ basis, where

iˆ 1, 0, 0 , ˆj 0,1, 0 , kˆ 0, 0,1 .

In 2 dimensions this is just iˆ 1, 0 , ˆj 0,1

(Note that the hat symbol is not always used for i , j , k )

Any vector in 3-dimensional space can be written as the sum of multiples of the 3 basis vectors.

Example:-
(2, 6, 4) 2(1, 0, 0) 6(0,1, 0) 4(0, 0,1) 2 iˆ 6 ˆj 4 kˆ
There are other possible bases for 3 dimensional space, but iˆ , ˆj , kˆ is the simplest to use.
To express a vector in terms of another basis, you need to use simultaneous equations in order to find out
the multiples required.

Example:-
Express the vector (1,3, 6) in terms of the basis vectors (1,1, 0), (1, 0,1), (0,1,1) .
Using , , and to represent the unknown multiples we have:
(1,3, 6) (1,1, 0) (1, 0,1) (0,1,1)
Splitting this by coordinates we get:
11 , 2 3 , 3 6
Rearranging 1. gives 1 , so substituting the value of into 2 gives 3 1 2 .
Adding this to the last equation gives 4 2 2 . By substituting the value for back in to the
other equations, we find that 5 and 4.
Hence (1,3, 6) 5(1,1, 0) 4(1, 0,1) 2(0,1,1)

3.3 Vector equations of straight lines and planes:

Vectors can be used to find the equation of a line. There are two different methods which are used depending on what
information is available.

1. Equation of a line given direction:

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This requires the following information: A vector which lies on the line, and a vector which is in the direction of the line.

If a lie on the line which is in the direction of c, then choose an arbitrary point P on the line, with position vector r from
an origin O. This produces the diagram:

To find the equation for the line we need to express AP in terms of the other vectors.

AP OP OA r a

However as AP is a part of the vector c, it can also be expressed as AP c where is a scalar.

Hence r a c which rearranges to r a c , the equation of the line.

Example:-
Find the equation of the line through a 2,3 and in the direction of c (1, 2) .
Using the formula, r a c , gives r (2,3) (1, 2) .
This can be simplified to r (2 , 3 2 ).
Hence some points on this line (found by changing the value of ) are: (2,3), (3,1), (4,-1).

Exercise 4:-
1. Find the equation of the line through the point a (2, 6) and in the direction of c (5, 2)
2. Find the equation of the line through the point a (3, 7) and in the direction of c ( 1, 6)

2. Equation of a line given 2 points:-

This requires two fixed points on the line, A and B with position vectors a and b respectively and P a general point on the
line with position vector r. Here the diagram is:

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AP OP OA r a

But AP ( AB) and AB OB OA b a.

Hence r a (b a) .

This can be rearranged into r a (b a) .

Note that if 0 , then r a and if 1 , then r b

Example :-
Find the equation of the line which passes through the points a (2,5), b (4,9) .
Substitute the points into the formula r a (b a ) :
r (2,5) ((4,9) (2,5)) then perform the subtraction:
r (2,5) (2, 4) (2 2 ,5 4 )

Exercise 5:-
1. Find the equation of the line which passes through the points a (4, 2), b (3,9)
2. Find the equation of the line which passes through the points a (1, 6), b (8, 3)

3. Equation of a plane:

The equation of a plane requires the use of a normal vector.

Given the position vector a of a point on the plane and a vector n which is normal to the plane, the equation of a plane
is:

r n a n

where r ( x, y, z ) . i.e. r is a general (unknown) point on the plane and the dot is the scalar product.

In order to obtain the vector equation of a plane, work out the right hand side (RHS) and leave the left alone. In order to
obtain the Cartesian equation of a plane, work out both sides.

Example:-
Find the equation of the plane through a (1, 7,3) with normal n (2, 8,1) .
First, substitute the values into the formula:
r (2, 8,1) (1, 7,3) (2, 8,1)
To get the vector equation, perform the dot product on the RHS:
r (2, 8,1) 51 .
To get the Cartesian form, also work out the LHS:
( x, y, z ) (2, 8,1) 51 2 x 8 y z 51

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Exercise 6:-
Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the following planes:
a) Containing the point a (1, 2,5) and with normal n (2, 4, 6) ;
b) Containing the point a (3, 2, 4) and with normal n (1, 6, 2)
4. Intersections of lines and planes:-

Intersection of two lines:-

Given the equations of 2 lines, r1 a c , r2 b d , the lines intersect if you can find values , such that r1 r2

For example, r (1,5, 4) (4, 2,3), r (6, 7, 1) (3, 2,11)

Set the equations equal to each other, so

(1,5, 4) (4, 2,3) (6, 7, 1) (3, 2,11)

Combine the two vectors not involving or :

(4, 2,3) (5, 2, 5) (3, 2,11) .

Split into components in order to get 3 simultaneous equations:

4 5 3 , 2 2 2 , 3 5 11

Solve to find and .

(If you need help with this part please refer to Algebra 4.)

In this example 2 and 1.

To find the point where the lines cross, substitute the value of or into the equation for one of the lines.

Here, substituting into the first equation gives

(1,5, 4) (4, 2,3) (1,5, 4) 2(4, 2,3)

(1,5, 4) (8, 4, 6) (9,9,10)

You should always check this result with the other equation to ensure it is correct.

5. Intersection of two planes:

Given the normals ( n1 and n2 ) to the two planes, the line of intersection of the two planes can be found from:

r c n

where n n1 n2 and c is a point common to both planes.

If you are given the Cartesian forms of the planes, then you can find the normal to the plane by taking the coefficients of
x, y , and z . For example, the normal to x 3 y 4 z 24 is (1,3, 4) .

Example:-
Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes:
r1 (2, 4,1) 14, r2 (1, 2,5) 5
Here we have n1 (2, 4,1) and n2 (1, 2,5)

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iˆ ˆj kˆ
n1 n2 2 4 1 (4 5) (1 2) iˆ (2 5) (1 1) ˆj
1 2 5

(2 2) (4 1) kˆ
22 iˆ 9 ˆj 8kˆ so n (22, 9, 8)
Now we need a point common to both planes. The simplest way to do this is to try setting z 0 . This
means that we only need deal with 2 equations in 2 unknowns.
To find the common point, set z 0 in the Cartesian equations of the planes.
This gives 2 x 4 y 14 and x 2 y 5 . Solving these simultaneous equations gives x 6 , y 12 .
Hence c (6, 12 , 0) and the equation of the line of intersection is: r (6, 12 , 0) (22, 9,8) .

Exercise 7:-
Find the equation of the line of intersection for the planes:
a) r1 (6,3, 4) 12, r2 ( 2,3,1) 4
b) 2 x 4 y 3 z 14, x 2 y 4 z 3

3.4 Divergence, Gradient, Curl & the Laplacian:

Divergence, Gradient and Curl are used to give information about a vector field. (A vector field is a field where each
point can be described as a vector.) All three of these require knowledge of calculus, namely differentiation and partial
differentiation. If you are not familiar with these concepts or need to brush up a little, please look at the booklet
Differentiation 1 before continuing.

Divergence, gradient and curl all utilise the symbol (del or nabla).

represents the vector , , iˆ ˆj kˆ .

x y z x y z

3.4.1 Divergence:

Divergence is used to measure the density of a vector field in order to see how quickly matter is moving into and out of
a region.

Divergence is the flux per unit volume at a point:

Div is calculated from a vector and the result is a scalar.

F is used to denote divergence.

Divergence is found by taking the dot product of and the vector.

Fx Fy Fz
F
x y z

Here Fx , Fy , Fz are the components of the vector F .

To calculate Divergence differentiate the first component with respect to x , then differentiate the second component with
respect to y and differentiate the third component with respect to z . Finally, add the results of the 3 differentiations
together.

Examples:-

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1. If F 2 x iˆ 3xyjˆ z 2 kˆ , then

F (2 x) (3 xy ) (z2 )
x y z
2 3x 2 z

2. If F x 2 iˆ 2 zjˆ 3xykˆ then

F ( x2 ) (2 z ) ( 3 xy )
x y z
2x 0 0 2x
Note that the results do not include iˆ , ˆj , or kˆ , they are scalars.

Exercise 8:-
Find the divergence of the following vector fields:
a) F 4 x 2 y iˆ 2 yzjˆ 3zkˆ
b) F 3 y iˆ 2 x 2 yjˆ 2 yzkˆ
c) F 3cos 2 x iˆ 3 y sin 2 xjˆ 2 z cos xkˆ
d) F 3e x iˆ y 2 e x ˆj e 2 xz kˆ

3.4.2 Gradient:
The gradient or Grad is used to find where in the field the gradient is changing the most rapidly. The gradient function is
used on a scalar and the result is a vector.

f ( f ) iˆ ( f ) ˆj ( f ) kˆ
x y z
Here f is the scalar that you are differentiating.
To calculate Grad differentiate the whole function with respect to x . This gives the iˆ component. Next differentiate the
original function with respect to y . This gives the ĵ component. Finally repeat for z , giving the kˆ component.
Examples:-
1. If f ( x, y, z ) 2z2 3 yx then

f (2 z 2 3 yx) iˆ (2 z 2 3 yx) ˆj (2 z 2 3 yx) kˆ

x y z
3 y iˆ 3 xjˆ 4 zkˆ

2. If f ( x, y, z ) 5 xyz 2 2 xy cos x then

f (5 xyz 2 2 xy cos x) iˆ (5 xyz 2 2 xy cos x) ˆj

x y

(5 xyz 2 2 xy cos x) kˆ
z
(5 yz 2 2y sin x) iˆ (5 xz 2 2 x) ˆj (10 xyz ) kˆ

Exercise 9:-
Find the gradient vector for the following:

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a) f x2 y 3 yz 2 xz 2
b) f 3x 2 y 2 z 3
c) f x cos y z 2 sin x xy sin z
2 y xz
d) f xe ye

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3.4.3 Curl:

Curl is used to determine the amount of rotation of a vector field. If the curl of a vector field is zero, then it is said to be
‘irrotational’, i.e. it does not rotate. The curl is used on a vector and the result of calculating the curl is also a vector.

Calculating the curl is very similar to calculating the cross product of two vectors and is denoted F.

The main difference is that the first vector that is used here is , , .
x y z

The formula for curl is:

iˆ ˆj kˆ
Fz dFy Fz Fx ˆ Fy Fx ˆ
F x y z
iˆ - j k
y z x z x y
Fx Fy Fz

To calculate the curl, first write out the determinant with iˆ , ˆj , kˆ as the top row, as the second row and the vector F
as the third. The next step is to work it out as if it were the cross product. The difference here is that instead of finding
pairs to multiply together, you are finding out which part of F will be differentiated by x, y, or z .

Curl is the rotation per unit area at a given point.

Examples:-
1. If F x 2 iˆ 2 zjˆ 3xykˆ then

iˆ ˆj kˆ

F
x y z
2
x 2z 3 xy

( 3 xy ) (2 z ) iˆ ( 3 xy ) ( x 2 ) ˆj + (2 z ) ( x 2 ) kˆ
y z x z x y
3x 2 iˆ 3y 0 ˆj 0 0 kˆ
( 3x 2) iˆ 3 yjˆ

2. If F 2 xy 2 z iˆ 3xyjˆ z 2 kˆ , then

iˆ ˆj kˆ

F
x y z
2 xy 2 z 3 xy z2

(z2 ) (3 xy ) iˆ (z2 ) (2 xy 2 z ) ˆj (3 xy ) (2 xy 2 z ) kˆ
y z x z x y
0 0 iˆ 0 2 xy 2 ˆj 3y 4 xyz kˆ
2 xy 2 ˆj (3 y 4 xyz )kˆ

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Exercise 10:-
Calculate the curl of the following vector fields:
a) F x 2 y iˆ z 3 yjˆ xkˆ
b) F y 2 z iˆ x 3 z 2 ˆj 3 ykˆ
c) F 3 y cos 2 x iˆ 3x sin 2 zjˆ cos ykˆ
d) F ze xy iˆ z 2 e x ˆj xe3 y kˆ

Possible combinations of Divergence, Gradient and Curl

The combinations which work depends on whether the result of the first process produces a vector or a
scalar.
As Grad produces a vector, it is possible to find Div (Grad) and Curl (Grad). As Div produces a scalar it
is possible to find Grad (Div). As Curl produces a vector, it is possible to find Div(Grad), and as Curl also
works on vectors, you can find Curl(Curl) too.

3.4.4 The Laplacian:

2
The Laplacian is denoted by .

2 2 2
2
2 2
x y z2

The Laplacian works on scalars and produces a scalar result.

2
To find f , find the first derivative of f with respect to x, y , and z . Then find the second derivative of each and,
finally add up your results

Example:-
Given , f 3 x 2 y xz 2 , find 2
f .
2 2 2
2 f f f
f
x2 y2 z2
2 2 2
(3 x 2 y xz 2 ) (3x 2 y xz 2 ) (3x 2 y xz 2 )
x2 y2 z2

(6 xy z2 ) (3 x 2 ) (2 xz )
x y z
6y 0 2x 6y 2x

Exercise 11:-
Find the Laplacian of the following functions:
a) x 2 3 yz 3 b) xy 2 z 4 3x 3 y

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3.5 Change of coordinates:

z
Suppose z = f (x, y) (where (x, y) are Cartesian coordinates) and is wanted, (where (r, ) are plane polar coordinates).
r
Then

z z x z y
r x r y r

But x = r cos , y = r sin 

z z z
cos sin
r x y

z z z
r sin r cos can be found in a similar way.
x y

In matrix form, the chain rule can be expressed concisely as

z x y z
r r r x
.
z x y z
y

Note that

x y
x, y r r
abs det is the Jacobian
r, x y

For the transformation from Cartesian to plane polar coordinates in 2, the Jacobian is

x, y cos sin
r cos 2 r sin 2 r
r, r sin r cos

Integrals over areas can therefore be transformed using the Jacobian:

x, y
f x, y dx dy f x, y dr d g r, r dr d
r,
A A A

where f (x, y) = g(r, ) at all points in the area A of integration.

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3.5.1 Streamlines for Fluid Flow:

Let v(r) be the velocity at any point (x, y, z) in an incompressible fluid. Because the fluid is incompressible, the flow in
to any region must be matched by the flow out from that region (except when the region includes a source or a sink). This
generates the continuity equation

div v = 0

Let us take the case of fluid flow parallel to the x-y plane everywhere, so that we can ignore the third dimension and
consider the flow in two dimensions only. Then

v v x, y u x, y ˆi v x, y ˆj

curl F = 0 everywhere  F is an irrotational vector field.

Exercise:
Find curl F for F = +cos y, −sin x, 0 .
Also find the lines of force for the vector field F.

All differentiable gradient-vector fields are irrotational:

curl grad  0

The Laplacian of a twice-differentiable scalar field  is:

2 2 2
2
div grad , , , ,
x y z x y z x2 y2 z2

2 2 2
Laplace’s equation is 2
0
x2 y2 z2

3.6 Some Vector Identities:

1. f curl grad f 0

2. F div curl F 0

2
Laplacian of V V V div grad V

2
3. F F F grad div F curl curl F

4. f g f g f g

5. gF g F g F

6. div (g F) = (grad g)•F + g div F

7. gF g F g F

8. curl (g F) = (grad g)F + g curl F

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9. F G F G F G

10. div (F  G) = (curl F)•G − F•(curl G)

11. F G G F F G G F F G

G1 G1 G1 ˆ
where F G F1 F2 F3 i
x y z
G2 G2 G2 ˆ
F1 F2 F3 j
x y z
G3 G3 G3 ˆ
F1 F2 F3 k
x y z

so that F is the operator F1 F2 F3

x y z

12. F G G F F G G F F G

3.7 Line, Surface and Volume Integral:

3.7.1 Line integrals:

Two applications of line integrals are treated here: the evaluation of work done on a particle as it travels along a curve in
the presence of a [vector field] force; and the evaluation of the location of the centre of mass of a wire.

Work done:

The work done by a force F in moving an elementary distance r along a curve C is approximately the product of the
component of the force in the direction of r and the distance | r | travelled:

W F r F cos r

Integrating along the curve C yields the total work done by the force F in moving along the curve C:

W F dr
C
t1
dx dy dz
f1 dx f 2 dy f3 dz f1 f2 f3 dt
t0 dt dt dt
C

dr
W F dr F dt
dt
C
C

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Example:
Find the work done by F y, x, z in moving around the curve C (defined in parametric form by x
= cos t , y = sin t , z = 0 , 0  t  2 ).
F y , x, z C sin t , cos t , 0
dr d
cos t , sin t , 0 sin t , cos t , 0
dt dt
dr
F sin 2 t cos 2 t 0 1
dt
2
dr 2
W F dt 1 dt 2
0
dt 0

dr
F
Note that Fv F vˆ dt 1 everywhere on the curve C, so that
dr
dt
W 1 C 2 (the length of the path around the circle).
Also note that F y , x, z curl F 2 kˆ everywhere in 3 .
The lesser curvature of the circular lines of force further away from the z axis is balanced exactly by the
increased transverse force, so that curl F is the same in all of 3 .
We shall see later (in Stokes’ theorem) that the work done is also the normal component of the curl
integrated over the area enclosed by the closed curve C. In this case
  F nˆ A 2 kˆ kˆ
2
W 1 2 .

Example:
Find the work done by F x, y, z in moving around the curve C (defined in parametric form by x =
cos t , y = sin t , z = 0 , 0  t  2 ).
F x, y , z C cos t , sin t , 0 r
dr d
cos t , sin t , 0 sin t , cos t , 0
dt dt
dr
F cos t sin t sin t cos t 0 0
dt
2
W 0 dt 0
0
In this case, the force is orthogonal to the direction of motion at all times and no work is done.

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If the initial and terminal points of a curve C are identical and the curve meets itself nowhere else, then
the curve is said to be a simple closed curve.

Notation:
When C is a simple closed curve, write F dr as F dr .
C C

F is a conservative vector field if and only if F dr 0 for all simple closed curves C in the domain.
C
Be careful of where the endpoints are and of the order in which they appear (the orientation of the curve). The identity
t1 t0
dr dr
F dt F dt leads to the result
t0 dt t1 dt

F dr F dr  simple closed curves C

C C

Another Application of Line Integrals:

The Mass of a Wire:

Let C be a segment (t0  t  t1) of wire of line density  (x, y, z). Then

m x, y , z s

t1
ds ds
m ds dt dt
dt t0
dt
C C

First moments about the coordinate planes:

t1
ds
M r m r s M r dt
t0
dt

M
The location r of the centre of mass of the wire is r , where
m

t1 t1 2 2 2
ds ds ds dr dx dy dz
M r dt , m dt and .
t0 dt t0 dt dt dt dt dt dt

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Example:
Find the mass and centre of mass of a wire C (described in parametric form by
x = cos t , y = sin t , z = t , −  t   ) of line density  = z2 .
Let c = cos t , s = sin t . [The shape of the wire is
one revolution of a helix,
dr
r c, s , t s , c, 1 aligned along the z axis, centre the origin.]
dt
ds 2
s c 2 12 2
dt
z2 t2

ds t3
m ds dt 2 t 2 dt 2
dt 3
C
2 3
m 2
3
t1
ds
M r dt 2 t 2 c, t 2 s, t 3 dt
t0
dt
x component:-

Integration by parts:-
t 2 c dt t2 2 s 2tc

t 2 c dt t2 2 s 2tc

0 2 0 2 4

y component:-
For all integrable functions f (t) and for all constants a note that
a 0 if f t is an ODD function
f t dt a
a 2 f t dt if f t is an EVEN function
0
2
t sin t is an odd function

t 2 s dt 0

z component:-
t 3 is also an odd function
t 3 dt 0

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Therefore M 4 2 ˆi
M 3 6 ˆ
r 3
4 2 ˆi 2
i
m 2 2
6
The centre of mass is therefore at 2
, 0, 0

Conservative Vector Fields

If the vector field F x, y, z F1 x, y, z , F2 x, y , z , F3 x, y , z has components with continuous first partial

derivatives in a simply-connected region on D, then the following five statements are equivalent (i.e., they are either
all true or all false)

F x, y , z is conservative in D.

1. F x, y , z is a gradient field in D. (i.e., F x, y f x, y ).

2. F x, y, z dr is independent of path in D.
C

3. F x, y, z dr 0 for every piecewise-smooth closed curve C lying in D.

C

4. F x, y , z is irrotational. (i.e., F 0 ).

3.7.2 Surface Integral:-

Any integral which is to be evaluated over a surface is called surface integral and is denoted by

 f.uds where u is the unit vector normal to the surface S.

Evaluation of surface integrals:-

To evaluate surface integral, we have to project the surface to the rectangular co-ordinate planes (XY or XZ or YZ).

Case I:-

If the orthogonal projection of the function on the XY-plane, then

surface integral =  f.uds where

u = k & ds = dxdy

1u. kl

Case 2:-

If the orthogonal projection of the function on the YZ plane, then

Surface integral =  f.uds where

u = k & ds = dydz

Case 3:-

If the orthogonal projection of the function on the XZ plane, then

surface integral – =  f.uds where

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ds = dxdz

Example:- Evaluate  f.uds where f = xzi + ycj + z²k and S is the upper half of surface of the sphere x² +
y² + z² = 1
Let  = x² + y² + z² - 1.
u = v = 2xi + 2yj + 2zk = xi + yj + zk
1v1 2
To project the given unit sphere to the XY plane, then
s f.uds = s z.dxdy - s dxdy
1u. kl
= Area of the unit circle
= .1² = 

3.7.3 Volume Integral:

Any integral which is to be evaluated over a volume is called a volume integral, it is denoted by v fdv. We can subdivide
the region region V into small cuboids by drawing lines parallel to the 3 co-ordinate axes. Then

dv = dxdydz

Example:
If f = 2xzi – xj + y²k and V is the region bounded by the surfaces.
X = 0, y = 0, y = 6, z = x² and z = w. Then
Evaluate v fdv.
v fdv. =2 o6 o4 o fdv. (2xzi – xj + y²k) dxdydz
= 192i – 48j + 5761c

3.8 Stokes Theorem:

In this section we are going to take a look at a theorem that is a higher dimensional version of Green’s Theorem. In
Green’s Theorem we related a line integral to a double integral over some region. In this section we are going to relate a
line integral to a surface integral. However, before we give the theorem we first need to define the curve that we’re going
to use in the line integral.

Let’s start off with the following surface with the indicated orientation.

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Around the edge of this surface we have a curve C. This curve is called the boundary curve. The orientation of the
surface S will induce the positive orientation of C. To get the positive orientation of C think of yourself as walking
along the curve. While you are walking along the curve if your head is pointing in the same direction as the unit normal
vectors while the surface is on the left then you are walking in the positive direction on C.

Now that we have this curve definition out of the way we can give Stokes’ Theorem.

Theorem:

Let S be an oriented smooth surface that is bounded by a simple, closed, smooth boundary curve C with positive
orientation. Also let be a vector field then,

F dr curl F d S
C S

In this theorem note that the surface S can actually be any surface so long as its boundary curve is given by C. This is
something that can be used to our advantage to simplify the surface integral on occasion.

Example:
Use Stokes’ Theorem to evaluater
curl F d S
S

where F z 2 i 3 xy j x3 y 3 k
and S is the part of z 5 x 2 y 2 above the p lane z = 1
Assume that S is oriented upwards.
Solution:-
Let’s start this off with a sketch of the surface

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In this case the boundary curve C will be where the surface intersects the plane z = 1 and so will be the curve
1 5 x2 y 2
x2 y 2 4 at z 1
So, the boundary curve will be the circle of radius 2 that is in the plane z = 1. The parameterization of this curve is,
r t 2 cos t i 2sin t j k, 0 t 2
So, it looks like we need a couple of quantities before we do this integral. Let’s first get the vector field evaluated on
the curve. Remember that this is simply plugging the components of the parameterization into the vector field.
2 3 3
F r t 1 i 3 2 cos t 2sin t j 2 cos t 2sin t

i 12 cos t sin j 64 cos 3 t sin 3 t k

Next, we need the derivative of the parameterization and the dot product of this and the vector field.
r t 2sin t i 2 cos t j
F r t r t 2sin t 24sin t cos 2 t
2
curl F d S 2sin t 24sin t cos 2 t dt
0
S
2
2 cos t 8cos 3 t
0

Example:
Use Stokes’ Theorem to evaluate
F d r Where, F z2 j y2 j xk
C

and C is the triangle with vertices 1, 0, 0 0,1, 0 0, 0,1 with counter-clockwise rotation.
Solution:-
We are going to need the curl of the vector field eventually so let’s get that out of the way first.

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i j k

curl F 2z j j 2z 1 j
x y z
z2 y2 x
Now, all we have is the boundary curve for the surface that we’ll need to use in the surface integral. However, as noted
above all we need is any surface that has this as its boundary curve. So, let’s use the following plane with upwards
orientation for the surface.

Since the plane is oriented upwards this induces the positive direction on C as shown. The equation of this plane is,
x y z 1 z g x, y 1 x y

F dr curl F d S
C S

2z 1 j d S
S

f
2z 1 j f dA
D
f
Okay, we now need to find a couple of quantities. First let’s get the gradient. Recall that this comes from the function
of the surface.
f x, y , z z g x, y z 1 x y
f i j k
Note as well that this also points upwards and so we have the correct direction.
Now, D is the region in the xy-plane shown below.

We get the equation of the line by plugging in into the equation of the plane. So based on this the ranges that
define D are,
0 x 1 0 y x 1

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F dr 2z 1 j i j k dA
0 D
1 z 1
21 x y 1dy dx
0 0

Don’t forget to plug in for z since we are doing the surface integral on the plane. Finishing this out gives.
1 z 1
F dr 1 2x 2 y dy dx
0 0
C

1 x 1
y 2 xy y2 dx
0 0
1
x2 x dx
0
1
1 3 1 2
x x
3 2 0

1
6

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Example 3:-Verify Stokes’s Theorem to evaluate the line integral z 2 dx x 2 dy y 2 dz where S is the part of x + y
C

+ z = 2 in the first octant

and C is the boundary of the triangle.
Solution:-
F ( x, y , z ) z 2 dx x 2 dy y 2 dz
i j k

Curl F i (2 y 0) j (0 2z) k (2 x 0) 2 yi 2 zj 2 xk
x y z
z2 x2 y2
( 1)i ( 1) j 1k i j k
z 2 x y n
3 3
i j k 2y 2z 2x 2
curlF n 2 yi 2 zj 2 xk y z x
3 3 3
dS 1 f x2 f y2 dxdy dS 3dxdy

2 2 y
2
z 2 dx x 2 dy y 2 dz y z x 3dxdy 2 (y (2 x y) x )dxdy
C D 3 0 0

2 2 y 2 2
y2
4 dxdy 4 (2 y )dy 4 2y 44 2 8
0 0 0
2 0

C2: y+z=2, x=0

C3: x+z+2, y=0 2

2 2
2 2 2 2 (2 y )3 8
C1: z dx x dy y dz 0 (2 y ) dy 0
C1 0
3 0
3
2 2
2 (2 z )3 8
C2 : z 2 dx x 2 dy y 2 dz 0 0dy 2 z dz
C2 0
3 0
3
2 3 2
2 (2 x) 8
C3 : z 2 dx x 2 dy y 2 dz 2 x dx 0 0
C3 0
3 0
3
8 8 8
z 2 dx x 2 dy y 2 dz 8
C
3 3 3

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Practice Exercise
1. Verify Stoke’s theorem for the vector field
F = yz i + xz j + xy k over the surface S: z = x2 + y2 and z<=1.

2. Verify Stokes’s theorem by computing both integrals for S is the portion of z 1 x2 y 2 above the x-y plane
and F 2 x, z 2 x, xz 2 .

3. Use Stokes’s Theorem to compute F ndS where S is the portion of the tetrahedron bounded by
S

x y 4z 8 and the coordinate planes with z > 0, n upward, F y2 , y 2 x, z 2 .

4. Use Stokes’s Theorem to compute F dr where C is the boundary of the portion of the paraboloid x y2 z2
C

with x ≤ 4, n to the back, F yz , y 4, 2 xy .

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5. Let S be the surface of a cut hollow sphere whose base is the unit circle lying in the xy-plane. Let F
= y i - x j + e xz k. Calculate the flux of the curl of F across S.

6. Calculate the circulation of the field F = x 2 i + 2x j + z 2 k around the curve C: the ellipse 4x 2 + y 2
= 4 in the xy-plane, counter-clockwise when viewed from above.

7. Calculate the circulation of the field F = y i + xz j + x 2 k around the curve C: the boundary of the
triangle cut from the plane x + y + z = 1 by the first octant, counter-clockwise when viewed from
above.

3.9 Divergence Theorem:

In this section we are going to relate surface integrals to triple integrals. We will do this with the Divergence
Theorem.

Let E be a simple solid region and S is the boundary surface of E with positive orientation. Let F be a
vector field whose components have continuous first order partial derivatives. Then,

F dS div F
S E dV

Let’s see an example of how to use this theorem.

Example:

Use the divergence theorem to evaluate F d S where

S

1 2
F xy i y j zk and the surface consists of the three surfaces,
2

z 4 3x 2 3y2 ,1 z 4 on the top, x 2 y2 1, 0 z 1 on the sides and

z 0 on the bottom.

Solution:-

Let’s start this off with a sketch of the surface.

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The region E for the triple integral is then the region enclosed by these surfaces.
Note that cylindrical coordinates would be a perfect coordinate system for this region.
If we do that here are the limits for the ranges.
0 z 4 3r 2
0 r 1
0 2

We’ll also need the divergence of the vector field so let’s get that.
div F y y 1 1
The integral is then,
F dS div F dV
S E
2 1 4 3r 2
r dz dr d
0 0 0
2 1
4r 3r 3 dr d
0 0
1
2 3 4
2r 2 r d
0 4 0
2 5
d
0 4
5
2

3.10 Green’s Theorem:

A curve C on 2 (defined in parametric form by r t x t ˆi y t ˆj , a  t  b) is closed

If f (x(a), y(a)) = (x(b), y(b)) .

The curve is simple if

r t1 r t2 for all t1, t2 such that a < t1 < t2 < b ;

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(that is, the curve neither touches nor intersects itself, except possibly at the end points).

For Example:

Two simple curves:-

Open closed

Two non-simple curves:-

open closed

Orientation of closed curves:-

A closed curve C has a positive orientation iff a point r(t) moves around C in an anticlockwise sense as the value of
the parameter t increases.

For Example:

Positive orientation Negative orientation

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Let D be the finite region of 2 bounded by C. When a particle moves along a curve with positive orientation, D is always
to the left of the particle.

For a simple closed curve C enclosing a finite region D of 2 and for any vector function F f1 , f 2 that is differentiable
everywhere on C and everywhere in D,

Green’s theorem is valid:

f2 f1
F dr dA
x y
C
D

The region D is entirely in the xy-plane, so that the unit normal vector everywhere on D is k. Let the differential vector
dA = dA k , then Green’s theorem can also be written as

F dr   F kˆ dA curl F dA
C D D

f2 f1
F dr f1 , f 2 dx, dy f1 dx f 2 dy dA
x y
C D

and

f2 f1 T
det x y det z component of   F
x y FT
f1 f2

Green’s theorem is valid if there are no singularities in D.

For Example:

x
F ,0 :
r

Green’s theorem is valid for curve C1 but not for curve C2.

There is a singularity at the origin, which curve C2 encloses.

Example:
For F x y, x y and C as shown, evaluate F dr .
C

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F dr F dr F dr F dr
C PQ QR RP

F x y, x y
Everywhere on the line segment from P to Q, y = 2 – x (and the parameter t is just x)
dr
r x, 2 x 1, 1 and F 2, 2 x 2
dx
0 0 0
F dr 2 2x 2 dx 4 2 x dx 4x x2
2 2 2
PQ
= (0 – 0) – (8 – 4) = –4
Everywhere on the line segment from Q to R, y = 2 + x
dr
r x, 2 x 1, 1 and F 2x 2, 2
dx
2 2 2
F dr 2x 2 2 dx 2 x dx x2
0 0 0
QR
= 4–0 = 4
Everywhere on the line segment from R to P, y = 0
dr
r x, 0 1, 0 and F x, x
dx
2 2 2
x2
F dr x 0 dx x dx
2 2 2 2
RP
= 2–2 = 0
F dr 4 4 0 0
C
OR use Green’s theorem!

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det x y x y x y 1 1 0
x y
f1 f2
everywhere on D
f2 f1
dA 0 dA 0
x y
D D
By Green’s theorem it then follows that
F dr 0
C

Example:
Find the work done by the force F x y, y 2 in one circuit of the unit square.

By Green’s theorem,
f2 f1
W F dr dA
x y
C
D
f2 f1
y2 xy 0 x
x y x y
The region of integration is the square 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1
1 1
W x dA x dy dx
0 0
D
1 1 1 1
1
x 1 dy dx x y 0
dx x 1 0 dx
0 0 0 0
1
x2 1 1
0
2 0
2 2
Therefore
W 1
2
The alternative method (using line integration instead of Green’s theorem) would involve four line integrals, each with
different integrands.

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SET- 7

1. The directional derivative of f x, y 2x2 3y2 z 2 at point P 2,1,3 in the direction of the vector

a i 2k is
a) 4
5
b) 4
5

c) 5
4
d) 5
4

2. The derivative of f x, y at point 1, 2 inthe direction of vector i j is 2 2 and in the direction of the
ector 2 j is 3 . Then the derivat f x, y in direction – i 2 j is
a) 2 2 3 2
b) 7/ 5
c) 2 2 3 2
d) 1/ 2

3. The expression curl grad f . where f is a scalar functionis

2
a) Equal to f .
b) Equal to div grad f .
c) A scalar of zero magnitude
d) A vector of zero magnitude

4. For a function ax 2 y y 3 to represent the velocity potential of an ideal fliud, 2

should be eqaul to zero.
In that case, the value of ‘a’ has to be
a) 1
b) 1
c) 3
d) 3

5. Given a vector field F , the divergence theorem states that

a) F .ds .Fdv
S V

b) F .ds .Fdv
S V

c) F ds .Fdv
S V

d) F ds .Fdv
S V

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6. The directional derivative of the following function f x at 1, 2 inthe direction of 4i 3 j is …. Where

f x, y x2 y2
a) 4/5
b) 4
c) 2/5
d) 1

7. Which one of the following is NOT associated with vector calculus?

a) Stoke’s theorem
b) Guass Divergence theorem
c) Green’s theorem
d) Kennedy’s theorem

x2 y2
8. For the scalar field u , the magnitude of the gradient at the point (1,3) is
2 3
a) 13 / 9
b) 9/2
c) 5
d) 9/2

9. The area of triangle formed by the tips of vectors a,b and c is

1
a) a b . a c
2
1
b) | a b a c |
2
1
c) a b c
2
1
d) a b . c |
2

3 1 3 1
10. The angle (in degrees) between tw planar vector a i j and b i j is
2 2 2 2
a) 30
b) 60
c) 90
d) 120

11. For a scalar function f x, y , z = x 2 3y2 2 z 2 , the gradient at the point P 1, 2, 1 is

a) 2i 6j 4k
b) 2i 12 j 4k
c) 2i 12 j 4k
d) 56

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12. For a scalar function f x, y , z = x 2 3y2 2 z 2 , The directional derivative at the point P (1,2,-1) in the
direction of a vector
i j 2k is
a) 18
b) 3 6
c) 3 6
d) 18

13. The divergence of the vector field x y i y x j x y z k is

a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3

14. A sphere of unit radius is centered at the origin. The unit normal at a point x, y, z on the surface of the sphere
is the vector.
a) x, y, z
1 1 1
b) , ,
3 3 3
x y z
c) , ,
3 3 3
x y z
d) , ,
2 2 2

15. The divergence of the vector field 3xzi 2 xyj yz 2 k at a point (1,1,1) is
a) 7
b) 4
c) 3
d) 0

16. The line integral of the vector function F 2 xi x 2 j along the axis from x 1 to x 2 is
a) 0
b) 2.33
c) 3
d) 5.33

17. If T x, y, z x2 y2 2 z 2 defines tehtemperature at any location x, y, z then the magnitude of the

temperature gradient at point P 1,1,1 is
a) 2 6
b) 4
c) 24
d) 6

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2
18. If a and b aretwo arbitary vectors with magnitudes a nd b respectively, a b will be equal to
2
a) a 2b 2 a .b
b) ab ab
2
c) a 2b 2 a .b
d) ab ab

1 1
19. For the spherical suface x 2 y2 z2 1, the unit outward normal vector at the point , , 0 is givenby
2 2
1 1
a) i j
2 2
1 1
b) i j
2 2
c) k
1 1 1
d) i j + k
3 3 3

1 3
20. The two vectors 1,1,1 and 1, a, a 2 where a j are
2 2
a) Orthogonal
b) Orthonormal
c) Parallel
d) Collinear

21. Stock’s theorem connects

a) A line integral and a surface integral
b) A surface integral and a volume integral
c) A line integral and a volume integral
d) Gradient of a function and its surface integral

22. The line integral of the vector function F 2 xiˆ x 2 ˆj along the x axis from x 1to x 2 is
a) 0
b) 2.33
c) 3
d) 5.33

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Solution:
Set: Vector Calculus
1. Ans: b)
f x, y 2x2 3y2 z2 P 2,1,3
and a i 2k )
a 4
Directional derivative f P
a 5

2. Ans: b)
Directional derivative of f in the direction

of i j 2 2
a f f f
f. 2 2 i j k
a x y z

i j f f
2 2 4... 1
2 x y
similarly
b f f f
f. 3 i j k
b x y z

2j f f
3 2 6 3.... 2
2 y y
f
sub . 2 in 1 , we obtain, 1
dx

c f f f i 2j 7
f. i j k .
c x y z 5 5

3. Ans: d)
Curl grad f 0

4. Ans: c)
ax 2 y y3 2

2 2 2
0
x2 y2 z2
2 ay 6 y 0 a 3

5. Ans: a)
As per Guass Divergence Theorem  F .ds =  .Fdv
S V

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6. Ans: b)
f x, y x2 y2 , a 4i 3 j 1, 2
Directional derivative =
a 4i 3 j
f. 2i 4 j . 4
a 5
7. Ans: d)

8. Ans: c)
2
u xi yj
3
u 1,3 i 2j
u 1 4 5

9. Ans: b)

1
Area of triangle ABC = AB AC
2
1
b a c a
2
1
a b a c
2
10. Ans: d)

3 1 3 1
a i j, b i j
2 2 2 2
3 1
a.b 4 4 1
cos
a b 3 1 3 1 2
.
4 4 4 4
120

11. Ans:b)
f x, y , z x2 3y2 2 z 2 P 1, 2, 1
grad f f 2 xi 6 yj 4 zk
f P
2i 12 j 4k

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12. Ans: b)

f x, y , z x2 3y2 2z2 , P 1, 2, 1
a i j 2k
f 2 xi 6 yj 4 zk
f P
2i 12 j 4k

Directional derivative

a 2 12 8 18
f. 3 6
a 1 1 4 6

13. Ans: d)

V x y i y x j x y z k
divV 1 1 1 3

14. Ans: a)

Equation of sphere is x 2 y2 z2 1

Lit z , y, z x2 y2 z2

Normal to the surface is

2 xi 2 yj 2 zk

2 xi yj zk
Unit normal is
4 x2 4 y2 4z2

xi yj zk x2 y2 z2 1

15. Ans: b)
f 3 xz i 2 xy j yz 2 k
div f 3z 2y 2 yz
div f 1,1,1
3 2 2 3

16. Ans: c)
F 2 xi x2 j
Along x axis, y 0 dy 0
1

F .d r 2 xdx x 2 dy 2 x dx 3
c c l

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17. Ans: a)
T 2 xi 2y j 4 zk
T P 1,1,1
2i 2j 4k

T 24 2 6

18. Ans: a)
2 2 2
a b a b sin 2 a, b

a 2 b 2 1 cos 2 a, b
2
a 2 b2 1 a.b / a 2 b 2
2
a 2 b2 a .b

19. Ans: a)
x, y , z x2 y2 z2
2 xi yj zk
1 1
At , ,0
2 2
1 1
2 i j 0 2 i j
2 2
a i j 2 i j
N
2 2
2 2 2 2

1 1
i j
2 2

20. Ans: a)
1 3
p 1,1,1 and q 1, a, a 2 where a j
2 2

P 1,1,1
1 j 3
q 1, a, a 2 where a
2
p.q 1 a a2
1 j 3 1 j 3
1 0
2 2
The vectors are orthogonal

21. Ans: a)
F .d r curl F . d s
c a

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22. Ans: c)
F 2 xi x2 j
Along x axis, y 0 dy 0
2

F .d r 2 xdx x 2 dy 2 x dx 3
c c l

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