Complex Numbers

Complex
Numbers

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Complex Numbers

CONTENTS
Chapter CHAPTER NAME Page no.
no.
7. Complex Numbers 3
7.1 Imaginary Numbers
7.2 Complex Numbers and Complex Arithmetic
7.2.1 Complex Numbers as Vectors
7.2.2 The Complex Exponential
7.2.3 Complex Numbers: Fundamental Concepts
7.2.4 Geometrical Representation of a Complex Number
7.2.4.1 Geometrical Applications
7.2.4.2 Complex Numbers in Polar Form
7.2.5 DeMoivre's Theorem:
7.2.5.1 DeMoivre's Theorem for Rational Index
7.2.5.2 Application of DeMoivre's Theorem in Trigonometry
7.2.6 Roots of Complex Numbers:
7 .3 Functions, Neighbourhoods and Limits
7.3.1 Logarithmic Functions
Practice Set-1
7.3.2 Analytic function
7.4 The Cauchy-Riemann Equations and Complex Differentiation
7.4.1 Cauchy’s integral theorem
7.5 Taylor’s Expansion
7.6 Analytic continuation
7.7 Maclaurin series
7.8 Laurent Series
7.9 Singularities, Residues and Evaluation of Real Integral
Practice Set-2
SET-20
SET-21
SET-22
Past GATE Questions

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Chapter-7 Introduction to Imaginary and Complex Numbers

7.1 Imaginary Numbers

The square root of a negative number is undefined. Try taking the square root of − 36 on most calculators and
you will get an error message.

Now we are going to introduce a new type of number, the imaginary number. On the real number line the unit is
"1". Just like real numbers, there is a unit of imaginary numbers. That unit is "i" (sometimes "j" is used as well,
most often in engineering disciplines, but we will stick with "i"), and it has the property that

i2 = -1. (1)

We can have more than one unit of imaginary numbers, or fractions of a unit of imaginary numbers. All of the
following are valid imaginary numbers:

a) i b) 2i c) -4i d) 0.01i e) -0.025i f) i

g) 2 2 i

and they all share the same property that they are some multiple of the unit imaginary number, i. Because of the
property that i times itself is − 1 , the following rules follow:

• An imaginary number times a real number is an imaginary number.

• An imaginary number times an imaginary number is a real number.

We can show that this last statement is true by factoring out i when performing multiplication,

3i 2i 3 2 i i 6i2 6. (2)

Similarly, we can write down the powers of i,

i1 i
2
i 1
3
(3)
i i
i4 1

and so forth.

7.2 Complex Numbers and Complex Arithmetic

More interesting (and more useful) than imaginary numbers are complex numbers⎯numbers that are a
combination of real and imaginary elements. These are referred to as the real part and the imaginary part of the
complex number. Complex numbers are formed by adding real and imaginary numbers together, such as 3 + 2i
.

More than two numbers added together are also a complex number, as long as there is at least one each of
imaginary and real types. All of the real elements together are the real part of the complex number, and all of the
imaginary elements together are the imaginary part. Usually we collect these parts together to make it clear which
element belongs to which part,

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Complex Numbers

(4)

The real and imaginary parts of a complex number are separate (they are on separate number lines), and this leads
us to the first important rule of complex arithmetic:

• When adding or subtracting complex numbers, add or subtract the real and imaginary parts separately.

An example of complex addition is

3 4i
2 3i (5)
5 7i

where, again, the real and imaginary components are treated separately.

Multiplication, on the other hand, involves both parts of the complex number. The rule is:

• When multiplying a complex number by a real (or imaginary) number, multiply both the real and the
imaginary parts of the complex number by the real (or imaginary) number.

A similar rule applies to multiplying two complex numbers:

• When multiplying two complex numbers, multiply both the real and imaginary parts of both numbers by
the real and imaginary parts of the other.

This rule is usually easiest to apply using the FOIL (First, Outer, Inner, Last) method. A couple of examples are

3 5 4i 3.5 34i 15 20i (6)

and

3 2i 5 4i 3 5 3 4i 2i 5 2i 4i
15 12i 10i 8 (7)
23 2i

Notice in the last step the real and imaginary parts of the complex result have been collected together.

7.2.1 Complex Numbers as Vectors

Complex number do not lie on the real number line, nor on the imaginary number line, but they have one foot in
each camp. It is traditional to represent complex numbers as 2-dimensional vectors, where the real part is on the
horizontal axis and the imaginary part on the vertical axis. Figure 1 shows this imaginary plane with several
numbers (pure real, pure imaginary, and complex) represented as vectors. Pure real numbers are vectors in the
horizontal direction, either positive or negative. Similarly, pure imaginary numbers are vectors in the vertical
direction, either positive or negative.

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Im

3+4i

+2
Re

-3i

Figure: The complex plane with several numbers represented as vectors.

Like any other vectors, complex numbers have a magnitude and direction. The magnitude of the complex number
A is not the magnitude of its real and imaginary parts added together. Rather, it is

2 2
A Re A Im A (8)

where Re(A) and Im(A) are the real and imaginary parts of A, respectively. For example,

3 4i 32 42 9 16 25 5 (9)

This is really nothing other than the Pythagorean theorem, applied to the complex plane, as Figure 2 illustrates.

Im

3+4i
32 + 42 = 52


Re

Figure: Like any other vector, complex numbers on the complex plane have magnitude and direction.

The direction of a vector (complex number) on the complex plane is defined as the angle  between the vector
and the real (horizontal) axis, as shown in Figure 3. This angle can be determined from the equation

1
Im A
. tan (10)
Re A

7.2.2 The Complex Exponential

There is one set of notations associated with complex numbers that is potentially confusing because it looks very
similar to notation used with real numbers, while meaning something entirely different. This is the complex
exponential. The transcendental number e raised to a (real) power is just another real number, for example

e2 7.389056.... (11)

If we raise e to an imaginary power, however, we have something different entirely. By definition, e raised to the
imaginary power  i is

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. ei cos i sin (12)

This is a surprisingly useful definition. If 0 , this is simply the real number 1. If , this is the pure
imaginary number i. Whatever the value of , the magnitude of e is always 1, as we can see from using the
i

definition from Equation (12) in

Equation (8),

ei cos 2 sin 2 1 1e (13)

i
As a matter of fact, e represents a unit vector that spins around the axis as the angle  increases. If, instead of
a plain angle, we take the angle to be  = t , we have a vector spinning with an angular frequency .
Multiplying this unit vector by a constant A and taking the real part, we have

Re Aei t
Re A cos t iA sin t
(14)
A cos t

which is a sinusoidal waveform. So, is the complex exponential just a mathematical shorthand? Yes and no. It is
another way of expressing an oscillating waveform. The great advantage of this notation is that the amplitude A
in Equation (14) is not restricted to being a real number. Consider two complex exponentials, one with a real
amplitude, one with a complex amplitude:

A 5ei t
B 3 4i ei t
(15)

If t = 0 , then e
i t
= cos(0 ) + i sin (0 ) = 1 , and

A 5 B 3 4i (16)

These are just the same examples we used before, shown again here in Figure 3(a). Both have a magnitude (length)
of 5, but they are oriented differently in the complex plane.
Im Im
a) b)
A = +5i
B = - 4+3i
B = 3+4i

Re Re
A = +5

(a) Two vectors, both with the same magnitude, one with a real amplitude, the other with a complex amplitude, at
time t = 0 .

(b) The same two vectors at time t picked so that t 2.

The two maintain a constant phase difference as they spin around in the complex plane.

Now, if we pick the time t so that t / 2 , then ei t

cos /2 i sin /2 i , and

B 3 4i i
A 5i (17)
4 3i

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If we look at these plotted in the complex plane (Figure 3(b)), then we see that the two vectors have maintained
the same orientation relative to each other, but that both have turned 90. The constant difference between the two
is like a phase angle . If we use a complex amplitude A, then we have two ways of writing a sinusoidal waveform,

Re Ae i t
A cos t (18)

The difference between the left-hand-side and the right-hand-side of Equation (18) is that the left-hand-side has
one fewer variable than the right-hand-side. Remember that it takes N equations to solve for N unknown variables
in a system of equations. This mathematical shorthand has reduced the number of variables in the problem. For
some problems, this makes all the difference in the world in whether the problem can be solved at all or not!

7.2.3 Complex Numbers: Fundamental Concepts

(1) A complex number z is a number of the form a + bi where a, b are real numbers and i2 = -1.

(2) The set C of all complex numbers is defined by C= a bi : a.b R and i 2 1

Where a is called the real part of z and a = Re (z) and

b is called the imaginary part of z and b = Im (Z).

(3) z is said to be purely imaginary if and only if Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) 0.

(4) When Im (z) = 0, the complex number z is real.

N.B. i 3 i2 i 1, i4 i2 i2 1, i5 i 4 i i, i6 i4 i2 1.

Operations On Complex Numbers

Let z1 = a+ bi and z2 = c + di. Then

(1) z1 z2 a c b d i

(2) z1 z2 a c b d i

(3) z1 z2 a bi c di

ac bd ad bc i

z1 a bi c di ac bd bc ad
(4) i , where z2  0 .
z2 c di c di c2 d2 c 2
d2

1 i i
N.B. (i) i;
i i2 1

1 1 c di 1
(ii) z2 .
z2 c di c2 d2 c 2
d2

Some definitions

Suppose that z is a complex number. Let z = a + ib.

The real part of z, written Re(z), is a.

The imaginary part of z, written Im(z), is b.

The complex conjugate of z, written z* or z , is z* = a – ib.

Example 1: Let z = 5 – 2i, w = -2 + i and u = 7i.

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Complex Numbers

Then:

Re(z) = 5 Im(z) = -2 z* = 5 + 2i

Re(w) = -2 Im(w) = 1 w* = -2 – i.

Re(u) = 0 Im(u) = 7 u* = -7i.

7.2.4 Geometrical Representation of a Complex Number

From the definition of complex numbers, a complex number z = a + bi is defined by the two real numbers a and
b . Hence, if we consider the real part a as the x - coordinate in the rectangular coordinates system and the
imaginary part b as the y - coordinate then the complex number z can be represented by the point (a,b) on the
plane. This plane is called the complex plane or the Argand diagram.

On this plane, real numbers are represented by points on x – axis which is called the real axis; imaginary numbers
are represented by points on the y- axis which is called the imaginary axis. The number 0 is represented by the
origin O.

Any point ( a, b) on this plane can be used to represent a complex number z = a + bi.

For example, as shown in Figure, the z1 , z2 , z3 represents respectively the complex numbers.

z1 3, z2 2i, z3 4 3i

The geometric representation of complex numbers is to represent the complex number ( x, y ) as the point ( x, y )

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Complex Numbers

So the real number (x., 0) is the point on the horizontal x-axis, the purely imaginary number yi = (0,y) is on the
vertical y-axis. For the complex number (x,y), x is the real part and y is the imaginary part.

How do we divide complex numbers? Let’s introduce the conjugate of a complex number then go to division.

Given the complex number z = x + iy, define the conjugate z x iy x iy

We can divide by using the following:

z1 x1 iy1 x1 iy1 x2 iy2 x y x2 y1 y2 i x2 y1 x1 y2 z1

2 2
z2 x2 iy2 x2 iy2 x2 iy 2 x 2 y 2 z2

2 + 3i (2 + 3i)(3 + 4i) 6 + 12i 2 + 8i + 9i 6 17

Example 5. = = = − +i
3 − 4i (3 − 4i)(3 + 4i) 9 − 16i 2
25 25

7.2.4.1 Geometrical Applications

Vectors Complex Numbers

ai b j ci dj a bi c di
Addition a c b d i
a c i b d j

ai bj ci dj a bi c di
Subtraction a c b d i
a c i b d j

Scalar multiplication ai b j ai b j, R a bi a bi, R

In the set C of all complex numbers, if z = a + bi is regarded as a vector v = ai + bj ; then as far as the above three
operations are concerned complex numbers behave similar to those of vectors.

Geometric interpretation of the operations on complex numbers

The point X is the sum of A and B.

Choose a point in the plane which will be the origin, 0. Given two points A and B in the plane, their sum is the
point X in the plane such that the triangles with vertices 0, A, B and X, B, A are similar.

The point X is the product of A and B.

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Complex Numbers

Choose in addition a point in the plane different from zero, which will be the unity, 1. Given two points A and B
in the plane, their product is the point X in the plane such that the triangles with vertices 0, 1, A, and 0, B, X are
similar.

The point X is the complex conjugate of A.

Given a point A in the plane, its complex conjugate is a point X in the plane such that the triangles with vertices
0, 1, A and 0, 1, X are mirror image of each other.

7.2.4.2 Complex Numbers in Polar Form

It is possible to express complex numbers in polar form. If the point z = (x,y) = x + iy is represented by polar
coordinates r , , then we can write x r cos , y r sin and z r cos ir sin rei . r is the modulus or
y
absolute value of z , Z r x2 y 2 and  is z 2
the argument of z, arctan . The values of r and 
x
determine z uniquely, but the converse is not true. The modulus r is determined uniquely by z, but  is only
determined up to a multiple of 2. There are infinitely many values of  which satisfy the equations
x r cos , y r sin , but any two of them differ by some multiple of 2. Each of these angles  is called an
argument of z, but, by convention, one of them is called the principal argument.

Definition: If z is a non-zero complex number, then the unique real number , which satisfies

x z cos , y z sin ,

is called the principal argument of z, denoted by arg z .

Note: The distance from the origin to the point (x,y) is |z|, the modulus of z; the argument of z is the angle
y
arctan Geometrically,  is the directed angle measured from the positive x-axis to the line segment from the
x
origin to the point (x,y). When z = 0, the angle  is undefined.

The polar form of a complex number allows one to multiply and divide complex number more easily than in the
i z r1 i 1 2
Cartesian form. For instance, if z1 r1 ei 1 and z2 r2 ei 2 then z1 z2 r1r2 e 1 2 , 1 e .These formulae
z2 r2
follow directly from DeMoivre’s formula.

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y
Example 6. For z = 1 + i, we get r 12 12 2 and arctan arctan1 . The principal value of  is
x 4
9
, but would work also.
4 4

Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

Let z1 r1 cos 1 ir1 sin 1 r1 cos 1 i sin 1 and z2 r2 cos 2 i sin 2 then we have

z1 r1
z1 z2 r1r2 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 and cos 1 2 sin 1 2
z2 r2

Example 7: z1 1 i 2 cos i sin and z2 3 i 2 cos i sin

4 4 6 6

5 5
Then z1 z2 2 cos i sin 2 cos i sin 2 2 cos i sin
4 4 6 6 12 12

10 5
Since
4 6 24 12

And

2 cos i sin
z1 4 4 2
cos i sin
z2 2 12 12
2 cos i sin
6 6

We can use z 2 z z r r cos i sin r 2 cos 2 i sin 2

7.2.5 DeMoivre's Theorem:

zn r n cos n 0sin n

where n is an positive integer.

Let r = 1 to get: cos sin " cos n i sin n .

DeMoivre's Theorem and nth Roots of a Complex Number

For any real number 1 , 2 , cos 1 i sin 1 cos 2 i sin 2 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2
2
In particular, if 1 2 , we have cos i sin = cos 2 i sin 2 .
For any positive integer n, by induction on n , the result may be generalized as

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Complex Numbers

cos i sin " cos n i sin n  ()

and this is known as the DeMoivre's Theorem for integral index.

For any negative integer n , we may let n = - m. Then

m
cos i sin " = cos i sin

1
= m
cos i sin

1
=
cos m i sin m

cos m i sin m
=
cos 2 m sin 2 m

= cos m i sin m

= cos n i sin n

Hence, () also holds for negative integers n .

p
For any rational number n. Put n , where p, q Z and no loss of generality if q is taken as
q

to be positive. Then
q
cos n i sin n = cos nq i sin nq

= cos p i sin p

P
= cos i sin

p
cos n i sin n  = cos i sin q

n
= cos i sin

In general, for any real number , positive number r and rational number n, we have
n
r cos i sin r n cos n i sin n

The nth roots of a complex number w are the n values of z which satisfy the equation z n w.
If we write w cos i sin and assuming that the equation is satisfied by, z cos i sin

then
1
cos i sin n cos i sin  ()
n
cos i sin cos i sin cos n i sin n
By equating the real parts and imaginary parts on both sides, we have
cos cos n sin sin n

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Complex Numbers

2k
n 2k  ()
n

where k Z. .

2k 2n 2
For k 0,1, 2,..., n 1 , since 2
n n n n n

We obtain the n distinct complex roots for () with the values of  obtained in () .
For k 0 or k n 1 , the root obtained is equal to one of the roots mentioned above. Hence, the

equation

() has only n distinct complex roots.

7.2.5.1 DeMoivre's Theorem for Rational Index

Let n be a positive integer and be a real number. Then

1
2k 2k
cos i sin n cos i sin , where k 0,1, 2,..., n 1
n n

Using the DeMoivre's Theorem, we will have the following properties.

(i) zm zn zm n

zm
(ii) zm n

zn

(iii) z0 1

n
(iv) zm z mn

7.2.5.2 Application of DeMoivre's Theorem in Trigonometry

Direct application of DeMoivre's Theorem and the binomial theorem, we are able to express

(i) multiple angles such as sin n and cos n in terms of sin and cos , and

(ii) powers of sin and cos back again into multiple angles.

6
Example 8: Compute 1 i

6
6
1 i 2 cos i sin
4 4
6
2 cos 6. i sin 6.
4 4
3 3
8 cos i sin
2 2
8i

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7.2.6 Roots of Complex Numbers:

Consider z r cos i sin wn R n cos n i sin n (Equation 1)

n
where w R cos i sin . Then R r , and so n or .
n

2
However n 2 also satisfies Equation 1 and so . And
n n

4 6
n 4 implies . However n 6 implies .
n n n n

k
And continuing n k implies . for k any integer up to n.
n n

n n k2 k2
We get z x cos i sin , k=0, 1, 2, 3, , (n-1).
n n

The nth roots of a Complex Number

1
2k 2k
If wn z r cos i sin wn , then w r n cos i sin , .k = 0,1,2,…n-1
n n

nth of Unity

Theorem: nth of Unity of Their Properties

Let n be a positive integer. Then the equation zn = 1has n distinct roots given by
2k 2kn
zk cos i sin k 0,1, 2...,, n 1
n n

These roots are called the nth roots of unity. If we denote one of them by 1 , then we have

n
1

2 n 1
1 .... 0

Example 9: Find the square roots of i. Since i cos i sin , we let

2 2
1 1 1 1
w1 1 cos . i sin . cos i sin i is one square root of i . The second square root
2 2 2 2 4 4 2 2
of i is :
5 1 1
w1 1 cos i sin cos i .
4 4 4 2 2

Example 10. Find the sixth root of −1.

There will be six roots:

6 3 1
z1 1 cos i sin i
6 6 2 2

6 2 2
z2 1 cos i sin i
6 6 6 6

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6 4 4 3 1
z3 1 cos i sin i
6 6 6 6 2 2

6 6 6 3 1
z4 1 cos i sin i
6 6 6 6 2 2

6 8 8
z5 1 cos i sin i
6 6 6 6

6 10 10 3 1
z6 1 cos i sin i
6 6 6 6 2 2

4
Example 11: Compute 4i

4 3 3
Solution: 4i 4 4 cos i sin 2 cos i sin
2 2

3 k 2 3 7 11 15
Where . So , , ,
2.4 8 8 8 8

4 3 3
4i 2 cos i sin 2 0.3827 0.9239i
8 8
7 7
2 cos i sin 2 0.9239 0.3827i
8 8

11 11
2 cos i sin 2 0.3827 0.9239i
8 8

15 15
2 cos i sin 2 0.9239 0.3827i
8 8

7.3 Functions, Neighborhoods and Limits

We consider the concept of a function of a complex number. For y = f (x) = x2 , where x and y are real numbers,
we know about limits, continuity and derivatives. Let the complex number w = f (z) = z2, where z = x + iy and
2
w x iy x2 y2 2 xyi . Here x and y are independent variables and w = u +iv where u = x2+y2 and v =
2xy. This is an example of a complex valued function, w, of a complex variable z. In general, let

w = u + iv where u = u (x,y) and v = v (x,y)

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Distance in the complex plane.

In the complex plane let z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 then

2 2
z1 z2 x1 x2 y1 y2

is the distance between the complex numbers z1 and z2 Note that z x2 y 2 is the distance from the origin
to z.

Definition: A neighborhood N z0 , r of the point z0 in the complex plane is the set of points z where r 0 and
z z z0 r

Definition: A function w = f (z) is said to have a limit L as z approaches z 0 (and written lim f z L ) iff f
z z0

(z) is defined in a neighborhood N (z0,r), r > 0 except at z0 and the values of f are close to L for all z close to z0.
Mathematically: for every 0 , we can find 0 such that for all z z0 in the neighborhood N z0 , r , so
that if 0 | z z0 | , then f z L .

Notice that this definition of a limit is similar to the definition in calculus. The difference here is that z can
approach z0 from any direction in the complex plane.

Definition: A function w f z is continuous at z = z0 if f (z0) is defined and lim f z L.

z z0

By definition a complex function that is continuous at z 0 is defined in a neighborhood of z0. F (z) is continuous
in a domain D if it is continuous at each point in the domain D.

The derivative of a function f (z) at a point z is defined as:

f z h f z
f' z lim
h 0 h

provided that limit exists.

Example 12: Let f ( z ) = z . To compute

2
f '( z ) we consider
( z + h) − z 2
z + 2 zh + h − z 2
2 2
2 zh + h 2 2
lim = lim = lim = lim(2 z + h) = 2 z
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

The rules for derivatives are the same for calculus:

cf ' cf ' c=constant

f g ' f ' g'

fg ' f 'g fg '

f f ' g fg '
'
g g2

Definition: A function f(z) is defined to be analytic in the domain D if f (z)is defined and has a derivative at all
points of D.

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The Exponential Function ez

The definition of the exponential function e z ex iy

e x eiy is given in terms of the real functions ex, sin y, and
cos y

ez ex iy
e x eiy e x cos y i sin y

x2 x3 xn
To show why this is true, consider the power series expansion: e x 1 x ... ...
2! 3! n!

and substitute iy for x, to get:

2 3 n n
iy
iy iy iy y2 iy 3 iy
e 1 iy ... ... 1 iy ... ...
2! 3! n! 2! 3! n!

y2 y4 y6 y3 y5 y7
eiy 1 ... i y ... cos y i sin y .
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!

The formula e z ex iy
e x cos y i sin y is known as Euler’s formula.

Theorem: ez is never zero.

Proof: e z e z
e0 1 , therefore, e z cannot be zero.

Theorem: If y is real, then eiy 1.

2
Proof: eiy cos 2 y sin 2 y 1 and eiy 0 , which implies eiy 1.

Theorem: e z 1 if and only if z 2n i , where n is an integer.

Proof: If z 2n i , e z cos 2 n i sin 2n 1 Conversely, suppose e z 1 , then e x cos y 1, e x sin y 0.

x x
Since e 0 , this implies sin y = 0; and y k where k is an integer. Substituting this into e cos y 1 implies
k
ex 1 1 . Hence k is even, since e x 0 . Therefore, e x 1 and x 0.

Theorem: e z1 e z2 if and only if z1 z2 2n i , where n is an integer.

Proof: e z1 e z2 if and only if e z1 z2

1 . Then use the previous theorem.

Definition of sin z and cos z

To get the definitions of sin z and cos z we substitute -y for y in Euler’s Formula to get:

iy y2 y4 y6 y3 y5 y7
e 1 ... i y ... cos y i sin y.
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!

Adding e iy and e iy
together and dividing by 2, we get:

eiy e iy
cos y
2

iy eiy e iy
Subtracting e from e iy , and dividing by 2i, we get: sin y .
2i

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eiz e iz
eiz e iz
We now define sin z and cos z .
2i 2

eiy e iy
e x
ex
Substitute ix for y in cos y to get cos ix cos h x .
2 2

Similarly we get sin (ix) = I sin h x.

Facts:

1. For z x 0i , to get e z ex i0
ex

2. The derivative of ez is ez.

3. e z1 z2
e z1 e z2

4. For z = iy we get eiy cos y i sin y .

5. In polar form z x iy r cos i sin rei .

6. It now follows that e z 2 i

e z e2 i
e z .1 e z

i
7. e 1

ez e z
ez e z
8. cos h z sin h z
2 2

9. sin 2 z cos 2 z 1 sin z sin z cos z cos z

7.3.1 Logarithmic Functions

If z e w then we write w ln z , called the natural logarithm of z. Thus the natural logarithm function is the
inverse of the exponential function and can be defined by

w ln z ln r i 2 k where k 0, 1, 2, 3,...

where z rei rei 2 i

.

So we have that w = ln z is multiple-valued, and in fact is infinitely many-valued. If we let k = 0 then

w ln z ln r i 2 k ln r i , where 0 2 called the principal value or principal branch of ln z .

To find the values of ln (1-i), let z e w , where z rei r cos i sin and so

w u iv which implies z eu iv
eu cos v i sin v .

We equate the real and imaginary parts:

1 eu cos v r cos 2 eu cos v r sin

Squaring (1) and (2) and adding, we find e 2u r 2 or eu r Thus, from (1) and (2),

r cos v r cos r sin v r sin and so v 2k

Hence we have w u iv ln r i 2k

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Complex Numbers

Example 13: Compute ln(1 − i ).

7 i
+ 2 k i
Since 1 − i = 2e 1 − i = 2e 4
, we have

 7 i  1 7 i
ln(1 − i) = ln 2 +  + 2k i  = ln 2 + + 2k  i
 4  2 4

1 7 i
The principle value is ln 2 + (let k = 0 ).
2 4

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Complex Numbers

Practice Set

1. Write the following equations in a + jb form:-

2
i) x + 4 = 0
2
ii) x + x + 1 = 0
2
iii) x + 6x + 11 = 0
3
iv) x – 1 = 0

2. For the complex numbers z = 3 – j and w = 1 + 2j evaluate

i) 2z – 3w
ii) zw
iii) z w –z
2 2
z
iv)
w

3. Plot the following complex numbers on the Argand plane and put them into polar form.
i) 1
ii) j
iii) – 3j
iv) 1 – j
v) 2 + j
vi) – 3 – 2j
viii) – 3 + 2j

4. Find the modulus of e j

–1
5. Show that ( e j ) = e j

e jq e jq
6. Show that cos  =
2
e jq e jq
And sin  =
2j

7. By conversion to polar form and use of De Moivres' theorem evaluate

7
i) j
5
ii) (1 + j)
–4
iii) ( 3 – j)

8. Find in a + jb form and plot on Argand diagram:-

1
i) The three values of j /3
1
ii) The four values of (1 + j) /4

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Complex Numbers

9. Solve the following equations, writing the answer in z = a + jb form

2 2
i) z + 25 = 0 ii) z + 4z + 5 = 0
4 2 3
iii) z – 3z – 4 = 0 iv) z + z – 2 = 0
3 2
v) z + 1 = 0 vi) z + 2jz + 1 = 0
Using egs (i) – (v) verify the result that the equations with real coefficients have real roots and/or complex
roots occurring in conjugate pairs.

10. Find the real and imaginary parts of:

i) (1 – j) (1 + j)
ii) (3 – 4j) (1 + j)
2
iii) (4 + 3j)
3
iv) (4 + 3j)

2j 1 j
11. Simplify the complex number + . Find the modulus and argument of the result.
3 j 1j

12. State by inspection only (no arithmetic is necessary) whether each of the following numbers is purely
real, purely imaginary or complex.
4 j 4j
i) –
52 j 5 2j
j j
ii) –
5 4j 54 j

iii) 1 + 2j 3 1 – 2j 4

2 – 3j 2 + 3j

13. Simplify i) (1 + j 3 )6 + (1 – j 3 )6 and ii) ( 3 – j)15 by using De Moivre's theorem.

3 4
cos 3 j sin 3 cos 2 j sin 2
14. Simplify 5 4
cos 7 j sin 7 cos 5 j sin 5

15. Determine all the roots in each case

i)Square roots of 1 + 3 j
ii) Fourth roots of 1 – j
iii) Fourth roots of 3+j

16. a) Express in the form a + ib,

(i) (3 + i)2 (ii) (2 + 4i)(3 + i).
b) The quadratic equation z − (2 + 4i ) z + 8i − 6 = 0 has roots z1 and z 2 .
2

i)Verify that z1 = 3 + i is a root of the equation.

ii)By considering the coefficients of the quadratic, write down the sum of the roots;
iii) Explain why z1*, the complex conjugate of z1, is not a root of the quadratic;
iv)Find the other root, z2, in the form a + ib.

17. Find the square roots of 9 – 12i.

18. Find the modulus and argument of these complex numbers:

i) 2 + 7i
ii) 5 – 2i
iii) -4 + 3i

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Complex Numbers

19. The complex number 2 + 5i is one root of the equation x 2 + px + q = 0 , where p and q are real.
i) Write down the second root of this equation.
ii) Find the values of p and q.

20. (i) Show that z1 = 2 + i is one of the roots of the equation z² – 4z + 5 = 0.Find the other root, z2.

1 1 4
(ii) Show that .
z1 z2 5
(iii) Show also that Im (z1² + z2²) = 0 and find Re (z1² – z2²).

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Complex Numbers

Solutions: Practice questions

2
1. i) x + 4 = 0

We have

2
x = – 4 or x = ± – 4 = ±2 – 1 = ±2j

2
ii) x + x + 1 = 0

Using the formula for the solution of a quadratic we have

1 3 1 3 1 1 3
x= = =– ± j
2 2 2 2

2
iii) x + 6x + 11 = 0

6 3644 – 6 ± 2 2 – 1
x= = =–3± 2 j
2 2

3
iv) x – 1 = 0

Here we first factorize the cubic to give

3 2
x – 1 = (x – 1)(x + x + 1) = 0

This gives solutions, from ii)

1 3
x = 1, – ± j
2 2

2. i) 2z – 3w = 2(3 – j) – 3(1 + 2j) = 6 – 2j – 3 – 6j = 3 – 8j

2
ii) zw = (3 – j)(1 + 2j) = 3 – j + 6j – 2 j = 3 + 5j – 2(– 1) = 5 + 5j

2
on remembering that j = – 1

iii) Don't be so hasty with z w –z – look before you leap and notice that
2 2

z w –z = w(z –z ) = (1 + 2j) 3 + (– 1)
( ) = 10(1 + 2j) = 10 + 20j
2 2 2 2 2

z 3–j (3 – j)(1 – 2j) 3 – 2 –j – 6j 1 – 7j

iv) = = = =
w 1 + 2j (1 + 2j)(1 – 2j) 5 5

on multiplying top and bottom by the conjugate of 1 + 2j

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Complex Numbers

3. Solution

2 2
i) 1 has modulus r = 1 + 0 = 1 and as it lies on the positive real axis the principal value of its
argument is 0 radians, and so

1 = 1 (0)


ii) |j| = 1 and j lies on the imaginary axis so its argument is  = . So
2


j = 1 
2 

iii) |– 3j| = 3 and the PV of the argument is  = – , so
2


–3 j = 3 –
 2
iv) |1 – j| = 2 so

1 – j = 2
1 1 
– j
 2 2 

 
= 2 cos 
  4  – j sin 4
  
= 2 cos  –
  4  + j sin –4

= 2  – 
 4
So


1–j= 2  – 
 4

5
2 1  1
v) 2 + j = + j = 5 (  ) where tan  =
 5 5  2

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Complex Numbers

vi) – 3 – 2j = 13–
2 
13 (  ) where tan  = π + tan  
3 –1 2
– j =
 13 13  3
Here the complex number is in the third quadrant and we have chosen the angle in the range 0, 2π.

viii) – 3 + 2j = 13–
2 
j = 13 (  ) where tan  = π – tan  
3 –1 2
+
 13 13  3

j 2 2
4. |e  |  |cos  + j sin  | = cos q + sin q = 1 = 1

j –1 –1 1
5. (e  ) = (cos  + j sin  ) =
cos q + j sin q

cos q – j sin q –j
= = cos  – j sin  = cos (–  ) + j sin (–  ) = e 
2 2
cos q + sin q

6. We have

e  = cos  + j sin 
j

–j
e  = cos  – j sin 

Adding these identities gives

jq –jq
–j e +e
2 cos  = e  + e  so cos  =
j
2

Subtracting the results gives

jq –jq
–j e –e
2 j sin  = e  – e  so sin  =
j
2j

 7
i) j =   =   =   = – j
7 7 3
7.
 2 2 2
 5
= ( 2)   = 4 2  
1  5
ii) (1 + j) =  2 +
5 1 5 5
j
  2 2    4   4

=–4 2
1 1 
+ j = – 4(1 + j)
 2 2 

iii) First, we have 3 –j=2

 3 – 1 j = 2 cos  – j sin  = 2–
2 2   6   6  6
So

 –4 –4 2 – 4 1 3 
= 2–
–4
( 3 – j)
  6 = 2  3  = 2 – 2 + 2 j
1 1
1/3  p 3  p 3
= 
8. i) j
 2  = 2 + 2kp

=  +
p 2kp
6 3  for k = 0, 1, 2
k = 0 gives

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Complex Numbers

=   = cos   + j sin   =
p p p 3 1
+ j
6 6 6 2 2

k = 1 gives

= 
5p 5p 5p 3 1
 6  = cos  6  + j sin  6  = – 2 + 2 j
k = 2 gives

= 
3p
2 =–j

1
=  2 +
1/4 1 1 4
ii) (1 + j) j
  2 2 

1 1 1 1
8
=2   p4 8   p  4
 4 = 2 4 + 2kp
1
= 28  +  for k = 0, 1, 2, 3
p kp
16 2 
k = 0 gives

1
= 2 8   = 2
p 1/8  p p
16 cos 16 + j sin 16 

k = 1 gives

1 1
8
= 2   p p 8 9p
16 + 2 = 2 16
1/8  9p 9p 
=2
cos 16 + j sin 16 
k = 2 gives

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Complex Numbers

1 1
8
2   p  8 17p
16 + p = 2  16 
1/8  17p 17p 
= 2
cos  16  + j sin  16  
k = 3 gives

1 1
8
2   p 3p 8 25p
16 + 2  = 2  16 
1/8  25p 25p 
= 2
cos  16  + j sin  16  

2 2
9. i) z + 25 = 0 gives z = – 25 so

2
z = ± – 25 = ± – 5 = ± 5 – 1 = ± 5j

2
ii) z + 4z + 5 = 0 gives, using the quadratic formula,

2
–4 ± 4 – 4¥5 –4 ± 16 – 20
z= =
2 2

–4 ± – 4 –4 ± 2j
= =–2 j
2 2

4 2 2
iii) z – 3z – 4 = 0 is really a quadratic equation in disguise, because if we put u = z then we get

4 2 2
z – 3z – 4 = u – 3u – 4 = (u + 1)(u – 4) = 0

2 2
So u = –1 or z = – 1 and hence z = ± j or u = 4 = z so z = ± 2

3
iv) To solve z + z – 2 = 0 we first factorize it. By the factor theorem, the fact that z = 1 is (by
trial) a root tells us that z – 1 is a factor, so we can write

3 2
z + z – 2 = (z – 1)(z + az + b)

Equating coefficients gives b = 2 and – a + b = 1, so a = 1 and hence

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Complex Numbers

3 2
z + z – 2 = (z – 1)(z + z + 2) = 0

2
Thus, z = 1 or z + z + 2 = 0 i.e.

–1 ± 1 – 8 –1 ± 7j
z= =
2 2

v) Using the factorization of a sum of cubes we have

3 2
z + 1 = (z + 1)(z – z + 1) = 0

and so

1± 1–4 –1 ± 3j
z = – 1 or z = =
2 2

2
vi) Even though the equation z + 2jz + 1 = 0 has complex coefficients we can still use the usual
quadratic formula to obtain the solution:

2
–2j ± (2j) – 4 –2j ± – 8
z= =
2 2

–2j ± 2 2 j
= (–1 ± 2 )j
2

The roots of all equations i) to v) are either real or occur in conjugate pairs – for example – 2 + j and –2
– j. The roots of vi) are not conjugate pairs because the coefficients of the equation are not all real.

2
10. i) (1 – j) (1 + j) = 1 – j = 1 – (– 1) = 2

So real part = 2, imaginary part = 0

2
ii) (3 – 4j) (1 + j) = 3 + 3j – 4j – 4j = 3 – j + 4 = 7 – j

So real part = 7, imaginary part = –1

2 2 2
iii) (4 + 3j) = 4 + 24j +( 3j) = 16 + 24j – 9 = 7 + 24j

So real part = 7, imaginary part = 24

iv) By the binomial theorem

3 3 2 2 3
(4 + 3j) = 4 + 3. 4 . 3j + 3.4. (3j) + (3j)

= 64 + 6 . 16j – 4. 27 – 27j = –44 + 69j

So real part = – 44, imaginary part = 69

2–j 1 + j (2 – j)(1 – j) + (1 + j)(3 + j)

11. z= + =
3+j 1–j (3 + j)(1 – j)

2 – 3j – 1 + 3 + 4j – 1 3+j 3 + j 4 + 2j 12 – 2 + 10j
= = = =
3 – 2j + 1 4 – 2j 4 – 2j 4 + 2j 16 + 4

10 + 10j 1 1
= = + j
20 2 2

For the modulus we have

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Complex Numbers

|z| = 12 + 12 = 1

=
1
2 2 2 2

p
The argument is seen to be from the figure.
4

4+j 4–j
12. i) If z = – then we have
5 – 2j 5 + 2j

–z = 4 – j – 4 + j = –  4 + j – 4 – j  = – z
5 + 2j 5 – 2j  5 – 2j 5 + 2j
So z is pure imaginary.

j j
ii) If z = – then
5 + 4j 5 – 4j

–z = –j –j j j
– = – =z
5 – 4j 5 + 4j 5 + 4j 5 – 4j

So z is real.

1 + 2j 3  1 – 2j 4
iii) If z = 
2 – 3j 2 + 3j then

–z = 1 – 2j 3 1 + 2j 4
2 + 3j 2 – 3j
This has no simple relation to z and is certainly not equal to ± z, so in this case z is neither real nor pure
imaginary.

13. i) First put 1 + j 3 and 1 – j 3 into polar form:

1+j 3 =2
1 + 3 j = 2 
2 2   3
and similarly:

1–j 3 =2
1 – 3 j = 2 – 
2 2   3
So

6 6  6    6
= 2 
(1 + j 3) + (1 – j 3)
 3 + 2 – 3

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Complex Numbers

6 6 6 6 7
= 2 (2) + 2 (– 2) = 2 + 2 = 2

ii) First put 3 – j into polar form:

3 –j=2
 3 – 1 j = 2 cos – j sin 
2 2    6  6
    
= 2 cos–
  6 + j sin – 6 = 2 – 6
So

 15
= 2 –
15 15
= 2 –
15
( 3 – j)
  6   6 

–
15 5 15   5  5
= 2
 2  = 2  cos– 2  + j sin – 2 
15  5 15
=2
– j sin  2  = – 2 j
3 4
cos 3 j sin 3 cos 2 j sin 2
14. 5 4
cos 7 j sin 7 cos 5 j sin 5

cos 9 j sin 9 cos8 j sin 8

cos 35 j sin 35 cos 20 j sin 20

cos17 j sin17
cos 55 j sin 55

= cos (– 38  ) + jsin (– 38  )

= cos (38  ) – jsin (38  )

 1/2 1/2 

= 2  1/2
1/2
15. i) (1 + 3 j)
 3 = 2 3 + 2k

= 2  + k for k = 0, 1
6 
For k = 0 we get

   
= 2  
6 = 2 cos 6 + jsin  6

= 2
 3 + 1 j
2 2 
For k = 1 we get

2 
7
2 cos 
7 7
=
6 =   6  + j sin 6 

= 2 –
 3 – 1 j
 2 2 
We can summarise the two answers as:

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Complex Numbers

± 2
 3 + 1 j
2 2 
 1/4 1/8  
=  2 –  1/4
1/4
ii) (1 – j)
  4 = 2 – 4 + 2k
1/8
= 2  for k = 0, 1, 2, 3

For k = 0 we get

    
–
1/8 1/8
= 2
 16 = 2  cos 16 – j sin16
For k = 1 we get


1/8 7 1/8  7 7
= 2
16 = 2  cos 16 + j sin16
For k = 2 we get


1/8 15 1/8  15 15
= 2
 16  = 2  cos  16  + j sin 16 
For k = 3 we get


23 1/8  23
+ j sin
1/8 23
= 2 = 2 cos
 
16   16  16 
1/8   9  9
=2
cos – 16 + j sin – 16
1/8
=2

 1/4 1/4 

= 2  1/4
1/4
iii) ( 3 + j)
 6 = 2 6 + 2k
 k

1/4
= 2
24 + 2  for k = 0, 1, 2, 3
For k = 0 we get

  
  = 2  cos   + j sin 
1/4 1/4
= 2
24  24 24
For k = 1 we get


1/4 13 1/4  13 13
= 2
 24  = 2  cos  24  j sin 24 
For k = 2 we get


1/4 25 1/4  23 1/4   23  23
= 2
 24  = 2 – 24  = 2  cos – 24  + j sin– 24 
1/4  23 23
=2
 cos  24  – j sin  24 
For k = 3 we get


1/4 37 1/4  11
= 2
 24  = 2 – 24 

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1/4   11  11

= 2
cos – 24  + j sin– 24 
1/4 
cos 
11 11
=2
  24  –  24 
16. a)

(i) (3 + i)2 = (3 + i)(3 + i) = 9 + 3i + 3i + i2

= 9 + 6i – 1 = 8 + 6i Remember: i2 = -1

(ii) (2 + 4i)(3 + i) = 6 + 2i + 12i + 4i2

= 6 + 14i – 4 = 2 + 14i

b) (i)We substitute z = 3 + i into the expression z 2 − (2 + 4i ) z + 8i − 6 to check that it

gives an answer of 0.

(3 + i)2 – (2 + 4i)(3 + i) + 8i - 6

= 8 + 6i – (2 + 14i) + 8i – 6 (using the results from (a))

= 8 + 6i – 2 – 14i + 8i – 6

= 0 + 0i = 0 (as required)

(ii) In a quadratic equation, the sum of roots is given by the expression –b/a.

So here the sum of the roots is (2 + 4i) (since b = -(2 + 4i) and a = 1)

(iii) In a quadratic equation with real coefficients, any complex roots form a conjugate pair.
However, this quadratic does not have real coefficients so the roots are not complex conjugates of each
other.

(iv) From (ii), z1 + z2 = 2 + 4i

So 3 + i + z2 = 2 + 4i

i.e. z2 = 2 + 4i – (3 + i) = -1 + 3i.

17. Let a + bi be a square root of 9 – 12i, where a and b are real numbers.

Then (a + bi)2 = 9 – 12i.

So:

(a + bi) (a + bi) = 9 – 12i

i.e. a2 + abi + abi + b2i2 = 9 – 12i

i.e. a2 – b2 + 2abi = 9 – 12i.

Comparing real and imaginary parts, we get two equations:

a2 – b 2 = 9 

and ab = -6 

6
From equation (2), we get. b
a

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2
6
Substituting this into (1) gives: a 2 9
a

36
i.e. a2 9
a2

i.e. a4 36 9a 2

or a4 – 9a2 – 36 = 0

This is a quadratic equation in a2. It can be factorised:

(a2 – 12) (a2 + 3) = 0

So a2 = 12 or a2 = -3.

As a is real, we must have a 12 2 3.

6 6
If a 2 3, then b 3.
a 2 3

6 6
If a a 2 3, then b 3.
a 2 3

Therefore the square roots of 9 – 12i are 2 3 3i and 2 3 i.

Note: All questions about finding the square root of a complex number can be solved using the same
method.

18. It helps to sketch an Argand diagram in each case:

a) | 2 + 7i | = 22 72 53

arg(2 + 7i) is angle θ in the diagram:

7
tan
2

i.e. θ = 1.29 radians

2
b) | 5 - 2i | = 52 2 29
arg(5 - 2i) is shown by angle θ in the diagram.
2
tan  =   = 0.381
5
i.e. θ = -0.381 radians (it is negative as the number is below the axis).

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2
c) | - 4 + 3i | = 4 32 5

arg(-4 + 3i) is the angle shown on the diagram.

To find it, it is easiest to first find angle :

tan( ) = 3
4
  = 0.644

Therefore, arg(-4 + 3i) = π – 0.644 = 2.50 radians.

19. a) As the quadratic equation has real coefficients, the second root must be the complex conjugate of
the first, i.e. 2 – 5i.

b) We know that the sum of the roots is given by –b/a = -p.

But the sum of the roots is (2 + 5i) + (2 – 5i) = 4.

Therefore –p = 4 i.e. p = -4.

The product of the roots is c/a = q.

But the product of the roots is (2 + 5i)(2 – 5i) = 4 – 10i + 10i + 25 = 29.

So q = 29.
2
20. (i) z12 4x 5 2 i 4 2 i 5
4 4i 1 8 4i 5
0

The other root, z2 z1 * 2 i

1 1 1 1
(ii)
z1 z2 2 i 2 i
2 i 2 i
2 i 2 i
4
4 1
4
5

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2 2
(iii) z12 z22 2 i 2 i
4 4i 1 4 4i 1
6
lm z12 z22 0
2 2
z12 z22 2 i 2 i
4 4i 1 4 4i 1
8i
2 2
Re z 1 z 2 0

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7.3.2 Analytic function

In mathematics, an analytic function is a function that is locally given by a convergent power series. Analytic
functions can be thought of as a bridge between polynomials and general functions. There exist both real analytic
functions and complex analytic functions, categories that are similar in some ways, but different in others.
Functions of each type are infinitely differentiable, but complex analytic functions exhibit properties that do not
hold generally for real analytic functions. A function is analytic if it is equal to its Taylor series in some
neighborhood.

Formally, a function f is real analytic on an open set D in the real line if for any x0 in D one can write

n 2 3
f x an x x0 a0 a1 x x0 a2 x x0 a3 x x0 ...
n 0

in which the coefficients a0, a1, ... are real numbers and the series is convergent for x in a neighborhood of x0.

Alternatively, an analytic function is an infinitely differentiable function such that the Taylor series at any point
x0 in its domain
n
f x0 n
T x x x0
n 0 n!

is convergent for x close enough to x0 and its value equals f(x).

The definition of a complex analytic function is obtained by replacing everywhere above "real" with "complex",
and "real line" with "complex plane".

Most special functions are analytic (at least in some range of the complex plane). Typical examples of analytic
functions are:

• Any polynomial (real or complex) is an analytic function. This is because if a polynomial has degree n,
any terms of degree larger than n in its Taylor series expansion will vanish, and so this series will be
trivially convergent.
• The exponential function is analytic. Any Taylor series for this function converges not only for x close
enough to x0 (as in the definition) but for all values of x (real or complex).
• The trigonometric functions, logarithm, and the power functions are analytic on any open set of their
domain.
• The absolute value function when defined on the set of real numbers or complex numbers is not analytic
because it is not differentiable at 0. Piecewise defined functions (functions given by different formulas
in different regions) are in general not analytic.
• The complex conjugate function, z z is not complex analytic, although its restriction to the real line
is real analytic.

Properties of analytic functions

• The sums, products, and compositions of analytic functions are analytic.

• The reciprocal of an analytic function that is nowhere zero is analytic, as is the inverse of an invertible
analytic function whose derivative is nowhere zero. (See also the Lagrange inversion theorem.)

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Analyticity and differentiability

As noted above, any analytic function (real or complex) is infinitely differentiable (also known as smooth, or C∞).
(Note that this differentiability is in the sense of real variables; compare complex derivatives below.) There exist
smooth real functions which are not analytic: see the following example. In fact there are many such functions,
and the space of real analytic functions is a proper subspace of the space of smooth functions.

The situation is quite different when one considers complex analytic functions and complex derivatives. It can be
proved that any complex function differentiable (in the complex sense) in an open set is analytic. Consequently,
in complex analysis, the term analytic function is synonymous with holomorphic function.

• Any analytic function is smooth, that is, infinitely differentiable. The converse is not true; in fact, in a
certain sense, the analytic functions are rather sparse compared to the infinitely differentiable functions.
• For any open set Ω ⊆ C, the set A(Ω) of all bounded, analytic functions u : Ω → C is a Banach space
with respect to the supremum norm. The fact that uniform limits of analytic functions are analytic is an
easy consequence of Morera's theorem.

A polynomial cannot be zero at too many points unless it is the zero polynomial (more precisely, the number of
zeros is at most the degree of the polynomial). A similar but weaker statement holds for analytic functions. If the
set of zeros of an analytic function f has an accumulation point inside its domain, then f is zero everywhere on the
connected component containing the accumulation point.

7.4 The Cauchy-Riemann Equations and Complex Differentiation

Suppose that we consider f(z) = z2 and substitute into this z = x+iy. We can therefore write this function again in
the following way:

f(z) = z2 = F(x,y) = (x+iy)2= (x2– y2) + i2xy = u(x,y) + iv(x,y)

where u(x,y) = (x2– y2) and where v(x,y) = 2xy. Now since z = x+iy, we know that

z z z z
x and y
2 2i

x 1 y 1
from which it follows that and . Now consider the complex derivative f ’(z).
z 2 z 2i

F x F y 1 1
f '( z ) (2 x 2 yi)( ) ( 2y 2 xi)( )
x z y z 2 2i

This of course reduces to f '( z ) 2 z and the result agrees with the derivative computed in the previous section
using limits.

Now suppose that F(x,y) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y) is any differentiable complex function. What must be true about the
functions u and v ? This is the subject of the Cauchy - Riemann equations.

First, suppose that z changes by x changing alone. Then, assume that z changes by y changing alone. This would
give us two expressions for the derivative of

f(z) = F(x,y).

The first (holding y constant) can be written as

F x u x v x 1 u v
f '( z ) | y cons tan t i { i }
x z x z x z 2 x x

while the second (holding x constant) can be written as

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F y u y v y 1 u v
f '( z ) |x cons tan t i { i }
y z y z y z 2 y y

Now, the derivative of f(z) cannot depend on which way that z is changing (either by x changing alone or
alternatively by y changing alone ) and so the two expressions for f '( z ) must be equal if the derivative exists.
This implies that

u v u v
and that
x y y x

These two equalities are known as the Cauchy-Riemann Equations or Cauchy-Riemann conditions. These
Cauchy-Riemann conditions are necessary for the existence of a derivative, that is, if f (x ) exists, the C-R
conditions must hold.

Conversely, if the C-R conditions are satisfied and the partial derivatives of u(x,y) and v(x,y) are continuous,
f (z ) exists.
7.4.1 Cauchy’s integral theorem

If a function f(z) is analytical (therefore single-valued) [and its partial derivatives are continuous] through some
simply connected region R, for every closed path C (Fig. 1) in R,

f z dz 0
c

Fig. 1

Stokes’s theorem proof

Proof: (under relatively restrictive condition: the partial derivative of u, v are continuous, which are actually not
required but usually satisfied in physical problems)

f z dz udx vdy i vdx udy

c c c

These two line integrals can be converted to surface integrals by Stokes’s theorem A dl A ds .
c s

Using A Ax x Ay y and ds dxdyz ,

We have

Ax dx Ay dy A dl A ds
c c s

Ay Ax
dxdy
x y

If we let u = Ax, and v = -Ay, then

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v u
udx vdy dxdy
c
x y

v u
=0 [since C-R conditions ]
x y

Setting u = Ay and v = Ax, we have

u v
vdx udy dxdy 0
x y

 f z dz 0
The consequence of the theorem is that for analytic functions the line integral is a function only of its end points,
independent of the path of integration,
z2 z1

f z dz F z2 F z1 f z dz
z1 z2

Multiply connected regions

The original statement of our theorem demanded a simply connected region. This restriction may easily be relaxed
by the creation of a barrier, a contour line. Consider the multiply connected region of Fig.2 In which f(z) is not
defined for the interior R

Fig. 2
Cauchy’s integral theorem is not valid for the contour C, but we can construct a C for which the theorem holds.
If line segments DE and GA arbitrarily close together, then
A E

f z dz f z dz
G D

Fig. 3
Now let ABD→C1 and EFG→-C2, we obtain

f z dz f z dz
C ABD DE GA EFG
ABDEFGA

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f z dz 0
ABD EFG

f z dz f z dz
C1 C2

Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If f(z) is analytic on and within a closed contour C then

f z dz
2 if z0
C
z z0

In which z0 is some point in the interior region bounded by C. Note that here z-z00 and the integral is well
defined.

Although f(z) is assumed analytic, the integrand (f(z)/z-z0) is not analytic at z=z0 unless f(z0)=0. If the contour is
deformed as in Fig.4 Cauchy’s integral theorem applies.

So we have

f z dz f z
dz 0
C
z z0 C2
z z0

Fig. 4

Let z − z 0 = re i , here r is small and will eventually be made to approach zero

f z dz f z0 rei
 dz riei d
C2
z z0 C2
rei

(r→0) if z0 d 2 if z0
C2

Here is a remarkable result. The value of an analytic function is given at an interior point at z=z 0 once the values
on the boundary C are specified.

What happens if z0 is exterior to C?

In this case the entire integral is analytic on and within C, so the integral vanishes.

1 f z dz f z0 , z 0interior
2 i C
z z0 0, z 0 exterior

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•Derivatives

Cauchy’s integral formula may be used to obtain an expression for the derivation of f(z)

d 1 f z dz
f z0
dz0 2 i z z0
1 d 1 1 f z dz
f z dz 2
2 i dz0 z z0 2 i z z0

Moreover, for the n-th order of derivative

n n! f z dz
f z0 n 1
2 i z z0

We now see that, the requirement that f(z) be analytic not only guarantees a first derivative but derivatives of all
orders as well! The derivatives of f(z) are automatically analytic. Here, it is worth to indicate that the converse of
Cauchy’s integral theorem holds as well.

Examples:

Evaluate integral using Cauchy Integral Formula

z 2 −1
 2 dz incounter − clockwisedirectionaround thecountour
C z +1

i) z = 0.5 ii) z + i =1 iii) z − i =1 iv) z − 2i = 2

Firstly denominator can be expressed as product of linear functions (z+i) and (z-i)

For (i) both points z0=+i and z0=-i lie outside the contour hence integral value is zero

For (ii) point z0=+i lies outside (since i + i = 2i  1 ) the contour hence its integral value is zero. But point z0=-
z 2 −1
i lies inside hence Using above formula we get f(z) as so integral value comes out to be 2π
z −i

z2 −1
So overall  2 dz = 0+2π=2π
C
z +1

For (iii) points z0=+i is in whereas point z0=-i is out. So the integral value comes out to be -2π.

For (iv) points z0=+i is in whereas point z0=-i is out. So the integral value comes out to be -2π.

1. If f z an z n is analytic on and within a circle about the origin, find a n.

n 0
j
f z j !a j an zn j

n j 1

j
f 0 j !a j

n
f 0 1 f z dz
 an
n! 2 i zn 1

2. In the above case, f z M on a circle of radius r about the origin, then

an r n M (Cauchy’s inequality)

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Proof:

1 f z dz 2 r M
an M r
2 z r
zn 1
2 rn 1 rn

where M r Max z r
f r .

3. Liouville’s theorem: If f(z) is analytic and bounded in the complex plane, it is a constant.
Proof: For any z0, construct a circle of radius R around z0,

1 f z dz M 2 R
f z0 2
2 i R z z0 2 R2

M
R
Since R is arbitrary, let R →  , we have

f z 0, i.e, f ( z ) const.

Conversely, the slightest deviation of an analytic function from a constant value implies that there must be at least
one singularity somewhere in the infinite complex plane. Apart from the trivial constant functions, then,
singularities are a fact of life, and we must learn to live with them, and to use them further.

7.5 Taylor’s Expansion

n
Suppose we are trying to expand f(z) about z=z0, i.e., f z an z z0 , and we have z=z1 as the nearest
n 0

point for which f(z) is not analytic. We construct a circle C centered at z=z0 with radius z z0 z1 z0 (Fig.5)

From the Cauchy integral formula,

1 f z dz 1 f z dz
f z
2 i C
z z 2 i C
z z0 z z0

1 f z dz
2 i C z z0 1 z z0 z z0

Here z is a point on C and z is any point interior to C. For |t| <1, we note the identity

1
1 t t2 tn
1 t n 0

So we may write

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n
1 z z0 f z dz
f z n 1
2 i C n 0 z z0

1 n f z dz
z z0 n 1
2 i n 0 C z z0

n
n f z0
z z0
n 0 n!

which is our desired Taylor expansion, just as for real variable power series, this expansion is unique for a given
z0.

Example 1: Expand log (1+z) as Taylor’s series expansion about z 0=0

Here f(z)= log(1+z) so we get its derivatives

1 −1 (−1)*(−2)
f '( z ) = ; f ''( z ) = ; f '''( z ) =
1+ z (1 + z ) 2
(1 + z )3
(−1)n−1 (n −1)!
So f n ( z ) =
(1 + z )n
Evaluate the values of f(z) and its derivatives at z=0 so the series obtained looks like

z 2 z3 z 4 zn
f ( z) = z − + − + .............. + (−1)n−1 + ...
2 3 4 n!
1
Expand for the regions
z ( z − 3z + 2)
2

i) 0< z <1 ii) 1< z <2 iii) z >2

Firstly to rewrite the denominator into product of linear terms and then resolving into the partial functions we get

1 1 1
f ( z) = − +
2 z z − 1 2( z − 2)

i) For 0< z <1 we have

1 1 1
f ( z) = + − This modification was required to get in the form of basic series of (1+x) -1 which
2 z 1 − z 4(1 − z / 2)
can be easily expanded. Also depending on contour region modification in the third term done by taking 2 as
common so that z/2 <1 for values of z between 0&1. On expanding each of the above term we get the series as
1 3 7 z 15 z 2
f ( z) = + + + + .........
2z 4 8 16

ii) For 1< z <2 we have

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1 1 1 1
f ( z) = + ( )− This modification done to have terms for which series expansion is known
2 z z 1 − 1/ z 4(1 − z / 2)
and also depending on the region around which to expand so that for expansion of (1+x) -1 we have x<1 which
would lead to decrease in the error when compared to actual functional value. We ge

 1 1 1  1 z z 
2
z3
f ( z ) =  − − 2 − 3 − ....  − 1 + + 2 + 3 + ......... 
 2z z z  4 2 2 2 

iii) For z >2 we have

1 1 1 1
f ( z) = + ( )+ . Similar to above reasons modification done and hence can be written in
2 z z 1 − 1/ z 2 z (1 − 2 / z )
1 1 1 1 1  1  2 2 2 
2 3
series expansion. We get f ( z ) = − 1 + + 2 + 3 + ....  + 1 + + 2 + 3 + ......... 
2z z  z z z  2z  z z z 

7.6 Analytic continuation

We consider a Taylor series of an analytic function of defined in some restricted region S 1 (Fig.1.10). Then f is
analytic inside the circle of convergence C1, whose radius is given by the distance r1 from the center C1 to the
nearest singularity of f at z1. If we choose a point inside C1, that is farther than r1 from z1 and make a Taylor
expansion of f about it (z2 in Fig.1.10), then the circle of convergence C1 will usually extend beyond C1. In the
overlap region of both circles, f is uniquely defined. In the region of C 2, f(z) is uniquely defined by the Taylor
series about the center of C2 and analytic there, although the Taylor series about the center of C 1 is no longer
convergent there. This process is called analytic continuation. It defines the analytic function f in terms of its
original definition in C1 and all its continuations.

For example

f z 1 1 z

which has a simple pole at z = -1 and is analytic elsewhere. For |z| < 1, the geometric series expansion

1 n
1 z z2 z
1 z n 0

Suppose we expand it about z = i, so that

1 1
f z
1 i z i 1 i 1 z i 1 i

2
1 z i z i
1 2
1 i 1 i 1 i

converges for z i 1 i 2 (Fig.1.10) Fig. 1.10

The above three equations are different representations of the same function. Each representation has its own
domain of convergence.

7.7 Maclaurin series

For Taylor’s series we have infinite terms in the series so the remainder tends to zero. The Taylor’s series
expansion about z0=0 gives us Maclaurin series i.e.

z2
f ( z ) = f (0) + z * f '(0) + * f "(0) + .......
2!

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Permanence of Algebraic Form

All our elementary functions, ez, sin z, and so on can be extended into the complex plane. For example,
they can be defined by power-series expansions such as

z2 zn
ez 1 z
2! n 0 n!

for the exponential. Such definitions literally constitute an analytic continuation of the corresponding real

functions into the complex plane. This result is often referred as permanence of the algebraic form.

7.8 Laurent Series

We frequently encounter functions that are analytic in annular region (Fig.1.11).

Fig. 1.11

Drawing an imaginary contour line to convert our region into a simply connected region, we apply Cauchy’s
integral formula for C2 and C1, with radii r2 and r1, and obtain

1 f z dz
f z
2 i C1 C2
z z

We let r2→r and r1→R, so for C1, z z0 z z0 while for C2, z z0 z z0 . We expand two
denominators as we did before

1 f z dz f z dz
f z
2 i C1 z z0 1 z z0 z z0 C2 z z0 1 z z0 z z0

n
1 n f z dz 1 1
z z0 n 1 n 1
z z0 f z dz 
2 i n 0 C1 z z0 2 i n 0 z z0 C2

n
f z an z z0 (Laurent Series)
n

where

1 f z dz
an n 1
2 i C z z0

Here C may be any contour with the annular region r < |z-z0| < R encircling z0 once in a counterclockwise sense.

Laurent Series need not came from evaluation of contour integrals. Other techniques such as ordinary series
expansion may provide the coefficients.

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1
Let f z z z 1 . If we choose z0 = 0, then r = 0 and R = 1, f(z) diverging at z = 1

1 1 dz 1 m dz
an n 1
z
2 i z z z 1 2 i m 0 zn 2

If we employ the polar form,

1 riei d
an 2 m i n 2 m
2 im 0 rn e

1
2 i n 2 m ,1
2 i m 0

1 for n -1
 an
0 for n -1

The Laurent expansion becomes

1 1
1 z z2 z3 zn
z z 1 z n 1

7.9 Singularities, Residues and Evaluation of Real Integral

Part I: Singularities

Def. A point z = a is called a singularity of a function f (z) if f is not differentiable at z = a.

Examples 1

(a) f (z) = e3/z ; a=0

(b) f (z) = (z – 1) – 2 ; a=1

(2 n +1)
(c) f (z) = tan z; a= 2

Classification of the Singularity a of f

depends on the Laurent Series of f about a, i.e.,


f ( z) =  c ( z − a)
n =−
n
n
.

ii) a is called a Removable singularity if cn = 0 for all n< 0

Example 2: f (z) = (sin z) /z; a = 0.

ii) a is called a Essential singularity if

cn = 0 for infinitely many n< 0

Example 3 : f (z) = e3/z; a = 0.

iii) a is called a Simple Pole if

c−1  0 and cn = 0 for all n< – 1

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Example 4: f (z) = (z – 1) – 1 ; a =1.

iv) a is called a Pole of Order m if

c− m  0 and cn = 0 for all n< – m .

Example 5: f (z) = (z – 1) – 5 ; a =1 is a pole of order 5 for the function f.

Zero of Order m

A point z = a is called a zero of order m of a function f (z) if

f ( j ) (a) = 0, j = 0,1, , m − 1 but f ( m ) (a )  0.

Example 6: f (z) = (z – 1) 5 ; a =1 is a Zero of order 5 for the function f.

Note: If z = a is a zero of order m of a function f (z), then z = a is a pole of order m for 1/ f (z).

Test for the Order of a Pole of Rational Functions

F(z) = f (z) / g (z)

z = a is a pole of order m for F if

i. f (a)  0 .
ii. z = a is a zero of order m of f (z).

Exercise: Apply this test to the above examples.

Part II: Residue of f (z)at a Singularity z = a

is defined with the help of the Laurent Series of f about a, i.e.,

if we have

f ( z) =  c ( z − a)
n =−
n
n
,

then the number c−1 is called the Residue of f (z) at z = a .

Notation: “Residue of f (z) at z = a” = Res(f , a).

Examples

In Examples 1

(a) Res(e3/z , 0) = 3

(b) Res((z – 1) – 2 ,1) = 0

Note: Res((z – 1) – 1 ,1) = 1

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Method for Finding Res(f , a)

[without Laurent Series]

Case 1: If a is a Simple Pole of f , then

Res(f , a) = lim( z − a ) f ( z ) .
z →a

Example:Res((z –3)(z – 1) – 1 ,1) =– 2

Case 2: If a is a Pole of order m of f , then

1  d m−1 
Res(f , a) =  lim ( z − a ) m
f ( z ) .
(m − 1)!  z →a dz m−1 
Examples:

i. Res((z – 1) – 2 ,1) =0 (Check)

ii. Res(((z –3) – 1 (z – 1) – 2 ,1) =– ¼ (Check)

iii. Res(((z –3) – 1 (z – 1) – 2 ,3) = ¼ (Check)

Note: We can not use this method if a is not a Pole: For example check for Res(e3/z , 0).

Part II: Residue Theorem

(To Evaluate 
C
f ( z )dz where C is a closed path)

Conditions:

i.C is a simple path in a simply connected domain D.

ii.f (z) is differentiable on and within C except at a finite number of singularities, say a1, a2, ….., an within C.

Conclusion:
n

 f ( z )dz = 2 i  Re s( f , ai )
C i =1

Examples

dz
1.  1 ( z − 1)( z + 2)
2
= 0 (No singularities within |z|=1/2)
z=
2

dz 2 i
2.  3 ( z − 1)( z + 2)
2
= 2 i (Re s( f ,1) =
9
z=
2

dz 1 
3. 
z =1
z + 6iz
2
= 2 i(Res( f , 0) = 2 i * = ( Singular po int at z = −6i lie outside)
6i 3

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Part III: Evaluation of Real Integrals by using Residue Theorem

2

A. Type 1: Real Trigonometric IntegralI=  F (cos ,sin  )d

0

i
Method(Change of variable): C: z = e , 0    2 .

dz z + z −1 z − z −1
Then: d = , cos  = ,sin  =
iz 2 2i

(Note: ei = cos  + i sin  )

Now use Residue Theorem to solve

1 1  dz
 F  2 ( z + z
−1
I= ), ( z − z −1 )  .
C
2  z
2
d
Example 1: Evaluate  2 − sin 
0

i
Solution: i. Use: (a) z = e , 0    2 .

dz z − z −1
(b) d = ,sin  =
iz 2i
−2dz −2dz
ii. I = z
C
2
− 4iz − 1
=  ( z − a )( z − a )   f ( z)dz
C 1 1 C

Here: a1 = (2 − 3)i; a2 = (2 + 3)i (Only a1 is inside C)

2
iii.  f ( z)dz = 2 i Res( f , a ) =
C
1
3
(Answer)

 −2  1
( Res( f , a1 ) = lim ( z − a1 ) = )
z → a1
 ( z − a1 )( z − a2 )  i 3

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SET: Practice Questions-2

1. Express the following functions of a complex variable in the form w u ( x, y ) jv( x, y ) :

(i) f ( z ) jz 1
(ii) f ( z ) z2 2z 1

2. Show that the function f ( z ) z 3 is analytic

3. Prove that function u(x,y) is Harmonic and hence finds its conjugate harmonic
(i) y3-3x2y
(ii) ln (x2+y2)
(iii) (x-1)3-3xy2+3y2
(iv) x3-3x2y-3x2-3y2+1
(v) excosy

4. Expand the following functions in Taylor series about z=0given point

(i) ez
(ii) sin z
(iii) cos z
(iv) tan-1 z
(v) 1/(i+z)
(vi) ln (1-z)
(vii) (1+z)-1
(viii) sec z
(ix) z/(ez-1)
(x) sin-1(z)

5. Express the following functions of a complex variable in the form w u ( x, y ) jv( x, y ) :

(i) f ( z ) 1 / ( z 2)
(ii) f ( z ) zz

6. Find residue at all singular points for the following functions

4 − 3z
(i)
z2 − z
(ii) sin z / z 4
3z + 6
(iii)
( z + 1)( z 2 + 16)
z +1
(iv)
( z − 1) 2 ( z 2 + 1)

7. Evaluate the integral using the residue theorem

dz
(i)
 2
z =1 z + 6iz

( z 2 −1)dz
(ii)  z 2 +1
z −i =1

( z 2 + z + 2)dz
(iii)

z =2 z 2 +1

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Solutions:Practice Set-2
1. (i) We have

f ( z ) = jz + 1
= j ( x + jy) + 1
= (1 − y ) + j ( x)
(ii) We have
f ( z) = z 2 + 2 z + 1
= ( x + jy) 2 + 2( x + jy) + 1
= ( x 2 − y 2 + 2 jxy) + 2( x + jy) + 1
= ( x 2 − y 2 + 2 x + 1) + j (2 xy + 2 y )
2. We have

f ( z) = z 3
= ( x 3 − 3xy 2 ) + j (3x 2 y − y 3 )
So that

u v
= 3x 2 − 3 y 2 =
x y
v u
= 6 xy = −
x y
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied so the function is analytic

3. The corresponding conjugate analytic function v(x,y) are

(i) –3xy2+x3+c

(ii) 2tan-1(y/x)+c

(iii) 3x2y-6yx+3y-y3+c

(iv) 3x2y-y3+6xy+c

(v) exsiny+c

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4.

(i ) 1 + z + z 2 / 2!+ z 3 / 3!+ .....

(ii ) z − z 3 / 3!+ z 5 / 5!− ...
(iii ) 1 − z 2 / 2!+ z 4 / 4!− .....
(iv) z − z 3 / 3 + z 5 / 5 − ...
(v) − i + z + iz 2 − z 3 ........
(vi ) z + z 2 / 2 + z 3 / 3 + .....
(vii ) 1 − z + z 2 / 2!− z 3 / 3!+ .....

(viii )1 −
( −1) z 2 + 5 z 4 − 6! z 6 + ......
2! 4! 6!
(−1) 1 2 0 3
(ix) 1 + z+ z + z − ......
2 6* 2! 3!
3 5
1 z 1 3 z
( x) z + ( ) + ( * ) + .....
2 3 2 4 5
x−2 −y
5. (i) f ( z ) = +j
( x − 2) + y
2 2
( x − 2) 2 + y 2

(ii) f ( z ) = x + y
2 2

6. (i) Res (f, 0)= -4; Res(f,1)=1

(ii) Res(f,0)=-1/3!

−6 + 27i −6 − 27i
(i) Res (f,-1)=3/17; Res (f,4i)= ; Res(f,-4i)=
68 68
(ii) Res(f, 1)=-1/2; Res(f, i)=(1+i)/4; Res(f, -i)=(1-i)/4

7. (i) π/3

(ii) -2π

(iii) 0

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SET: 20

Analytic function

4 −i
1. The real part of principal value of 4 is
a) 256 Cos ( ln 4 )
b) 64 Cos ( ln 4 )
c) 16 Cos ( ln 4 )
d) 4 Cos ( ln 4 )

2. Let i = −1 then one value of i i is

a) i
b) −1
c) 
2
−
d) e 2

1
3. The principal value of log e i 4 is
a) i
b) i /2
c) i /4
d) i /8

3z
4. The function f ( z) = is continuous every where except
z +4
2

a) z = 2i
b) z =  i
c) z = 3i
d) z = 4i

z −1 
5. The locus of the point z saisfying the conditions arg = is
z +1 3
a) A straight line
b) Circle
c) A Parabola
d) None of these

6. Consider the circle z − 5 − 5i = 2 in the complex plane ( x, y ) with z = x + iy . The minimum

distance from the origin to the circle is
a) 5 2 − 2
b) 54
c) 34
d) 5 2

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Consider the function f ( z ) = x + iy and g ( z ) = x + y + ixy , at z = 0

2 2 2 2
7.
a) f is analytic but not g
b) g is analytic but not f
c) Both f and g are analytic
d) Niether f nor g is analytic

The complex analytic function f ( z ) , withtheimaginary part e ( y cosy + x siny ) is

x
8.
z +c
a) ze
b) ( z + c )e
z

c) ze z
z2 + z
d) ( z + z )e
2

9. Which of the following is not the real part of an analytic function ?

a) x − y
2 2

1
b)
1+ x + y2 2

c) x − y
2 2

d) cosx coshy
x
e) x + 2 .
x + y2

The harmonic conjugate of u ( x, y ) = x − y + xy is

2 2
10.

a) x − y − xy
2 2

b) x + y − xy
2 2

1
c)2 xy + ( y 2 – x 2 )
2
1
d) xy + 2 ( y – x )
2 2

11. The conjugate function of u = 2 x (1 − y ) is

a) x + y − 2 y + C
2 2

b) x − y + 2 y + C
2 2

c) x − y − 2 y + C
2 2

d) None of the above

If f ( z ) = x + iy , then f ( z ) exist at all points on the line

2 2
12.
a) x = y
b) x = − y
c) x = 2+ y
d) y = x + 2

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13. If u = sinh x cosy thenthe analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv is

−1
a) cosh z + iC
b) cos hz + iC
c) sin hz + iC
d) sinh −1 z + iC

14. If v = 2 xy , then the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iz is

a) z2 + C
−2
b) z + C
c) z + C
3

−3
d) z + C

x− y
15. If u= , then analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv is
x2 + y 2
a) z + C
−1
b) z + C
1
c) (1 − i ) + C
z
1
d) (1 + i ) + C
z
z − sin z
16. For the function f ( z ) = , the point z = 0 is
z3
a) A pole of order 3
b) A pole of order 2
c) An essential singularity
d) A removable singularity

sin z
17. For the function of a complex variable z , the point z = 0 is
z3
a) A pole of order 3
b) A pole of order 2
c) A pole of order 1
d) Not a singularity

If f ( z ) = z then it
3
18
a) Has an essential singularity at z = 
b) Has a pole of order 3 at z = 
c) Has a pole of order 3 at z = 0
d) Is analytic at z = 

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Solutions
SET: Analytic Functions
1. Ans: a)
Let x + iy = 44-i
Then we get log, (x + iy) = (4-i) log,4
Or x + iy = e(4-i)log,4
Or x + iy = e4 log,4. e-ilog, 4
Or x + iy = 44 [cos (log,4)-i sin (log,4)]
Or x = 256 cos (log,4)
Hence A is Correct option

2. Ans: d)
We know that
ii = ei log i
x
ii
= e 2
= e -x/2
Hence D is correct option

3. Ans: d)
1
We have z ln i1/4 log i
4
But i = eix/2
1 ix /2 1 i
Thus z log
4 4 2
i
8
Hence D is correct option

4. Ans: a)
3z 3z
We have f x 2
z 4 z 2i 2i z
Here the denominator is zero when (z +2i) (z-2i) =0
Or z 2i
Thus the function f (z) is continuous except at z 2i
Hence A is correct option

5. Ans: b)
z 1
We have arg
z 1 3
z iy 1
Putting z = x + iy, arg
x iy 1 3
1 y 1 y z1
Or tan tan , since arg arg z1 arg z2
z 1 x 1 3 z2
y y
Or tan 1 x 1 x 1
y2 3
1
x2 1
2y
Or 2
tan 3
x y2 1 3
Or x2 y2 2 3 y 1 0. which is circle
Hence B is correct option

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6. Solu: - a)
Given complex equation is, z 5 5i 2 which is equation of circle having center at (5,5) and radius
2. The distance of its center form origin is 5 2. Thus minimum distance from origin is 5 2 2
Hence A is correct option

7. Ans: c)
We Have f x x2 iy 2 and g z x2 y2 ixy
2 2
Let f z u iv then u x and v y
u v u v
And also 2 x, 2 y, 0 and 0
x y y x
At z = 0, x=y=0
u v u v
Now 0 and 0
x y y x
Hence f (x) is analytic
Let g z a ib then a x2 y 2 and b zy
At z = 0 x=y=0
a b a b
Then 2 x 0, x 0, 2y 0 and y 0
x y y x
a b a a
Now ,
x y y x
Thus g (z) is also analytic
Hence C is correct option

8. Ans: c)
Let f(x) = u + iv then v = ex (y cos y + x sin y)
v
Or e x y cos y x sin y sin y
x
u
e x y cos y x sin y sin y since f (x) is analytic
y
v u
Now e x cos y y sin y x cos y
y x
u u
Let 1 x, y and 2 x, y
x y

Then f z 1 z , 0 dz i 2 z , 0 dz C

ez 1 z dz i ez 0 0 0 C

e z dz ze z dx C

ez ze z ez C
z
ze
Hence C is Correct option

9. Ans: b)
1
Let 2
be real part then we have
1 x y2
1
u 2
1 x y2

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u 2x v
Or
x 2 2 y
1 x2 y
u 2y v
y 2 2 x
1 x2 y
v v 2 ydx 2 xdy
dv dx dy 2
x y 1 x2 y2
From above equation v can’t be determined hence u is not a real part of an analytic function
Hence B is correct option

10. Solu: - c)
We have u x2 y2 xy
u v
Now 2x y
x y
u v
and 2y x
y x
v v
v dx dy
x y

2y x dx 2x y dy

1 2
2 xy y x2
2
Hence C is correct option

11. Ans: b)
2
u u
We have 21 y , and 0 .. 1
x x2
2
u u
2 x and 0 .. 2
y y2
2 2
u u
Now 2
0, Thus u is harmonic
x y2
Let b be the conjugate of u then by Cauchy- Riemann equation
u u
dv dx dy
y x
dv 2 xds 21 y dy
On integrating, v x 2 y 2 2y C
Hence B is correct option

12. Ans: a)
Let f(z) = u + iv then u = x2 and v = y2
u u u v
Now we have 2 x, 0, 0 and 2y
u y y y
u u
We know that f' z i .. 1
x y
v v
and f' z i .. 2
y x
Form equation (1) we get f' z 2x .. 3
And from equation (2) we get f' z 2y .. 4

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Now, for existence of f’(z) at any point is necessary that the value of f’(z) most be unique
At that point, whatever be the path of reaching at that point
Form equation (3) and (4) 2x = 2y
Thus f’(z) exists for all points lie on the line x = y
Hence A is correct option.

13. Ans: c)
We have u = sin h x cos y
u
Then cos h x cos y x, y
x
u
And sin h x sin y x, y
y
By Milne’s Method f' z z, 0 z, 0 cos h z i.0 cos hz
On integrating f x sin h z constant
Or f x w sin h z iC
As u does not contain any constant, the constant c is in the function x and thus i.e. in u
Hence C is correct option

14. Ans: a)
v v
We Have 2y h x, y and 2x g x, y
x y
By Milne’s Method f' z g z, 0 ih z , 0 2z i 0 2z
On integrating f z z2 C
Hence A is Correct option

15. Ans: d)
x y
We Have v
x2 y2

v x2 y2 x y 2y y2 x2 2 xy
Now g x, y
y 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y x y

v x2 y2 x y 2x y2 x2 2 xy
h x, y
x 2 2 2 2
x y x y
By Milne’s Method f' z g z, 0 ih z , 0
1 1 1
i 1 i
z2 z2 z2
1 1
On integrating f z 1 i 2
dz C 1 i C
z z
Hence D is correct option

16. Ans: d)
z sin z
We Have f z
z3
z3 z5
z z ...
3! 5!
z3
2
1 z
....
3! 5!

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1 1
Now lim f z
x 0 3! 6
Hence, z = 0 is a removable singularity
Hence D is correct option

17. Ans: a)
sin z
We Have f z
z3
It can be easily seen that f (z) has a pole of order 3.
Hence A is correct option

18. Ans: b)
It can be easily seen that f (z) – z3 has a pole of order 3 ar z =
Hence B is correct option

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SET: 21

Cauchy’s Theorem

∮
e2 z
1. If dz = ? where C is the circle of z = 3
( z + 1)
c 4

4 4 4 8
a)  ie −3 b)  ie3 c)  ie −1 d)  ie −2
9 9 3 3

1− 2z
2. The value of the integral ∮ z ( z − 1)( z − 2)
c
is………. Where C is a circle z = 1.5

a) 2 + i 6 b) 4 + i3 c) 1 + i d) i3

3z 2 +7 z + 1
3. f (z 0 ) = ∮ dz , where C is a circle x 2 + y 2 = 4
c z − z0
The value of f ( 3 ) is
a) 6
b) 4i
c) -4i
d) 0

3z 2 +7 z + 1
4. f (z 0 ) = ∮ dz , where C is a circle x 2 + y 2 = 4
c z − z0
The value of f (1 − i ) is

a) 7 ( + i 2 )
b) 6 ( 2 + i )
c) 2 ( 5 + i13)
d) 0

2 cos  z
5. The value of ∮ c z2 −1
dz around a rectangle with vertices at 2  i, −2  i is

a) 6 b) i 2e c) 8 d) 0

sin z 2
6. The value of Integral ∮c ( z − 2)( z − 1) dz ?WhereC is thecircle z = 3
a) i 6 b) i 2 c) i 4 d) 0
cos z
7. The value of ∮ c z −1
= ?Where C is thecircle z = 3
a) 2i
b) −2i
c) 6i 2
d) −6i 2

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8. value of the ∮ ( z − z ) dz = ?, whereC is theupper half of thecircle z = 1

c
2

a) −2
3
b) 2
3
c) 3
2
d) −3
2
1
9. The value of ∮z c
2
e z dz = ?WhereC is z = 1
a) i3
b) −i3
i
c)
3
d) None of the above

∮
z Cos z
10. The value of dz = ?WhereC is z − 1 = 1

2
c

z− 
 2
a) 6 b) −6 c) 2 i d) None of the above

e2 z
11. The value of  ( z − 1)
C 4
dz = ?

8 8 8
a)  ie 2 b) i c) e −2 d)  ie −2
3 3 3

∮
1
12. The value of dz is
z − j =2 z +4
2

j − − j 
a) b) c) d)
2 2 2 2

∮ (s
1
13. For the given contour D (semi-circle of radius 2 ) as shown in figure, the value of ds is
D
2
−1)

a) j b) − j c)  d) –

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14. For any circle C enclosing the origin and oriented in counter clock-wise, then the value of

∮
cos z
dz is
C
z2
a) 2 i b) 0 c) −2 i d) Undefined

cot ( z )
15. The value of ∮ dz , where C is a contour 4 x 2 + y 2 = 2 ( Counter clock − wise )
( z − 1)
2
C

  1  −2 i 
a) 0 b) −2 i c) 2 i  −  d)  
 sinh     sinh  
2 2

3z + 4
16. The value of f ( z ) = along the path z = 3 is
( z + 1)( z + 2 )
a) 2 i b) 4 i c) 6 i d) 8 i

The value of ∮
z2
17. dz is .., where C is a boundary of sqaure lies along
C
2z + 3
z = 1and y = 1 .
i
a) b) 2 i c) 0 d) −2 i
4

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Solutions:
1. Ans: d)
We Have by the derivative of an analytic function that
n n! f z dz
f z0 n 1
2 i z z0
c
f z dz 2 i n
Or n 1
f z0
z z0 n!
c
f z dz i
Taking n = 3 f ''' z0
z z0 3
c

e2 z dz e2 z dz
We Have 4 4
c
z 1 c
z 1
Taking f (x) = e3x, and z0 = -1 in (1), we have
e2 z dz i
4
f ''' 1
z 1 3
c
Now, f (z) – e2z gives f ‘‘‘ (z) = 8e2z, then we have. f ‘‘‘ (-1) = 8e-2
e2 z dz 8 i 2
Using this in equation (2) 4
e
z 1 2
c
Since C is the circle z 3 and f (z) is analytic within and on z 3,
e2 z 8 i 2
4
e
z 1 3
z 3
Hence D is correct option

2. Ans: d)
1 2z 1 1 3
We Have,
z z 1 z 2 2z z 1 2 z 2
1 2z 1 3
dz I1 I2 I3 ..(1)
z z 1 z 2 2 2
c
1
Since, z = 0 is the only singularity for I1 dz and it lies insides z 15 , Therefore by
z
c
1
Cauchy’s integral formula I1 dz 2 i ..(2)
z
c
1
Similarly, for I 2 dz , the singular point z =1 lies inside z 1.5, therefore
z 1
x
I2 2 i ..(3)
1
For I 3 dz , The singular point z = 2 lies outside the circle z 15, Thus by
z 2
c
Cauchy’s integral theorem
1
I3 dz 0 ..(4)
z 2
c
Using equations (2), (3), (4) in (1), we get
1 2z 1 3
dz 2 i 2 i 0
z z 1 z 2 2 2
c
=3 i

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Hence D is current option

3. Ans: d)
3z 2 7z 1
We have f 3 dz
z 3
c
Since z0 = 3 is the only singular point of f(3) and it lies outside the circle x 2 + y2 = 4 i.e.,
z 2, Therefore function is analytic everywhere within C.
3z 2 7z 1
Thus By Cauchy’s theorem f 3 0
z 3
c
Hence D is current option

4. Ans: c)
The point (1-i) lies within circle z 2, the distance of 1-I i.e., (1,2) form the origin is 2 which is
less than 2, the radius of the circle.
Let z 3z 2 7 z 1 then by Cauchy’s integral formula
3z 2 7 z 1
dz 2 i z0
z z0
x
Or f z0 z i z0
Or f ' z0 2 i z0
2
Or z 3z 7z 1
Or ' z 6z 7
Thus f'1 i 2 i61 i 7
2 5 13i
Hence C is correct option

5. Ans: d)
2
Let I 2
cos zdz
z 1
c
1 1
cos z dz
z 1 z 1
c
cos z cos z
I dz
z 1 z 1
c
2 i cos z x 1
2 i cos z x 1
Hence D is correct option

6. Ans: d)
sin z 2 sin z 2 sin z 2
We have dz dz dz
z 2 z 1 z 2 z 1
c c c

2 if 2 2 if 1 where f z sin z 2
Thus f 2 sin 4 0
And f 1 sin 0
Hence D is correct option

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7. Ans: b)
Let f(z) = cos z than f(z) analytic within and on |z| = 3, Noe by Cauchy’s integral formula
1 f z
f z0 dz
2 i z z0
c
f z
dz 2 i f z0
z z0
c
Taking f(z) = cos z, z0 = 1, we have
cos z
2 if 1
z 1
x 3

2 i cos 2 i
Hence B is correct option

8. Ans: b)
Given contour C is the circle z 1 i.e., z e or dz ie d , Now for upper half of the circle,
0

z z 2 dz e e2 ie d
c 0

i e2 e3 d
0

e2 e3 2
i
2i 3i 0
3
Hence B is correct option

9. Ans: c)
1 1 1
We have f x z 2 e1/2 z2 1 2
...
z 2! z 3! z 3
1 1
z2 z2 ...
2 6z
The only pole of f (z) is at z= 0, which lies within the circle z 1

Thus f z dz 2 i redidue at z 0
c
1 1
Now, residue of f (z) at z = 0 is the coefficient of i.e.,
z 6
1 1
f z dz 2 i i
6 3
c
Hence C is Correct Option

10. Ans: d)
The f (z) has a pole at z of order 2, By Cauchy’s residue theorem
2
f z dz 2 i residue at z
2
C
2
d
Now, Residue at z is lim z f z
2 z dz 2
2

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d
lim z cos z
z dz
2

lim cos z z sin z

z 2
2

2
f z dz 2 i i
2
c
Hence D is correct option

11. Ans: d)

We Have f(z) – e2z and a = -1

Now f ''' z 8e 2 z and f ''' 1 8e 2

2 i 2
By Cauchy’s integral formula f z dz 8e
3!
c
2 i 2
8e
6
8
ie 2
3
Hence D is correct option

12. Ans: d)
1 1
We Have 2
dz dz
z 4 z 2i z 2i
z j 2 z j 2

P (0,2) lies inside the circle z j =2 and P (0,-2) does not be Thus By Cauchy’s integral formula
1
I 2 i lim z 2i
x 2i z 2i z 2i
2 i
2i 2i 2
c
Hence D is correct Option

13. Ans: a)
1
We know That 2
ds 2 j [sum of residues]
s 1
D
Singular points are at s 1 but only s = + 1 lies inside the given contour, Thus Residue
At s = +1 is
1 1
lim s 1 f s lim s 1 2
s 1 s 1 s 1 2
1 1
ds 2 j j
s2 2 2
D
Hence A is Correct Option

14. Ans: b)
d 2 cos z
Residue at Origin R lim z
z dz 0z2
Or R lim sin z 0
z 0

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cos z
I dz 2 i. R 0
z2
c
Hence B is Correct option

15. Ans: d)
Given integral I has a double pole at z = i
1 d 2 cot z
Residue at z – i, is lim z i 2
2 1 !z i dz z i
d d
lim cot z
z i dz dz

sin h 2
2
2 i
Now I 2 i 2 2
sin h sin h
Hence D is correct option

16. Ans: c)
3s 4
We Have f a
s 1 s 2
f(s) has two poles enclosed by contour, therefore
3s 4 3s 4
I 2 i lim lim
z 1 s 2 z 2 s 1
= 2 i1 2 6 i
Hence C is correct option

17. Ans: c)
3
There is a simple pole at z = but this is not enclosed within the given square
2
x 1, y 1 as z 2
z2
Thus dz 2 i 0 0
2z 3
c
Hence C is correct option

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Complex Numbers

SET:22

Taylor’s and Laurent’s Series

z −1
1. For the function f ( z ) = , The Taylor series expansion about the point z = 0 will be
z +1
a) 1 + 2 ( z + z + z +..)
2 3

(
b) −1 − 2 z − z + z +..
2 3
)
c) −1 + 2 ( z − z +z +..)
2 3

d) None of the above


2. For the function f ( z ) = sin z , theTaylor series exapnsion about the point z = is
4
1   π 1  π
2

a) 1 +  z −  −  z −  −
2   4  2!  4 
1   
2
π 1  π
b) 1 +  z −  +  z −  +
2   4  2!  4 
1   π 1  π
2

c) 1 +  z −  −  z −  −
2   4  2!  4 
d) None of the above

1
3. For the function f ( z) = , theTaylor series exapnsion about the point z = 1 is
z +1
−1  1 1 
1 − ( z − 1) + 2 ( z − 1) ..
2
a) 
2  2 2 
1 1 1 
1 − ( z − 1) + 2 ( z − 1) ..
2
b) 
2 2 2 
1 1 1 
1 + ( z − 1) + 2 ( z − 1) ..
2
c) 
2 2 2 
d) None of the above

1
4. For the function f (z) = , the Laurent s series expansion for z  2 is
(
z e −1
z
)
1 1 1 1 2
a) 2
+ + + 6z + z +.
z 2 z 12 720
1 1 1 1 2
b) 2 − + − z +.
z 2 z 12 720
1 1 1 2 1 3
c) + + z + z +.
z 12 634 720

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d) None of the above.

1
5. For the function f ( z ) = , the Laurent s series expansion for z + 1  1 is
z ( z − 1) ( z − 2 )
a) ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) +.
−1 2 3

b) ( z − 1) − ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) − ( z − 1) +.
−1 2 3

c) − ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) − ( z − 1) + ( z − 1) −.
−1 2 3

d) − ( z − 1) − ( z − 1) − ( z − 1) − ( z − 1) −.
−1 3 5

1
6. For the function f ( z ) = , the Laurent s series expansion for 1  z  2 is
( z − 1)( z − 2 )
1 2 3
a) + + +.
z z 2 z3
1 1 1 1
b) − z −3 − z −2 − z −1 − − z − z 2 − z 3 −.
2 4 8 18
1 3 7
c) 2 + 2 + 4 +.
z z z
d) None of these

1
7. For the function f ( z) = in power of ( z − 3 ) and the radius of convergence of the series so
3 − 2z
obtained are
1 2 4 
− 1 − ( z − 3) + ( z − 3) − , z − 3  3
2
a)
3 3 9 
1 2 4  3
b) − 1 − ( z − 3) + ( z − 3) − , z − 3 
2

3 3 9  2
1 2 4  3
c) 1 + ( z − 3) + ( z − 3) − , z − 3 
2

3 3 9  2
1 2 4  3
d) 1 − ( z − 3) − ( z − 3) − , z − 3 
2

3 3 9  2

1 1
8. For the function f ( z) = − , the coefficient o
z −1 z − 2
1
inthelaurent s series expansion for z  2 is
z2
a) -1
b) 0
c) 1
d) 2

2 d
9. The value of integral  0 13 − 5 sin
is equal to

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a) −
6
b) −
12
c) 
12
d) −
12

2 ( r  − i )
i

10. The value of  0

e d equals to
a) 2 i
b) 2
c) 
d) i

2 d
11. The value of Integral  0 2 + cos 
is

a) −2
2
b) 2
3
c) 2 2
d) −2 3

1
12. The residue of z cos at z = 0 is
z
a) −1
3
b) −1
2
c) 1
3
d) 1
2

1 − e2 z
13. The value of residue of the function f ( z) = at its poleis
z4
a) −2
3
b) −4
3
c) 4
3
d) 2
3

sin z
14. The residue of at z = 0 is
z8
a) 0

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1
b)
7!
1
c) -
7!
d) None of these

15. The residue of f ( z ) = cot z at any of its poles is

a) 0
b) 1
c) 3
d) None of these

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Solutions:
1. Ans: c)
z 1 2
f z 1 f 0 1 and f 1 0
z 1 z 1
2
f' z 2
f' 0 2;
z 1
4
f '' z 2
f '' 0 4;
z 1
12
f ''' z 4
f ''' 0 12; and so on
z 1
Now, Taylor series is given by
2 3
z z0 z z0
f z f z0 z z0 f ' z0 f '' z0 f ''' x0 ...
2! 3!
z2 z3
Taking z0 0, f z 1 z 2 4 12 ...
2! 2!
1 2z 2x2 2 z 3 ....
1 2 z z2 z 3 ....
Hence C correct option

2. Ans: a)
1
f z sin z f sin
4 4 2
1
f' z cos z f'
4 2
1
f '' z sin z f ''
4 2
1
f ''' z cos z f ''' and so on
4 2
Taylor series is given by
2 3
z z0 z z0
f z f z0 z z0 f ' z0 f '' z0 f ''' z0 ...
2! 3!
Taking zn
4
2 3
z z
1 1 4 1 4 1
f x z ...
2 4 2 2! 2 3! 2
2 3
1 1 1
1 z z z ...
2 4 2! 4 3! 4
Hence A is correct option

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Complex Numbers

3. Ans: b)
1 1
f z f 1
z 1 2
1 1
f' z 2
f'1
z 1 4
2 1
f '' z 3
f '' 1
z 1 4
6 3
f ''' z 4
f ''' 1 and so on
z 1 8
Taylor series is
2 3
z z0 z z0
f z f z0 z z0 f ' z0 f '' z0 f ''' z0
2! 3!
Taking z0 1
2 3
1 1 z 1 1 z 1 3
f z z 1 ..
2 4 2! 4 3! 8
1 1 1 2 1 3
Or f z 1 z 1 2
z 1 3
z 1 ....
2 2 2 2
Hence B is correct option

4. Ans: b)
1 1 1 1 2
f z 2
0.z z ..
z 2 z 12 720
Hence B is correct option

5. Ans: d)
For z 1 1let z 1 u , that gives z u 1 and u 1
1
We have f z
z z 1 z 2
1 1 1
2z z 1 2 z 2
1 1 1
z 1 u
2 u 1 u 2 u 1
1 1 1 1
1 u u 1 1 u
2 2
1 1
1 u u 2 u 3 ... u 1 1 u u 2 u 3 ...
2 2
1
2 u 2u 3 ... u 1 u u 3 u 5 ... u 1
2

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Complex Numbers

6. Ans: b)
1 1 1
We have f z
z 1 z 2 z 2 z 1
1 z
Since, z 1 or 1 and z 2 or 1 so we get
z 2
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2
...
z 1
z1
1 z z z z z z3
z
1
1 1 z 1 z z2 z3
and 1 1 ...
z 2 2 2 2 2 4 9
From equation 1 we get
1 z z2 z3 1 1 1 1
f z 1 .. 1 ...
2 2 2 9 z z z2 z3
3 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
Or f z ... z z z z z z ...
2 4 8 18
Hence B is correct option

7. Ans: b)
1
We have f x
3 2z
1
2
31 z 3
3
1
1 2
1 z 3
3 3
1 2 4 2
1 z 3 z 3 ..
3 3 9
3
and radius of concergence is z 3
2
Hence B is correct option

8. Ans: a)
1 1
We have f z ,z 2
z 1 z 2

1 1 1
z 1 2
1 1
z z
1 1
1 1 2
1 1
z z z
1 1 1 2 4
1 2
.. 1
z z z z z2
1 3
2
z z2
1
Thus Coefficent of 1
z2
Hence A is correct option

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9. Ans: c)
2 2
d d
I
13 5sin e e
0 0 13 5
2i
dz
Let e z or d and C will be unit circle z 1
iz
2
2d
We get I
26 5ie 5ie
0
2 dz
5i iz
c 26 5iz
z
dz
2
5 5z 2 26iz
c
Poles are given by – 5z2 + 28iz + 5 =0,
26i 676 100
Or z
10
26i 24i i
,5i
10 5
i
Only z lies inside C
5
Thus I 2 i Re sidue at z i/5
i 1
2 i lim z
z
i 5 5z i z 5i
5
1
2 i
i 12
5 5i
5
Hence C is correct Option

10. Ans: b)
2 2
i
e
Let I e d ee e i
d
0 0
dz
Let z ei or d and C will be z 1, we get
iz
1 1 dz 1 ex
I e z dz
iz i z2
c c
The Only Pole in C is z = 0 of order 2.
1
Thus I 2 i residue at z 0
i
1 d1 2 ez
2 z 2
1! dz1 z z 0
2
e
2 2
1 z 0
Hence B is correct option

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11. Ans: b)
idz
Let z e then we have d where z 2
z
1 1
and cos z
2 z
2
idz
d z where C is z 1
2 cos 1 1
0 c 2 z
2 z
dz
2i 2
z 4z 1
c
1
Let f z 2
then f(z) has poles at z = -2 + 3, 2 3, out of these only z 2 3 lies
z 4z 1
inside the circle z 1

Thus f z dz 2 i Residue at z 2 3
c

Residue at z 2 3 is lim z 2 3 f z
z 2 3
1 1
lim
z 2 3 z 2 3 2 3
1 i
f z dz 2 i
2 3 3
c
2
d i 2
2i
2 cos 3 3
c
Hence B is correct option

12. Ans: b)
1
We have f z z cos
z
1 1 1 1
z1 ...
2! z 2 4! z 4
1 1
z ...
2 z 24 x3
1 1
Residue of f (z) at z= 0 is the coefficient of i.e, .
z 2
Hence B is correct option

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13. Ans: b)
1 e2 x
The function f z has a pole at z 0 of order 4.
z4
1 dn 1
n
Residue of f z at z 0 is lim n 1
z z0 f z
n 1 !z z0 dz
1 d3 1 e 2i
lim z4.
4 1 !x 0 dz 3 z4
1 d3 1
lim 3 1 e 2 z lim 8e 2 z
3! z 0 dz 3! z 0
8 0 8 4
e
6 6 3
Hence B is correct option

14. Ans: c)
sin z
The function has a pole of order 8 at z = 0
z8
1 d8 1
8 sin z
8 1
z 0
8 1 ! dz z8
1 d7
Thus residue is sin z
7! dz 7 z 0
1 1
cos z z 0
7! 7!
Hence C is correct option

15. Ans: b)
1
We have f z cot z
tan z
For poles, tan z 0 z n where n 0, 1, 2,...
cos z
Residue is f z is lim z n
z n sin z

cos z z n
lim n
z n 1 sin z n
n
1
n
1
1
Hence B is Correct option

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Past GATE Questions

1. For the function of a complex Variable W = ln Z (WhereW = u + jv an Z = x + jy ) , the

u = constant lines get mapped in z-plane as
a) Set of Radial straight lines
b) Set of Concentric Circles
c) Set of Confocal hyperbolas
d) Set of Confocal ellipses (G-2006, 2-Marks)

∮z
1
2. The value of contour integral dz in positive sense is
z− j
2
+4

a)
j
2
b) −
2
c)
− j
2
d)  (G-2006, 2-Marks)
2
3. If the Semi- Contour D of Radius 2 is as shown in the figure, then the value of the Integral

∮s
1
ds is
D
−12

a) j
b) - j
c) −
d)  (G-2007, 2-Marks)

4. The equation sin ( z ) = 10 has

a) No real or complex solution
b) Exactly two distinct complex solutions
c) A unique solution
d) An infinite number of complex solutions. (G-2008, 1-Marks)

1
5. The residue of the function f (z) = at z = 2 is
( z + 2) ( z − 2)
2 2

1
a) −
32
1
b) −
16
1
c)
16
1
d) (G-2008, 2-Marks)
32

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Complex Numbers

1+ f ( z )
6. If f ( z ) = C0 + C1 z
−1
, then ∮ z
dz is given by
Unit
Circle

a) 2 C1
b) 2 (1 + C0 )
c) 2 jC1
d) 2 j(1 + C0 ) (G-2009, 1-Marks)

1 − 2z
7. The residues of a complex function X ( z ) = at its poles are
z ( z − 1)( z − 2 )
1 1
a) ,− and 1
2 2
1 1
b) , and − 1
2 2
1 3
c) , 1 and −
2 2
1 3
d) , −1and (G-2010, 2-Marks)
2 2

−3 z + 4
∮ dz , Where C is the Circle z = 1 is given by
( )
8. The value of Integral
C z + 4z + 5
2

a) 0
b) 1
10
c) 4
5
d) 1 (G-2011, 1-Marks)

9. If x = −1 , then the value of x x is

−
a) e 2


b) e 2

c) x
d) 1 (G-2012, 1-Marks)

1 1
10. Given f ( z) =
− if C is a counter clockwise path in z-plane
z +1 z + 3

∮ f ( z ) dz is
1
Such that z + 1 = 0 , then the value of
2 j C
a) −2
b) −1
c) 1
d) 2 (G-2012, 1-Marks)

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Complex Numbers

The real part of an analytic function f ( z ) where z = x + jy is given by e cos ( x ) . The

−y
11.

Imaginary part of f ( z ) is

a) e cos ( x ) .
y

b) e
−y
sin ( x ) .
c) −e sin ( x ) .
y

d) −e
−y
sin ( x ) . (G-2014, 2-Marks)

12. Let z = x + iy be a complex variable. Consider that contour integration is performed along the unit
circle in anticlockwise direction. Which one of the following statements is not true?
z 1
a) The residue of at z = 1is
z −1
2
2

b) ∮z 2
dz = 0
C

∮
1 1
c) dz = 1
2 i C z
d) z ( Complex conjugate of z ) is analytical function (G-2015, 1-Marks)

az + b
13. Let f ( z) = If f (z1 ) = f (z 2 ) for all z1  z 2 , a = 2. b = 4 and c = 5,
cz + d
then d should beequal to.. (G-2015, 1-Marks)

14. If denotes the counter clockwise unit circle, then value of the contour integral

∮Re ( z ) dz
1
is . (G-2015, 1-Marks)
2 j C

15. If C is a circle of radius r with centre z 0 , in the complex z − plane and if n is a non-zero

∮
dz
integer, then equals
C ( z − z0 )
n +1

a) 2 nj
b) 0
j
c)
2
d) 2 n (G-2015, 1-Marks)

16. In the following integral, the contour C encloses the points 2 j and −2 j

∮
1 sin z
− dz the value of the itegral is………… (G-2016, 2-Marks)
C ( z − 2 j )
2 3

Consider the complex valued function f ( z ) = 2 z + b z where z is any complex variable. The
3 3
17.
value of b for the function f ( z ) is analytic is …………….. (G-2016, 1-Marks)

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∮ dz
1 ez
18. The value of the integral along a closed contour c in anti-clockwise direction for
2 j z − 2
C

the point z0 = 2 insidethe conour C , and

the point z0 = 2 outsidethe conour C respectively are,
a) ( i ) 2.72 ( ii ) 0
b) ( i ) 7.39 ( ii ) 0
c) ( i ) 0 ( ii ) 2.72
d) ( i ) 0 ( ii ) 7.39 (G-2016, 2-Marks)

sin ( z )
19. For f ( z) = , the residue of the pole at z = 0 is …………….. (G-2016, 1-Marks)
z2
1
20. The residue of a function f (z) = are
( z − 4 )( z +1)
3

−1 −1
a) and
27 125
−1 −1
b) and
125 125
−1 1
c) and
27 5
−1 −1
d) and (G-2017, 1-Marks)
125 5

21. An integral I over a counetr-clockwise circle C is given by

z2 −1 z
I =∮ e dz
C
z2 +1
If C is defined as z = 3 , then the value of I is
a) – i sin (1)
b) –2  i sin (1)
c) –3 i sin (1)
d) – 4 i sin (1) (G-2017, 2-Marks)

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Answers
1 b) 2 d) 3 a) 4 a) 5 a) 6 d)
7 c) 8 a) 9 a) 10 c) 11 b) 12 d)
13) 10 14) 0 15 b) 16) -133.87 17) 0 18 b)
19 ) 1 20 b) 21 d)
Solutions

1. b)
W = lnz
= logez
u + jv = loge (x + iy)
1 y
= log x 2 y 2 i tan 1
2 x
u is constant,
1
log x 2 y2 C
2
x2 + y2 = C [equation of circle having same centre (0,0)]

2. d)
1 1
2
z 4 z 2j z 2j
Only pole 0.2 j lies inside the circle z j 2
By cauchy ' s integral formula
1
1 2
dz
z 4
z ji 2

2 j
2j 2j 2

3. a)
1 1
ds ds
2 s 1 s 1
s 1
2 j Sum of residue
residue at pole s 1is 0
residue at pole s 1is
s 1
lim
s 1 s 1 s 1
1
2
1 1
ds 2 j j
2 2
s 1

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4. a)

eiz e iz
10
2i
1
eiz 20i
eiz
2
eiz 20ieiz 1 0

20i 396 20i 6i 11

eiz
2 2
iz
e 10i 3 11 i iz ln i 10 3 11

iz ln1 i 2n ln 10 3 11 ln i ln 10 3 11
2

iz i 2n ln 10 3 11
2
Therefore infinite number of complex solutions

5. a)
2
Since Lt z 2 f z is finite and non zero
z 2

f(z) has a pole order two at z = 2 the residue at z = a is given for a pole order n as
1 dn 1
n
Res f a n 1
z a f z
n 1 ! dz z a

Here n 2 pole of order 2 & a 2

1 d 2
Res f 2 z 2 f z
1! dz z 2

d 2 1
z 2 2 2
dz z 2 z 2 z 2

d 1
2
dz z 2
z 2
3
2 z 2
z 2
2 1
3
2 2 32
6. d)
1
f z c0 c1 z
1 f z
dz ?
z
unit circle
if has one pole at origin
z 1 f z
so dz 2 j 1 f 0
z
z 0
2 j 1 c0

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Complex Numbers

7. d)

Given that ,
1 2z
X z
z z 1 z 2
1 2z 1
Res 0 lim1.
z 0 z 1 z 2 2
1 2z 1
Res 1 lim1. 1
z 1 z z 2 1 1
1 2z
Res 2 lim1.
z 2 z z 1
1 4 3
2 2 1 2
8. a)
3z 4
I dz
2
c
z 4z 5
2 sum of residues
3z 4
Poles of are given by
2
z 4z 5

z2 4z 5 0
4 16 20 4 2i
z
2 2
2 i
Since the poles lie outside the circle |z| =1
So f (z) is analytic inside the circle |z| = 1
Hence f z dz 2 i 0 0
c
9. a)
x = i, then in polar coordinates
i
x cos i sin e2
2 2
x i i /2 t 2
Now, x j e et /2
e /2

10. c)
1 2
f z
z 1 z 3
z 3 2 z 1
z 1 z 3
z 1
z 1 z 3

Poles are at -1 and -3 i.e, (-1,0) and (-3,0) form figure below of |z+1| = 1,
We see that (-1,0) is inside the circle and (-3,0) is outside the circle

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Complex Numbers

1
Residue theorem says f z dz = Residue of those poles which are inside C. so the required
2 j
c
1
integral f z dz is given by the residue of function at pole (-1,0) (which is inside the circle)
2 j
c
11. b)

Z x iy
f z u iv
y
u e cos x
u
e y sin x
x
For analytical function
u v
x y
v y
sin x
y
Integrating w.r.t. y
y
V e sin x

12. d)
f z z x iy
u x v y
ux 1 vx 0
uy 0 vy 1
ux v y i.e. C R not satisfied z is not analytic function

13. 10
az1 b
f z1
cz1 d
az2 b
f z2
cz2 d
az1 b az2 b
cz1 d cz2 d
acz1 z2 bcz2 adz1 bd acz1 z2 bcz1 adz2 bd
bc z2 z1 ad z2 z1
z2 z1
bc ad
bc 4 5
d 10
a 2

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14. 0
z z
Re z
2
Since there is no pole inside unit circle, so Residue at poles is zero
1
Re z dz 0
2 i
c
15. b)
By Cauchy integral formula

f z 2 i f * z0
n 1
dz
z z0 n!
dz 2 i
n 1
.0 0
z z0 n!

16. -133.87
1
I
sin z
2 3
dz
c
z 2 /
1 2 j f '' 2 l
2 2!
f z sin z

f' z cos z
f '' z sin z
1 sin 2 j
I 2 j
2 2
1
sin h 2 133.87
2

17. 0
Given that f(z) is analytic
Which is possible only when b = 0
Since |z3| is differentiable at the origin but not analytic
2z3 is analytic everywhere
f(z) = 2z3 + b |z3| is analytic
Only when b = 0

18. b)
i z0 2 lies inside C ,
ez
so Res f z lim z 2.
z 2 z 2
2
e 7.38
1 ez 1
dz 2 i. 7.39 7.39
2 i z 2 2 i
c
ii z0 2 lies out side C then Res f z 0
ez 1
so dz 2 i 0 0
z 2 2 i
c

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Complex Numbers

19. 1
sin z
Residue of
z2
z3 z5
z
1 3! 5!
= coefficient of in
z z2

1 1 z z3
= coefficient of in
z z 3! 5!
=1

20 b)
Residue at z = 1=-1 is
1 d2 3 1
lim z 1
z 1 2! dz 2 z 4 z 1
3

1 2 1 1
lim 3 3
z 1 2! z 4 1 4 125
Residue at z 4 is
1 1 1
lim z 4 3 3
z 4 z 4 z 1 4 1 125

21. d)
Poles are z2 + 1 =0
z i
z = i lies inside |z| = 3
z = -i lies inside |z| =3
Residue at z = i is
z2 1
lim z i ez
z i z i z i
1 1 i
e iei
2i
Residue at z = -i is
z2 1
lim z i ez
z i z i z i
1 1 i 1 i i
e e ie
2i i
By residues theorem
I 2 i iei ie i

2 ei e i

2 cos1 i sin1 cos1 i sin1

2 2i sin1 4 i sin 1

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