Processing of Fiber Reinforced
Plastics
FABRICATING PROCESSES
Wide variety of processes are available to produce cost
efficient products.
In order to select the most efficient manufacturing process,
several factors are considered such as . . .
In order to select the most efficient manufacturing process,
several factors are considered such as:
Performance
Surface finish and appearance
Production rate and volume
Economic limitations
Size and complexity of the product
Materials
Fiber reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites are produced from
basic building blocks, namely
Fibers
Resin
Fillers
Gel coats
Following processes are available for the production of desired
product.
1. Open Moulding Process
A. Hand lay-up process
B. Spray-up process
1. Closed/Bag Moulding Process
A. Pressure Bag Moulding
B. Vacuum Bag Moulding
C. Auto-clave
Following processes are available for the production of desired
product.
Compression moulding
Matched die moulding or Resin Transfer Moulding
Vacuum assisted Resin Transfer Moulding
Filament winding
Pultrusion
Injection Moulding
Thermoforming
Blow moulding
Open mould process is particularly suitable under the
following conditions:
1. Only one side needs smooth finish
2. Slight variation in thickness is permissible.
3. When product size is large and complex in shape
4. Labour charges are not prohibitively high
5. Only a few mouldings are required
Close mould process is particularly suitable under the
following conditions:
1. Surface finish on all sides is of prime importance.
2. High dimensional control is required.
3. Large quantity of parts are to be produced.
Hand Lay up Moulding Process
Different stages:
A. Mould preparation
B. Raw material preparation
C. Laying up and curing
D. Mould releasing stage
E.
Mould Preparation
Mould should have the contours of the finished product.
We have to decide which of the sidesrequire high surface
finish.
Different materials like wood, wax, clay, plastics or FRP can be
used. The best one is FRP itself.
If wood is selected, need to seal the dents and wood grains
with paint-putty.
Mould Preparation
The mould surfaces are polished thoroughly and releasing
agent has to be applied.
Preparation of reinforcements
Chopped strand mats, woven cloth and chopped fibers are
generally used.
Use of mat and cloth provide better thickness control.
Number or layers of mats is to be decided.
Preparation of Resin mix
Epoxy, polyester and phenolic resins can be used.
The resins are stored at low temperatures with stabilisers
added to it.
This is done to prevent gelling.
Choice of resin depends on application and cost.
All of these resins require catalyst and accelerators to start
the curing action.
Laying up and curing
When the mould is ready entire surface is coated with a gel.
The thickness of the coat varies from0.18 to 0.5 mm.
The coat is allowed to get hardened.
Layers of reinforcement and resin are now laid. It is necessary
to calculate the correct ratio of the resin to reinforcement.
While laying, it is necessary to ensure that air bubble and
wrinkling do not occur.
Laying up and curing
Atmospheric condition is important to ensure good
mechanical properties.
Moisture content in the atmosphere must be less than 80% for
satisfactory results.
It is found that during monsoon time curing can take hours.
During gelling, we should not touch the laminates as it may
lead to formation of air bubbles.
Different stages of curing
A. Liquid stage:
Just before application on the mould, it is mixed with catalyst
and accelerator.
After application, viscosity will slowly change.
The time duration will depend on ratio of the resin to catalyst
and accelerator, temperature and type of resin.
Different stages of curing
Gelation stage:
This stage is the one where accelerator increases the rate of
gelation.
Should not touch the mould, as it can lead to formation of air
bubbles.
Setting stage:
In this stage the resin resembles hard cheese.
At this stage, when pressed with hand the resin will break.
Different stages of curing
Setting stage:
This is the stage where the surface will be hard and not break
up.
At this stage, the resin will not break with nail, only get
dented.
In this stage moulding can be removed from the mould.
Different stages of curing
Final cured stage:
The mould is allowed to get full curing for about 10 days.
In this stage part develops full mechanical properties.
This stage can be checked by knocking the moulding on the
floor.
Metalic sound - fully cured.
Spray up Moulding
Mould preparation
Raw material preparation
Adjustment of spraying gun
Spraying stage
Curing stage
Mould releasing stage
Adjustment of spraying gun
Rate of fiber-resin mixture to be deposited per minute.
Accordingly set the speed of chopper and resin gun.
Spraying stage
Advantages of Hand lay up and
spray process
Highly suitable for parts of large size and complex shapes.
Process is extremely simple.
The process does not require sophisticated machinery and
tools.
Contours and surface finish can be imparted according to the
needs of the customer.
Limitations of Hand lay up and
spray process
Technique is labour intensive.
Process is not amenable when smooth finish is required on
both sides.
Thickness can not be controlled.
It is difficult to obtain uniform fiber to resin ratio at all places.
Mass production is not possible.
Bag Moulding Process
This is a closed mould process and is adopted to make composites
where high reinforcement to resin ratio is required.
This process also provides smooth finish on all sides and is better
suited for automation.
Bag moulding comprises of three different methods:
1. Vacuum Bag moulding
2. Pressure Bag moulding
3. Autoclave Bag moulding
Bag Moulding Process
If only vacuum is used, the technique is called vacuum bag
moulding.
If air at room temperature is used to pressurise then the
technique is called pressure bag moulding.
If hot gases are used in closed chamber, then the technique is
called as autoclave bag moulding.
Vacuum Bag Moulding Process
Bags are thin and flexible
membranes made of
cellophane or poly vinyl
acrylate films or silicone
rubber sheets.
The main purpose of the bag
is to separate the laminate lay
up from pressurising gases or
atmospheric contamination.
Vacuum Bag Moulding Process
Bag desirable characteristics:
Sufficient flow to conform to complex
shapes.
Capability to squeeze the resin on the
reinforcement to increase the
wettability.
Sufficient softness to comply with
sealing requirements.
Withstand temperature as high as 175
C without loss of strength and stiffness.
Vacuum Bag Moulding Process
The main purpose of creating
vacuum is to allow entrapped air
and volatiles to escape through
vents.
This is essential to get good
wettability of the interface
between reinforcement and matrix.
In some cases, atmospheric
pressure is sufficient for
compaction.
Bag Moulding Technique
One of the oldest and versatile process for consolidating pre-
impregnated laminates. (Prepegs)
Bagging technique requires considerable skill on the part of
the worker to produce high quality finished product.
1) Vacuum Bag 2) Pressure Bag 3) Autoclave
Bag Moulding Technique
Vacuum bag moulding requires simple instruments and
handles large parts and complex shapes.
Pressure bag and autoclave are preferred for curing at higher
pressures and temperatures and for higher level of
consolidation. - examples - helicopter blades, helicopter rotor
shafts
Pressures up to 640 MPa and temperatures upto 200 C can be
achieved in Autoclave.
Heated air or steam is used for pressurisation.
Bag Moulding Technique
Pressure Bag Moulding
Bag Moulding Technique
In Bagging technique two main concerns are 1) leaking 2)
Bridging.
Bridging is the failure of the bag to conform to the outer
configuration of the mould.
Leakage is due to improper bonding at the sealant - bag
interface.
Bag Moulding Technique
Various steps in Bag moulding are:
Fabrication of Tooling or Mould
Cutting of prepegs
Lay up of prepegs
Bagging / Curing
Part removal / Finishing operations
Fabrication of tooling:
Bag Moulding Technique
Tools are not highly stresses and also the temperature does
not exceed 200 C and hence material selection is not very
tedious.
Steel
Cast Aluminium
Electroformed Cu or Ni
Polymer composites
Ceramic materials
Fabrication of tooling:
Bag Moulding Technique
Steel moulds are usually machined to shape and AL is cast to required
shape.
Cast AL tools must be carefully fabricated to avoid surface defects
and internal defects.
Electro-formed Cu or Ni are very soft and can be formed to intricate
shapes.
Electro-formed moulds are made by electroplating Cu or Ni on a
conducting surface.
Adhesion of planting on the conducting surface is very important.
It should be strong enough to retain surface detail and weak enough
to be removed after planting.
Bag Moulding Technique
Fabrication of tooling:
Normal planting rate is 0.016 mm/hr
Planting is typically done continuously for 200 hours to get
mould of 3.2 mm thickness.
Bag Moulding Technique
Advantages of Electro-formed Moulds:
Amenable to intricate shapes.
Accurate reproduction of the details.
This is the only way certain moulds can be made.
Less costly than steel.
Bag Moulding Technique
Disdvantages of Electro-formed Moulds:
Short corners pose problems.
Difficult to maintain uniform thickness.
Costlier than AL.
Bag Moulding Technique
Other Mould Materials:
Biggest problem with metal moulds is thermal expansion.
Metal T.E. Coefficient is 3 to 7 times more than that of a
cured composite.
Castable ceramics are also potential mould materials.
However, they are expensive and pose problems with regard
to mismatch stresses.
Polymer based tools:
Bag Moulding Technique
Widely used for number of reason:
Expansion can be closed matched.
Relatively inexpensive.
Frequent design changes are possible.
Duplication is easier when several tools are required.
Repairs are simple.
Corrosion resistance.
Bag Moulding Technique
Secondary tools:
Mould parting agent - silicon liquid
Bleeder - jute
Sealant - zinc chromate
Cutting of Pre-Peg:
Bag Moulding Technique
Cutting and trimming of pre-pegs are slow laborious and is
subjected to human error.
There are several techniques adopted for cutting -
A. Manual methods with scissors and knives.
B. Reciprocal knife method.
C. Steel rule die.
D. Water jet.
E. Laser cutting.
Bag Moulding Technique
Manual method:
Knife or scissors
Cutting speeds upto 280 cm/min can be achieved.
Disadvantage:
Slow, tedious, labor intensive
Bag Moulding Technique
Reciprocating Knife method:
Also called Gerber system.
Work table, reciprocating knife.
A thin plastic film is spread over the pre-peg, allowing
vacuum to pull the material to maintain cutting operation.
On completion of cut, vacuum is released and cut plies are
stored.
Knife reciprocates at 5000 cycle per minute.
Bag Moulding Technique
Advantages:
Fast cutting - 1200 mm/min
Computer controlled.
Accuracy is about 0.7 mm.
Reliable upto 20 plies.
Disadvantages:
Less accurate compared to water jet or laser cutting.
Water Jet Cutting:
Bag Moulding Technique
It uses a focused stream of high pressure water (345 MPa)
through a very small orifice (0.25 mm) to cut pre-pegs.
Advantages:
Generates no dust.
Upto 40 piles can be cut.
Clean edges.
Can be used for cutting both cured and uncured pre-pegs
Computer controlled.
Laser Cutting:
Bag Moulding Technique
500 W CO2 laser equipment can cut at the rate of 1300
mm/min.
Procedure:
Pre-peg is fed into an enclosure adjacent to laser equipment.
Laser beam passes through an optical train to a optical head
which is computer controlled.
Laser is then focused on material and programmed to travel.
Laser beam vaporises the pre-peg at the point of contact.
Advantages:
Bag Moulding Technique
Very fast cutting (228 mm/sec)
Clean cut edges.
Computer controlled.
No width restriction.
Disadvantages
Formation of heat affected zone near the cut edges.
Basic cost is very high.
Lay up: Bag Moulding Technique
Pre-peg are stacked in desired orientation.
Place the first ply on mould surface.
Ensure close contact with mould surface.
Place other plies as per the design plan.
Use teflon tool until all air pockets and wrinkles are removed.
Ready for begging.
Bagging:
Bag Moulding Technique
Most important step.
Procedure:
Place 50 mm band of jute (bleeder) beyond the edge, 25 mm
apart.
Place one or two rows of sealing compound.
Place vacuum tunnels on top of jute.
Cover the entire lay up, jute and sealing compound with a
flexible polyvinyl alcohol bag.
Bag Moulding Technique
Procedure:
Connect the vacuum hoses to the mould and slowly apply
vacuum. Work the wrinkles out of the lay-up and bag.
Apply full vacuum using the Teflon rubbery tool remove
entrapped air and excess-resin.
Bag Moulding Technique
Curing:
To change the resin and reinforcement into a cured part
configuration.
A cure cycle is a function of time-temp steps at constant
pressure.
The specific cure cycle for a part is based on the resin type,
thickness of the part, mould material and mould thickness.
Bag Moulding Technique
Advantages of Bag Moulding
A wide combination of matrix reinforcement systems can be
made into a laminated composites.
The matrix could be any type of thermoplastic of thermoset
compound.
The fiber type could be Glass or Carbon or Boron.
Smooth and textural finished are possible on all sides.
The process can be automated.
Bag Moulding Technique
Limitations of Bag Moulding
Steps involved are tedious and hence only skilled operators
are required.
Sophisticated equipment is necessary and hence the process
is expensive.
Large size components can not be made.
Bag Moulding Technique
Filament Winding
Filament Winding
Bag Moulding Technique
Used in the fabrication of tubular composite parts.
Typical examples are composite pipe, electrical conduit and
composite tanks.
Fiber-glass roving strands are impregnated with a liquid
thermosetting resin and wrapped onto a rotating mandrel in a
specific pattern.
When the winding operation is completed, the resin is cured
or polymerised and the composite part is removed from the
mandrel.
Filament Winding
Bag Moulding Technique
Capital investment is higher compared to open mould process.
The primary expense would be the cost of the winding mandrel
for a specific application.
Filament winding is an operation in which continuous
reinforcement in the form of Roving or mono-filaments are
wound on a mandrel.
By this method, maximum fiber/resin ratio can be obtained (70-
80%).
Winding can be made at pre-determined angles with respect to
the axis of the cylinder. (Principal stress)
Process
Bag Moulding Technique
Continuous filaments or rovings are drawn from a pulley.
The filament / rovings pass through a resin bath.
The temperature of the bath is maintained according to the
resin system that is selected.
The resin impregnated reinforcement pass through feed point
before they are deposited on the mandrel.
The feed point controls the spacing between the filaments
which is called the band width.
Part diameters range from 25 - 6000 mm.
Bag Moulding Technique
The process consists of wrapping bands of continuous fiber or
roving in a single machine control operation.
Many layers of the same or different patterns are placed on
the mandrel.
The repetitive patterns and reinforcement spacing are closely
controlled.
The resin may be added before, during or after winding
operation.
The process is completed by curing the resin and removing
the mandrel or tool.
Bag Moulding Technique
Filament wound items are produced mainly for aerospace and
commercial markets.
Aerospace applications include rocket motor cases, pressure
bottles, and specialty missiles.
The primary importance here is strength to weight ratio and
to orient fibers along the direction of the applied stress.
Commercial applications include, storage tanks, chimney
liners, conduit pipes etc.
Bag Moulding Technique
Winding Methods
1. Wet winding - Roving is fed through the resin bath.
2. Dry winding - prepegs roving is fed directly on the mandrel.
3. Post impregnation - here roving is wound on the mandrel and
resin is applied to the wound structure by brush.
Bag
Wet winding Moulding Technique
1. Material cost is lowest for this approach.
2. There is flexibility in changing the formulations of the resin.
Resin system should be:
Low in volatile content to prevent gassing and bubbling.
Within specific viscosity limits at room temperature.
Have a long pot life so that resins do not over - gel.
Basic Winding Materials
1. Bag Moulding Technique
E - Glass -> for low cost,
2. S - Glass -> high strength,
3. Graphite -> for high strength
4. Aramid (Kevlar) - for light weight and toughness
Resin system:
Epoxy - for curing at low temperature and better strength
Polyester and vinyl ester - for low cost and good balance of
mechanical properties
Silicone, phone and polyamide - for high temperature and
electrical applications
Bag Moulding Technique
Winding patterns:
1. Circumferential winding or hoop winding (90 degree)
2. Helical winding (30-45 degree)
3. Polar winding (0 degree)
Bag
Mandrels Moulding
Material: Technique
Poor mandrel design and material may cause fiber damage,
deviations in dimensions and excessive residual stresses.
1. Sand filled polyvinyl alcohol acts as a good binder and is
easily removable. Can be used upto 1500 mm diameter.
2. Inflatable mandrels: useful when high torque resistance is not
required. The material is made from elastomers with support
structures.
3. Segmental aluminium sandwich, soluble plaster, foam,
plastic, wood etc., have also been used.
Bag Moulding Technique
Factors affecting performance of filament wound
parts:
1. Resin content and distribution
2. Winding tension
3. Variations in band width
4. Curing cycle
5. Type of resin and fiber
Tests to evaluate integrity:
Bag Moulding Technique
1. Ring test
Rings of composites are fabricated with same intended
process parameters and are subjected to external pressure
and compression strengths are determined.
1. Sub - scale model tests:
Sub scale models are prepared and subjected ro burst test
through internal pressurisation.
In some cases, proof tests are done using pressures upto
80% of burst pressure and the soundness of the part is
evaluated.
Advantages:
Bag Moulding Technique
Highly suitable for components having a surface of
revolution.
Windings in the direction of principal stress can lead to
highest possible strength.
High fiber to rasin ratio can be obtained.
Since tension is applied to the filaments, excess resin is
effectively squeezed out.
Automated process - less human error.
Almost no wastage of raw material.
Bag Moulding Technique
Limitations:
Not suitable for components whose surface is not a surface of
revolution.
If the component radius is small, removing cured product
from mandrel can be difficult.
In multi-layer component, inter-laminar shear strength of
filament wound by this technique is low compared to that
obtained in closed mould process.
Bag Moulding Technique
Pultrusion:
Continuous molding process that combines fiber
reinforcements and thermosetting resin.
The pultrusion process is used in the fabrication of composite
parts that have a constant cross-section profile.
Rods and bars, electric cable tray components.
Various continuous strand mats, fabrics (woven and knitted),
are used to obtain strength in the cross axis or transverse
direction.
Steps in Pultrusion process:
Bag Moulding Technique
Continuous strand rovings and mats are pulled from one end
of the line into a resin bath.
The resin bath contains liquid resin, curing agent, fire
retardants etc.
Residence time, dropping of fibers are adjusted such that
maximum fiber wet out is achieved
The fiber resin stream is then pulled through a series of
performer where fiber bundle is evenly distributed through
mechanical means.
The pre-former brings the fiber bundles into the final form.
Bag Moulding Technique
Steps in Pultrusion process:
The stream then enters on to a long pre-heated die.
Final shaping and curing takes place in the die.
Once the stream leaves the die, it is cooled and cut into
desired length.
