CHA P TER

07
Evolution

ËVØLÜTÏØÑ
110 | A Handbook of Biology

 Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.

 Evolutionary Biology is the study of evolutionary history of life forms.

ØRÏGÏÑ ØF LÏFË

 The UV rays from the sun

 Universe originated about broke up water into H2 and O2,
20 billion years ago by a and H2 being lighter escaped.
single huge explosion.
 Oxygen combined with NH3
 The earth was formed about and CH4 to form water, CO2
4.5 billion years ago. etc.
 There was no atmosphere  The ozone layer was formed.
on early earth. Water vapour, As it cooled, the water vapour
CH4, CO2, NH3 released from fell as rain to form oceans.
molten mass covered the
 Life appeared almost 500
surface.
million years ago after the
formation of earth.

THËØRÏËS ØF ØRÏGÏÑ ØF LÏFË

1) Theory of Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis/Autogenesis)
 It states that, life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw,
mud etc.
 Louis Pasteur demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life
and disproved this theory.
2) Biogenesis
 Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that, life
originates from pre-existing life. He showed that in pre-sterilized flasks,
life did not come from killed yeast. In another flask open to air, new living
organisms arose.
3) Cosmic Theory (Theory of Panspermia)
 It states that, the units of life (spores) were transferred to different
planets including earth.
4) Theory of Special Creation
 It states that, living & non-living was created by some supernatural
power (God)
5) Theory of Chemical Evolution
 Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that, the first form of life was
originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4,
NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc. i.e. "Abiogenesis first, but
biogenesis ever since“. (AIPMT 2007)
Evolution

ÜRËÝ MÏLLËR ËXPËRÏMËÑT

Harold Urey & Stanley Miller in the
In similar experiments, others
1 3
year 1953 experimentally proved
theory of chemical evolution. observed formation of sugars,
They created a condition like nitrogen bases, pigment and
that of primitive earth (i.e. high fats.
temperature, volcanic storms,
reducing atmosphere with CH4,
NH3, H2O, H2 etc).

2
First non-cellular form of
4
They made electric discharge in a
closed flask containing CH4, NH3, life originated 3 billion years
H2 and water vapour at 800 C. As ago. They were RNA, proteins,
a result, some amino acids are polysaccharides, etc.
formed. The ratio of CH4, NH3, and
H2 was 2:1:2 (NEET 2020)

Electrodes

Electrical spark To vacuum

(lightning) pump

H 2O CH4
NH3 H2 Sampling
probe
Gases
Cooling (primitive atmosphere)
system
Condenser
Sampling Water
probe (ocean)
Heat source
Cooled water
(containing organic compounds) Trap

ËVÏDËÑÇËS FØR ËVØLÜTÏØÑ

1) PÅLËØÑTØLØGÏÇÅL ËVÏDËÑÇËS
Paleontology: It is the study of fossils. Fossils are remnants of life forms found
in rocks (earth crust). Fossils are written documents of evolution.
Significance of Fossils

1 2 3 4
To study about
To study phylogeny To study the geological period
connecting link To study about
(evolutionary history or by analysing
extinct animals. E.g.
race history). E.g. Horse between two groups fossils in different
Dinosaurs.
evolution. of organisms. E.g. sedimentary rock
Archaeopteryx. layers.
112 | A Handbook of Biology

 The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms
are restricted to certain geological time spans.

2) MØRPHØLØGÏÇÅL & ÅÑÅTØMÏÇÅL ËVÏDËÑÇËS

Comparative anatomy and morphology shows that different forms of
animals have some common structural features. This can be explained as
follows:

(Å) HØMØLØGØÜS ØRGÅÑS

Homologous organs are the organs having fundamental similarity in structure and origin
01 but different functions. This phenomenon is called Homology. (NEET 2018)

Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s forelimb. These forelimbs have
02 different functions but similar anatomical structures such as bones (humerus, radius, ulna,
carpals, metacarpals & phalanges). (NEET 2018)

03 Homology is also seen in heart, brain etc.

04 Homology in plants: Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita. (AIPMT 2008)

The origin of homologous organs is due to divergent evolution. It is the evolution by which
05 related species become less similar to survive and adapt in different environmental
condition. (NEET 2018)

06 Homology indicates common ancestry.

Evolution

B) ÅÑÅLØGØÜS ØRGÅÑS
These are the organs having similar function but different structure & origin.
This phenomenon is called Analogy
 Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds
(modified forelimbs).
 Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic
brain). (NEET 2013)
 Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins. (NEET 2020)
 Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
 Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from
endoderm). (NEET 2014)
Origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution. (NEET 2016) It is
the evolution by which unrelated species become more similar to survive
and adapt in similar environmental condition.
3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of different species in a geographical
area starting from apoint. (AIPMT 2012)

Australian
marsupials (W) Placental
Darwin’s finches in
mammals in
Galapagos Islands. (AIPMT 2010) Australia.
114 | A Handbook of Biology

Placental mammals Australian Marsupials

Mole Marsupial mole
Anteater Numbat (Anteater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf

When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated

geographical area, it results in convergent evolution. E.g. Australian
Marsupials and Placental mammals.

4) BÏØÇHËMÏÇÅL ËVÏDËÑÇËS
Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules and
metabolism. It indicates common ancestry.

5) ËMBRÝØLØGÏÇÅL ËVÏDËÑÇËS

1 Proposed by Ernst Haeckel.

He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features

that are absent in adult. 2

E.g. All vertebrate embryos (including human) develop vestigial gill slits
3 just behind the head. But it is functional only in fish and not found in
other adult vertebrates.

However, Karl Ernst von Baer rejected this proposal. (NEET 2020) He noted
that embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals 4
Evolution

6) ËVÏDËÑÇËS FØR ËVØLÜTÏØÑ BÝ ÑÅTÜRÅL SËLËÇTÏØÑ

Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that are best suited
for their environment survive and reproduce. Some evidences are given
below.
Industrial melanism:
In England, before industrialization , there were more white-winged moths
on trees than dark winged or melanized moths. After industrialization more
dark-winged moths and less white winged moths were developed.

RËÅSØÑ

After Industrialisation: The tree

Before Industrialisation: trunks became dark due to
There was white lichens industrial smoke and soot. No
covering the trees. In that growth of lichens. Under this
background, white winged condition the white winged moth
moths survived but dark did not survive because the
winged moths were picked predators identified them easily.
out by predators. Dark winged moth survived
because of suitable dark
background. (NEET 2015)

ÑÅTÜRÅL SËLËÇTÏØÑ BÝ ÅÑTHRØPØGËÑÏÇ ÅÇTÏØÑ:

It is the development of resistant varieties in organisms due to human action.
. E.g. Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc.

THËØRÏËS ØF BÏØLØGÏÇÅL ËVØLÜTÏØÑ

LÅMÅRÇKÏSM (THËØRÝ ØF ÏÑHËRÏTÅÑÇË ØF ÅÇQÜÏRËD ÇHÅRÅÇTËRS)
It is proposed by Lamarck. It states that evolution of life forms occurred by
the inheritance of acquired characters. Acquired characters develop by use
and disuse of organs.]
 EVOLUTION BY USE OF ORGANS: Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous
elongation to forage leaves on trees. This acquired character was
inherited to succeeding generations.
 EVOLUTION BY DISUSE:Disappearance of limbs in snakes. This theory was
eliminated out because it is proved that the characters are inherited
only through genes.
116 | A Handbook of Biology

DÅRWÏÑÏSM (THËØRÝ ØF ÑÅTÜRÅL SËLËÇTÏØÑ)

 Proposed by Charles Darwin.
 It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called
H.M.S. Beagle.
 Alfred Wallace (a naturalist worked in Malay Archipelago) had also
come to similar conclusions.
 Work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.

DÅRWÏÑÏSM ÏS BÅSËD ØÑ 2 KËÝ ÇØÑÇËPTS

Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are
1 modified descendants of previous life forms..

Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony (A) growing

on a given medium. If the medium composition is changed,
only a part of the population can survive under new 2
condition. This variant population (B) outgrows the others
and appears as new species, i.e. B is better than A under
new condition. Thus, nature selects for fitness

ÑÅTÜRÅL SËLËÇTÏØÑ ÏS BÅSËD ØÑ THË FØLLØWÏÑG FÅÇTS:

1 2

Overproduction : Population
Heritable minor variations : It is
size grows exponentially due
either beneficial or harmful to
to maximum reproduction (Eg.
the organisms. 3
bacterial population)

Limited natural resources :

Resources are not increased
in accordance with the
population size.

4 Survival of the fittest : 5

In struggle for existence,

Struggle for existence : It organisms with useful
is the competition among variations can utilize
organisms for resources, so resources better. Hence,
that population size is limited. they survive and reproduce.
This is called Evolution
6
Evolution : It leads to a change
in population characteristics
and new forms appear.
Darwin ignored about origin of
variation and mechanism of
evolution or speciation.
Evolution

MËÇHÅÑÏSM ØF ËVØLÜTÏØÑ
 Hugo de Vries proposed Mutation theory of evolution.
 He conducted experiments on Oenothera Iamarckiana (evening
primrose) and believed that evolution takes place through mutation
and not by minor variation.
 Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. Due to this, gradual
evolution occurs.
 Mutation is sudden, random and directionless variation. Here, speciation
is by saltation (single step, large mutation). (NEET 2019)
 Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution. (AIPMT 2012)

HÅRDÝ WËÏÑBËRG PRÏÑÇÏPLË

 It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and constant
from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary
influences.
 The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a
constant. This is called genetic equilibrium (Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium)
 Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
 E.g. In a diploid, p and q are the frequencies of alleles A & a respectively.
 The frequency of AA = p2
 The frequency of aa = q2
 The frequency of Aa = 2pq (NEET II 2016)
 Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2] (NEET 2019)
 Change of frequency of alleles in a population causes disturbance in
genetic equilibrium. This is due to evolution.

FÅÇTØRS ÅFFËÇTÏÑG HÅRDÝ WËÏÑBËRG ËQÜÏLÏBRÏÜM

(Å) GËÑË MÏGRÅTÏØÑ

Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene

frequencies change in both populations. Gene flow
occurs if migration happens multiple times.
118 | A Handbook of Biology

(B) GËÑËTÏÇ DRÏFT

The accidental gene flow causing change in
frequency. Sometimes, the change in frequency is
so different in the new sample of population that
they become a different species. The original drifted
population becomes founder population and the
effect is called founder effect. (NEET II 2016, AIPMT
2002)

(Ç) MÜTÅTÏØÑ

Mutations result in formation of new phenotypes. Over

few generations, this leads to speciation

(D) GËÑËTÏÇ RËÇØMBÏÑÅTÏØÑ

Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over

resulting in genetic variation.

(Ë) ÑÅTÜRÅL SËLËÇTÏØÑ:

It is of 3 types:-
 i. Stabilizing selection/Balancing selection: Here,
more individuals acquire mean character value and
variation is reduced. Eg. consider the body size of
organisms.
 ii. Directional selection/Progressive selection: Here,
individuals of one extreme are more favoured.
 iii. Disruptive selection: Here, individuals of both
extreme are more favoured.
Evolution

Peak gets higher

and narrower

(a)

Phenotypes
Number of individuals

Peak shifts
favoured Medium-sized
with phenotype

in one direction
by natural individuals
selection are favoured

(b)

Two peaks form

(c)

Å BRÏËF ÅÇÇØÜÑT ØF ËVØLÜTÏØÑ

The geological time scale includes 4 eras: Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic
& Cenozoic.
Cenozoic

Quaternary Angiosperms (flowering plants)

Tertiary
Monocotyledons
Bryophytes

Sphenopsids Ginkgos Gnetales Dicotyledons

Cretaceous (horsetails)
Mesozoic

Jurassic Ferns Conifers Cycads

Herbaceous
lycopods
Triassic

Permian Arborescent
lycopods
Seed ferns
Paleozoic

Carboniferous

Progymnosperms
Devonian
Psilophyton
Silurian Zosterophyllum
Rhynia-type plants

Tracheophyte ancestors

Chlorophyte ancestors
120 | A Handbook of Biology

Snakes Crocodiles
Turtles
Lizards Tuataras Birds Mammals

Quaternary 0

Tertiary 50

Dinosours
(extinct)
Cretaceous 100

Jurassic 150

Therapsids
(extinct)
Triassic 200
Thecodonts
(extinct)
Permian 250

Pelycosaurs
Sauropsids (extinct)
Carboniferous300 Synapsids

350

Early reptiles
(extinct)

1) PRØTËRØZØÏÇ ËRÅ: 2500 - 541 MÏLLÏØÑ ÝËÅRS ÅGØ (MÝÅ)

First cellular forms Some of the cells Single celled

of life appeared had the ability to organisms became
(2000 mya). release O2. multicellular
organisms.

2) PÅLËØZØÏÇ ËRÅ: 540 - 252 MÝÅ

 It has 6 periods: Cambrian (540-490 mya), Ordovician (490-443 mya),
Silurian (425 mya), Devonian (405 mya), Carboniferous (360 mya) &
Permian (285 mya)
 500 mya: Invertebrates were formed.
 450 mya: First land organisms (plants) appeared.
 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
 350 mya: Jawless fishes were evolved. Fishes with stout and strong fins
could move on land and go back to water. In 1938, a Coelacanth fish
(lobefins) was caught in South Africa which was thought to be extinct.
Evolution

This fish was evolved into first amphibians (ancestors of modern day
frogs and salamanders).
 320 mya: Sea weeds and few plants were existed.
 Amphibians evolved to reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs (do not dry
up in sun).
 Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal
deposits slowly.

3) MËSØZØÏÇ ËRÅ (252 - 66 MÝÅ) - ÅGË ØF RËPTÏLËS

1 It has 3 periods: Triassic (230 mya), Jurassic (208 mya) &

Cretaceous (144 mya). (NEET 2013)

200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water to
evolve into fish-like reptiles (Eg. Ichthyosaurs).
2

The land reptiles were dinosaurs (Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops,

3 Pteranodon, Stegosaurus, Brachiosaurus etc.) T. rex was the largest
dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).

First toothed birds emerged 4

4) Cenozoic Era (66 - mya)

 Age of Mammals & Angiosperms.
 It has 2 periods: Tertiary (66 mya) & Quaternary (2mya)
 Age of man.
 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some say climatic changes
killed them. Some say most of them evolved into birds.
 First mammals were shrew-like. Their fossils are small sized.
 In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus,
bear, rabbit etc. Due to continental drift, when South America joined
North America, these animals were overridden by North American fauna.
 Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack
of competition from any other mammals.
122 | A Handbook of Biology

ØRÏGÏÑ ÅÑD ËVØLÜTÏØÑ ØF MÅÑ

15 mya: Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus. Hairy, Walked like gorillas &
1 chimpanzee.
Dryopithecus: ape-like. Ramapithecus: man-like. (NEET II 2016)

3-4 mya: Man-like primates.

2 Height up to 4 feet. Fossils

of man-like bones found in
Ethiopia & Tanzania.

2 mya: Australopithecus. Lived

3 in East African grass lands.

Hunted with stone weapons.
Ate fruits.

Homo habilis : First human-like

4
being (hominid). Did not eat
meat.
Brain capacity: were between
650-800cc.

5
1.5 mya: Homo erectus (Java
man). Large brain (900 cc). Ate
meat.

1 lakh 40,000 years age (AIPMT 2012) : Homo neanderthalensis

6
(Neanderthal man).
Brain capacity: 1400 cc. (NEET 2019) Lived in East & Central Asia. Used hides
to protect their body. Buried their dead.

75,000 - 10,000 years ago (ice age): Homo sapiens (Modern man).

7 Pre-historic cave art developed about 18000 years ago. Agriculture &
settlements: 10000 years ago. (AIPMT 2011, 2012)

Notes