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Some important terms

 Stimulus- any external or internal factor that causes a living
organism to react is called a stimulus. (Pl: stimuli)
 Response- the specific reaction shown by a living organism
towards a stimulus.
 Impulse- an electrical wave of excitation that travels across a
neuron and carries specific messages.
 Receptors- group of organs that receive sensory impulses
and convey them to the brain
 Effectors- group of organs that show responses to a
specific stimulus.

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Receptors
 Receptors :- are the sense organs which receive the stimuli and
pass the message to the brain or spinal cord through the
sensory nerves.
 Eg :- Photoreceptors in the eyes to detect light.
 Phonoreceptors in the ears to detect sound.
 Olfactory receptors in the nose to detect smell.
 Gustatory receptors in the tongue to detect taste.
 Baroreceptors and thermoreceptor: in the skin to detect
touch/Pressure and temperature respectively

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Neuron
 The fundamental structural and functional unit of the nervous system
that carries impulses across the body.

Node of ranvir

Schwan cells

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Structure of a neuron
A neuron is made up of two main parts;
a) Cyton
b) Axon

Cyton – also called cell body, this part of neuron contains a large prominent
nucleus in the center.
The cell membrane is branched into several cytoplasmic branches called
dendrites.
Dendrites receive the impulses.

Cont…
The cytoplasm is called neuroplasm. Inside the neuroplasm are
scattered several stainable granules called Nissl granules.

B) Axon – The long cytoplasmic projection of the neuron that

extends from the cell body.
An axon is covered by an insulating membrane called
Neurolemna.
Axons carry the impulse they receive from the cyton. They
usually terminate into another neuron or an organ or gland or
muscle.

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Cont…..
In some neuron there is an additional envelop inside the neurolemna
called the Myelin sheath which help in faster conduction of the
impulse.
Such neurons are called myelinated neurons and are mostly present
in cerebral medulla.
Impulse always travels from Cyton to Axon.

Arrangement of neurons
 Neurons are arranged end to end ,forming a chain.
 This helps in the continuous transmission of impulses. Each neuron receives
an impulse through its dendrite and transmits it to the next neuron in a
sequence through its axon.
 Neurons are not connected.
 Synapse or a small gap occurs between the axon of one neuron and dendron
of next neuron.
 A synapse in the muscle fiber is also known as neuromuscular junction.

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Transmission of messages through neurons

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Types of Neurons
 Sensory neurons- Those neurons that carry impulses from
the receptors (sense organs)to the brain. These impulses are
sensory in nature.
 Motor neurons- Those neurons that carry impulses from
the brain to the effectors . These impulses are motor in
nature.
 Associated neurons- They are also called mixed neurons
as they carry impulses both to and from the brain.

Types of Neurons Motor

Sensory
Interneuron

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Nerves
A bundle of neurons with a common envelop around the
axons called nerve membrane.
A nerve provides a common
pathway for the
electrochemical nerve
impulses that are transmitted
along each of the axons

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Types of Nerves
 Sensory nerves- Those nerves that carry impulses from the
receptors (sense organs)to the brain.

 Motor nerves- Those nerves that carry impulses from the brain to
the effectors .

 Mixed nerves- They carry impulses both to and from the brain.
They are also called spinal nerves.

Reflexes
 A reflex is an involuntary, rapid response towards a
stimulus with the active participation of the brain.
 Reflexes are protective responses against harmful
stimuli.
For ex: If we touch a hot plate we recoil our hand
immediately to prevent it from getting burnt. This
immediate and unconscious response is called reflex.

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Reflex action
 Reflex action is a sudden, unconcious and involuntary
response of the effectors to a stimulus.
 Eg :- We suddenly withdraw our hand if we suddenly touch a
hot object.
 In this reflex action, the nerves in the skin (receptor) detects
the heat and passes the message through the sensory nerves to
the spinal cord.
 Then the information passes through the motor nerves to the
muscles (effector) of the hand and we withdraw our hand.

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Reflex Arc
 The path travelled by an impulse
during a reflex action response is
called a reflex arc.
 A reflex arc begins from the
receptors passes through the
sensory neuron, passes via
the interneuron to the motor
neuron and then to the
effectors.

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The human nervous system

The human Nervous System is classified into two major divisions-
 The Central Nervous System.
 The Peripheral Nervous System.

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Central Nervous System

 The CNS constitutes the main division of the Nervous system in Human
Beings.
 It comprises of two main organs concerned with control and coordination.
A) The Brain.
B) The Spinal Cord.

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Brain
 The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the
‘command and control system’.
 Body protection made up of immobile bones that make up the skull. The skull is
also called the Cranium.
 Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer
layer called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner
layer (which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater.
 The brain can be divided into three major parts:
 (i) Forebrain.
 (ii) Midbrain.
 (iii) Hindbrain.

Meninges of the Brain

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Brain

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Forebrain
 The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and
hypothalamus.
 Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain.
 It is the thinking part of the brain and controls voluntary actions.
 It controls touch, smell, hearing, taste, sight, mental activities
like thinking, learning, memory, emotions etc.

Midbrain
 The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of
the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain.
 Midbrain and hindbrain form the brain stem.
 Controls involuntary actions and reflex movements of head,
neck, eyes etc.

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Hindbrain
 The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the
medulla oblongata).
 Cerebellum :- controls body movements, balance and posture.
 Pons :- controls respiration.
 Medulla :- controls heart beat, blood pressure, swallowing, coughing,
 sneezing, vomiting etc.

The Brain
 Location: Head region
 Protection:
 a) Body protection made up of immobile bones that make up the skull.
The skull is also called the Cranium.
b) Membranous protection in the form of three membranes called the
meninges. These three layers are called – Dura mater, Arachnoid mater
and Pia mater.
The cerebro-spinal fluid in between the three layers, protects the brain
further.

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Parts of the Brain

Fore- Brain
The fore brain makes up the largest part of the brain.
The forebrain consists of
Cerebrum,
Thalamus,
and hypothalamus.

Fore Brain
 Olfactory lobes:
Two small lobe
like structures
situated in the
lower part of the
anterior brain.

Controls the
sense of smell

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Fore Brain
The cerebrum is the largest, most prominent part of
the human brain. The longitudinal fissure
partitions the cerebrum into right and left
hemispheres, which are each separated into four
lobes:
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Temporal
 Occipital
 The cerebrum consists of the cerebral cortex
(outer gray matter) and white matter.
 The cerebral cortex is configured into convolutions
(folds) that maximize surface area
 The interior white matter consists of myelinated
axons of neurons that link several regions of the
brain

Lobes of the Cerebrum

 Frontal Lobe- associated
with reasoning, planning,
parts of speech, movement,
emotions, and problem
solving

 Parietal Lobe- associated

with movement,
orientation, recognition,
perception of stimuli

 Occipital Lobe- associated

with visual processing

 Temporal Lobe- associated

with perception and
recognition of auditory
stimuli, memory, and
speech

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Fore Brain
Thalamus is between the
cerebral cortex and the
midbrain, both in terms of its
location and its neurological
connections. Its function
includes relaying sensation
and special sense signals to
the cerebral cortex, relaying
motor signals from the
cerebral cortex, and the
regulation of consciousness,
sleep and alertness.

Fore Brain
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small
nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of
the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via
the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The hypothalamus, is located below the
thalamus, just above the brain stem
The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other
activities of the Autonomic Nervous System. It synthesizes and secretes
neurohormones

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Mid Brain
 It consist of
 Crura cerebri:
longitudinal myelinated
nerve fibres.
controls the muscles of
limbs .
 Corpora Quadregemina:
four spherical projections

Hind Brain
 Hind brain is
made up of
three parts:
a) Cerebellum
b) Pons
c) Medulla
oblongata

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Cerebellum
 The hind part of brain. It is divided into cerebellar cortex and cerebellar
medulla.
 Cerebellar cortex has longitudinal fissures and not folds. While the
medulla looks like a branched tree.
 Cerebellum consists of 12% of the brain.
Functions:
a) It controls muscular co-ordination
b) It regulates body balance.

Pons Verolli
 The pons is a structure
located on the brain
stem.
 The pons relays sensory
information between the
cerebellum and
cerebrum, aids in
relaying other messages
in the brain, controls
arousal, and regulates
respiration.

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Medulla Oblongata
 The medulla contains
the cardiac, respiratory,
vomiting and vasomotor
centers and deals with
autonomic functions,
such as breathing, heart
rate and blood pressure

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Spinal Cord- Structure

 The spinal cord is an extension of the brain
stem.
 It runs mid-dorsally through the body and
innervates the body.
 The Sectional view of the spinal cord shows
the outer white matter and inner grey
matter.
 The inter-neurons are present in the gray
matter and help in reflexes.
 Spinal cord is protected by a set of 33 bones
called vertebral column and the three
meninges.

Spinal Cord- Structure

 A central canal is filled with the cerebro-spinal fluid.
 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge out from either sides of the
spinal cord.
 Spinal nerves are mixed nerves as they have the sensory as
well as the motor neurons in them.

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Functions of the spinal cord

Spinal cord conducts impulses from the
receptors to the brain as well as from the brain
to the effectors.
Spinal cord controls reflexes.

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PNS
The peripheral nervous system constitute the cranial and
spinal nerves along with their branches.
Cranial nerves arise from the brain and spread
throughout the head.
There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves.
cranial nerve I, II, and VIII are sensory nerves.
III, IV, VI, XI and XII are motor nerves.
V, VII, IX and X are mixed nerves.

 There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

 All are mixed type (carry both sensory and motor nerve
fibers)
 8 in neck region.(cervical)
 12 in chest region.(thoracic)
 5 in abdominal region. (lumbar)
 5 in hip region.(sacral)
 1 in coccyx region.(coccygeal)(last bone of vertebral
column)

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ANS
 The autonomic nervous system (ANS or visceral
nervous system) is the part of the peripheral nervous
system which controls activities inside body that are
normally involuntary, such as heart beat, gut
peristalsis.
 Controlled by visceral reflexes from medulla and
hypothalamus. And does not involve conscious
control.

It is classically divided into two subsystems:

parasympathetic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system

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Sympathetic Nervous System

 Promotes a "fight or flight" response,
corresponds with arousal and energy
generation, and inhibits digestion.
 Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-
intestinal (GI) tract and skin via
vasoconstriction.
 Blood flow to skeletal muscles and the lungs
is not only maintained, but enhanced.

Sympathetic Nervous System

 Dilates bronchioles.
 Increases heart rate
 Dilates pupils and relaxes the lens, allowing
more light to enter the eye.
 Inhibits peristalsis.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

 Promotes a "rest and digest" response,
promotes calming of the nerves return to
regular function, and enhances digestion.
 Dilates blood vessels leading to the GI tract,
increasing blood flow.

 The parasympathetic nervous system can
also constrict the bronchiolar diameter
when the need for oxygen has diminished.

Coordination in plants
 In plants control and coordination is done by chemical substances
called plant hormones or phytohormones.
 There are five main types of plant hormones. They are :-
 Auxins, Gibberillins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid and Ethylene.
 i) Auxins :- help in cell division, cell elongation and growth.
 ii) Gibberillins :- help in growth of stem and branches.
 iii) Cytokinins:- help in cell division, formation of fruits and seeds.
 iv) Abscisic acid :- inhibits growth and affects wilting of leaves.
 vi) Ethylene :- helps in flowering and ripening of fruits.

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Auxins

Gibberellins

PHYTOHORMONES Cytokinins

Abscisic acid

(ABA)

Ethylene

Auxins,
Growth
Gibberellins,
Promoters
PGRs Cytokinins
Growth Abscisic Acid,
Inhibitors Ethylene

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• Auxins were discovered by Charles Darwin and Francis

 F.W. Went isolated auxins from the tips of coleoptiles of oat

seedlings.
 Went developed Avena curvature test for bioassay of auxins.
 Synthetic Auxins
 IAA - Indole Acetic Acid
 IBA – Indole Butyric Acid
 NAA - Naphthalene Acetic Acid
 2, 4-D - 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic

• promote apical dominance

• initiate rooting in stem cuttings
• promote flowering e.g. in pineapples
• prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages
• promote the abscission of older mature leaves and
fruits
• induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in tomatoes
• used as herbicides
• controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell
division

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• E. Kurosawa, a Japanese scientist, identified gibbereilins present in

a fungal pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi.
• Gibbereilins were isolated from infected rice seedlings when
treated with sterile filtrates of fungus.
• Physiological Effects of Gibberelins
• Elongation of intact stems
• Dwarf shoots
• Bolting in rosette plants (e.g., Henbane, Cabbage)
• Overcome the natural dormancy of buds, tubers, seeds etc.
• Seed Germination
• Induce parthenocarpy or development of seedless fruits
• Promote flowering in long day plants
• Vernalization

• Skoog and Miller discovered cytokinins.

• Skoog and Miller crystallised the cytokinesis promoting
active substance named it kinetin from corn-kernels
and coconut milk.
Physiological Effects of Cytokinins
• induce cell-division
• delay the senescence of leaves and other organs
• promotes lateral bud
• increases cell expansion in dicot cotyledons and in
leaves
• promotes chloroplast development and chlorophyll
synthesis

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• Cousins confirmed the release of a volatile substance from

ripened oranges that hastened the ripening of stored
unripened bananas.
• The volatile substance was identified as ethylene.
Physiological Effects of Cytokinins
• promotes senescence and abscission
• inhibits elongation of stems and roots
• Induce fruit ripening
• breaks seed and bud dormancy
• initiates germination in peanut seeds
• sprouting of potato tubers
• promotes root growth and root hair formation
• initiate flowering and for synchronising fruit-set in
pineapples

• 1963, Frederick T. Addicott and his co-workers identified

Abscisic acid.
• ABA was isolated from several abscission-accelerating
substances from cotton plants.
• ABA is called stress hormone.
Physiological Effects of Cytokinins
• acts as a general plant growth inhibitor
• induces seed and bud dormancy
• inhibits seed germination
• stimulates the closure of stomata
• plays an important role in seed development, maturation
and dormancy

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Movements in plants
 Movements in plants are of two main types.
 Tropic movements and Nastic movements.
 a) Tropic movements :- are directional movements towards or away from
the stimulus and it depends on growth.
 They are of different types like Phototropism, Geotropism, Chemotropism,
Hydrotropism etc.
 i) Phototropism :- is movement of plants in response to light. If it is towards
light, it is called positive phototropism.
 Eg:- Bending of shoot towards light.
 If it is away from light, it is called negative phototropism.
 Eg:- Bending of root away from light.

Phototropism

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 ii) Geotropism :- is the movement of plants in response to

gravity. If it is towards gravity it is called positive geotropism.
Eg:- Downward growth of roots.
 If it is away from gravity it is called negative geotropism. Eg:-
Upward growth of shoot.
 iii) Chemotropism :- is movement of plant in response to
chemical stimuli. Eg:- Growth of pollen tube towards the ovule.
 iv) Hydrotropism :- is the movement of plants in response to
water.

Chemotropism

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Nastic movements
 Non directional movements which are neither towards or
away from the stimulus and it does not depend on
growth.
 Eg :- If we touch the leaves of touch me not plant, its
leaves fold up and droops down immediately due to the
change in the amount of water in the leaves.
 Depending upon the amount of water in the leaves, it
swells or shrinks.

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Endocrine glands in human beings

 The endocrine glands also help in control and
coordination.
 The endocrine glands produce chemical substances
which help to control and coordinate various activities in
the body.
 The endocrine glands in our body are :-
 Pineal, Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Thyroid,
Parathyroid, Thymus, Adrenal, Pancreas, Testes and
Ovary.

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Examples of coordination by endocrine

glands
 When we are frightened or angry, the adrenal glands produce more
adrenalin hormone which is sent through the blood to the heart, rib
muscles and diaphragm.
 This increases breathing rate to supply more oxygen to the muscles to
prepare the body to either run away or fight with the enemy.
 Iodine is needed by the thyroid gland to produce the hormone thyroxin.
 Thyroxin controls the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins and
helps in proper growth. If the diet is deficient in iodine it causes goiter.
 The pituitary gland produce growth hormones. Deficiency of this
hormone in childhood causes dwarfism. Excess of this hormone causes
tall growth (Gigantism).

 The pancreas produces the hormone insulin which controls

the blood sugar level.
 Increase in blood sugar level causes diabetes. A diabetic
patient has to take insulin injections to control his blood
sugar level.
 The testes in males produces the hormone testosterone
which controls the production of sperms and changes
during puberty.
 The ovary in females produces the hormone estrogen and
progesterone which controls the menstrual cycle and
pregnancy.

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