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Navigation V Reviewer

Bachelor in Secondary Education (Ifugao State University)

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Navigation VI It is the trigger pulses to the modulator and converted the inputs into a high
STCW Table A-II/1 frequency oscillation thru magnetron. A high frequency oscillation are fed
RADAR NAVIGATION via wave guide or into a coaxial cable to the transmitter/receiver switch.
What is RADAR?
The word radar is an abbreviation for Radio Detection And Ranging DISPLAY
Radar is an electromagnetic systems used for detection and location of A radar echoes are display in a cathode ray tube (CRT). Several types of
objects such as aircraft, ship, vehicles, people, natural environment etc. CRT are utilized like A-SCAN or Short Persistent Tube, Plan Position
Indicator or PPI, Raster Scan Display.
The Use of Radar in Navigation A-SCAN or short persistent tube, the strength of an echo derived from its
Interpretation of the Radar Picture amplitude.
The radar picture is a plain picture of the ships surroundings. Only long
training and experience can teach you to interpret the radar picture quickly P.P.I DISPLAY
and accurately as well as to identify different targets. PPI is a long persistent tube, the trace is rotated around in unison with the
Use of radar to assist in navigation can be divided into 3 categories: rotation of the scanner and echoes previously recorded are retained during
-Making Landfall a period of at least one scanner revolution.
-Coastal Navigation
-Pilotage RASTER SCAN DISPLAY. Normally a rectangular screen with dimension
in the ratio 4:3 consisting of; example 1024 horizontal lines and 1280
LANDFALL NAVIGATION vertical line or picture elements (pixel)
Landfall by radar may give surprises. Always remember: initial radar fixes The radar provides all echoes information in Cartesian form (i.e. range,
are often not reliable at long ranges and when approaching land the picture bearing). Before the information can be displayed the information must be
may change completely. recalculated into X-Y coordinated by a processor.
The advantage of raster scan is that, it can be viewed in daylight without a
COASTAL NAVIGATION visor, and the capacity for the additional graphic information is almost
Coastal navigation requires experience and vigilance all the time. The unlimited compared with the PPI.
range accuracy of the radar is generally better than the bearing accuracy. The disadvantage of the raster scan is that even the best raster scan
When bearings has to be taken, choose isolated targets of relative small display available today, cannot match the resolution of the old PPI.
size.
Factors External to the Radar Set Affecting Detection
PILOTAGE
For navigation in narrow waters, radar is great device. The navigator must RADAR SCAN & RADAR SWEEP
know radar shadows. Knowledge is essential in order to distinguish clearly
between stationary and moving objects. Radar Scan- it is a one complete 360 degrees rotation of the antenna
(during one scan normally thousand sweeps are generated and
Fundamental Principle of Radar transmitted)
Transmitter generates and transmits electromagnetic wave (sine or pulse). Radar Sweep- is the transmission of one radar pulse only.
A portion of it is reflected back by the target (object you want to identify).
The radiated portion is collected by the radar antenna and processed. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF)
One antenna can be used for both transmission and reception Define as the number of pulses transmitted per second.
RADAR- derived from the phrase RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING. Long pulse is equals to low PRF
A short burst of electro-magnetic energy transmitted and hit to an object Short pulse equals to high PRF
and then return, since the velocity of the propagation is known it would be LONG PULSE- means more power and longer range but less resolution in
easy to calculate because the distance to the object as long as it can range.
measure time from which the transmission started until the echo return. SHORT PULSE- means a weaker pulse, less radar range but better
resolution in range.
Fundamental Principle of Radar
On Board Ship the RADAR has two main tasks: RADAR RANGE DEPEND MAINLY IN DIFFERENT PARAMETERS
-To function as an aid to prevent collision, as with the help of RADAR one Vertical Beam Width
can “SEE” in fog and darkness. Selected Pulse Length
-To assist in navigation, particularly at landfalls and when navigating in Height of Antenna
coastal waters. Installation of Antenna
Ship’s Trim
Fundamental Principle of Radar
IMPORTANT RADAR RANGE PARAMETERS
Antenna Height
RADIO WAVES- are Electro magnetic Waves motion consist of crest and
Height of the Target
trough.
Size of the Target
Wavelength- is a distance between a successive crest of waves,
Target Reflecting Area
electromagnetic waves of a length between 0.1-30000 mm are known as
Materials of the Target
radio waves.
Shape of the Target
Frequency- are other way of measure of waves motion, which indicates
Weather Condition
the number of crest that pass a fix of initial time.
Frequency and Wavelength are two terms closely associated.
FOLLOWING PARAMETERS MUST BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT:
Transmitted Peak Power
Wavelength
Marine Radar Component
Pulse Length
RADAR ANTENNA
Antenna Gain
Transmit and receive in an concentrated beam and a motor turns the
Noise Figure
antenna in rotation, the signal, which are amplified the signal becomes
Number of Pulses Per Scan
visible to the operator in form of a radar picture.
Wave Guide Loss
Two types of RADAR ANTENNA:
Display Parameters
RECEIVER
RANGE DISCRIMINATION
The incoming signal is fed to a series of amplifier and further to detect or
The ability of radar to discriminate between two small object close together
demodulator for which smoothen the signal, the main task of the receiver is
in the same bearing.
to amplify the reflected (incoming echoes) weak echoes and make them
Effecting range discrimination are:
suitable for transmission to the indicator.
Select Pulse Length
The size of the spot
TRANSMITTER
If possible short pulse and short range should be selected and focused,
brightness carefully adjusted.

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BEARING DISCRIMINATION Sea clutter echoes are caused by reflection of the radar pulse against the
The ability of radar to discriminate between two small object close together sea waves. The reflection is specular and conditions for the pulse to return
at the same range but different bearing. to the scanner are favorable near the ship. At longer ranges the beam will
Bearing discrimination depends on: be deflected away from the ship.
Horizontal Beam Width Marine radars are equipped with rejection systems to minimize the effect of
The spot size sea clutter. This control is often named “Anti Clutter Sea” or “STC”.
Correct focusing and brightness setting will improve the bearing
discrimination. RADAR SHADOW
As we have seen, the radar waves transmit in a straight line. A radar
BEARING AND RANGE DISTORTION coastline echo (or any other objects) appearance will be determined by the
The radar’s possibility to reproduce on area or a ship correctly and to topography.
discriminate between close lying targets is limited and varies with different Another important reason for the difference between sea map and the
types of radar. radar image is the radar range and bearing discrimination parameters, i.e.
The discriminating ability in range is usually 25-75 meters, however the how much the radar “magnifies” the echo in range and bearing.
accuracy is lower on long range.
CENTERING ERRORS
BEARING AND RANGE DISTORTION The sweep center, which on the PPI indicates own ship, must coincide
The discriminating ability laterally is usually 1-2 degrees. exactly with the cursor center of rotation to achieve a correct bearing.
Radar sets with a wavelength of 3 cm have a better discriminating ability Another important reason for the difference between sea map and the
compared with the 1 cm wavelength. radar image is the radar range and bearing discrimination parameters, i.e.
how much the radar “magnifies” the echo in range and bearing.
Radiation Hazards and
Precaution RADAR REFLECTORS
MAGNETIC COMPASS The purpose of radar reflector is to direct as much as possible of the
The magnetic compass must have a safe distance from the radar. reflected radar energy back to the radar antenna, which means stronger
Nowadays, although most ships are equipped with gyro compass, the echoes on the PPI.
magnetic compass is still the master compass on all ships and thus should
be taken good care of. RADAR BEACONS
Normally the safe distance varies between 1 and 5 meters. Racon signal appears in PPI and provides bearing and range of target.

RADIATION THREE MOTION COMPONENTS

Marine radar transmits energy of varying strength in form of short pulses or -The targets relative course and speed is the targets motion in relation to
bursts. Pulse power can produce biological changes not obtained with own ship during the echoes movements across the PPI on a relative
constant wave transmission. At short distance, transmission from marine motion display.
radars may pose a health hazard, follow the instruction from the radar -The targets true course and speed is the targets true motion during the
manufacturer closely and don’t take any chances. period of observation.
-The own ships course and speed are your ships true motion during the
When working close to a radar antenna, make sure that a warning signal period of observation.
has been placed on the radar console. Clearly telling everybody that no
start up should be attempted before the work on the antenna is completed MULTIPLE ECHOES
or cancelled. Multiple echoes can be created by reflection between own ship and an
object before the scanner finally collects its energy. We will see a line of
Whenever the air humidity is abnormally high which it is in fog, rain, snow targets on the same bearing and with equal distance between them.
and hale, a reduction in radar detection range should be expected. True echo is the one closest to own ship. The shapes of multiple echoes
Some disturbances of radar picture: are less defined that that of the original echo and they are weakening in
Sea intensity outwards.
Rain
These disturbances maybe serious so refer to the radar manual for more SIDE ECHOES
details. The side lobes cause side echoes. The effect of side echoes will only be
observed at short ranges. Nearby target are picked up by the side lobes as
NORMAL TRANSMISSION OF RADAR WAVES well as by the main lobe. Anti sea clutter will normally remove side echoes.
Radar conditions at approximately 10-15% greater that the distance to the
optical horizon said to have normal transmission of radar waves. BLIND SECTORS
Generally, normal conditions exist in areas with cold air masses. The Antenna not placed at the ships highest point. Structures above antenna
longer the wavelength, the greater is the tendency to bend round objects. will create blind sector in radar screen. Objects within these sectors will
normally be invisible in the screen.
The blind sectors can be seen as distinctly dark sectors in the sea clutter
SUB-REFRACTION area. Plot each sector on a plotting sheet and place this so it can easily be
When warm, moist air remains over cold water, the air is cooled from below seen from the radar observed position.
creating a fog. Temperature end humidity will increase with altitude and the
radar wave will bend upwards; decreasing the radar range is called sub- HEADING MARKER ERRORS
refraction. When the heading marker on the radar screen does not exactly tally with
the ships heading, or in other words, when the echo from a target straight
DUCTING ahead does not lie exactly on the heading line, then we have a heading
With conditions of light wind and low clouds over cold water we often get a marker error.
condition called “ducting”. That is, when radar beam is reflected several Heading Marker error may have serious effects on the radar picture and
times between the fog and sea surface. The radar range can be increased has been the cause of many collisions.
considerably.
Ducting can be expected to take place when temperature inversion exist FALSE ECHOES
and the atmosphere is calm. If the radar signal is reflected from objects on board in such a way that the
pulse hits a target, we may receive a false echo at almost the same
RADAR BLACKOUT distance as to the real target but on a different bearing.
With conditions of considerable ground fog, we can get a total radar The navigator should know exactly where own ships blinds sectors are
blackout: located. This is important in order to take actions to minimize the effect of
All radar waves are reflected from the top of the fog. the blind sectors.
Stationary warm air masses located on top of cold sea.
If the height of the fog is less that the height of the radar antenna, a total RAIN SQUALLS AND SHOWERS
reflection of the radar signal from the top of the fog may take place. Rainsqualls and showers appear on the screen as a wooly mass.
An intense rainstorm can be detected up to 25 miles
SEA CLUTTER Thunderstorms give excellent echoes

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Rain and clutter and targets beyond the rain area will obscure echoes
inside the rainstorm

WEATHER CONDITION
During weather conditions including heavy rain, thunderstorms etc., the S-
band is a better choice than X-band radar.
False echoes and disturbances
Own ships antenna receives signals from another radar
Fan shaped broken lines emanating from the center of the
screen Symbols For Radar Control
Most radar equipment contains radar interference rejection Standby/Transmit
circuits to eliminate this disturbance The standby/transmit switch usually has three positions labelled ‘off’,
‘standby’, and ‘transmit’. Turning the switch to standby will activate the
radar set, however it doesn’t come on immediately as the magnetron
needs a few minutes to warm up before it can transmit. The radar will have
some form of visual signal to indicate when this period is expired.

The radar can then be switched to ‘transmit’ and on some sets a short or
long pulse can be selected at this time, normally long pulse would be
selected. A long pulse will be more likely to show an echo from a weak
target or a target at a longer range. A short pulse will achieve better
definition on short ranges.

As well as its main function of giving the magnetron time to warm up, in
‘standby’ mode the scanner is not rotating (on most sets) and is a way of
conserving power and prolonging the life of the magnetron while keeping
the set ready for immediate use.

Brilliance
The brilliance control on an analogue radar controls the brightness of the
rotating trace and will also affects the brightness of the displayed echo so it
needs to be adjusted so that the trace itself is just visible, to give a good
contrast between echo and background.
On a raster scan display the brilliance control regulates the brightness of
the picture, making it bright enough for daylight viewing or dim enough so
as not to impair the operators night vision.

Gain
The gain control may appear to have a similar function as the brilliance
control in that operating it makes the picture brighter or darker. This
similarity however, is only superficial as the gain control has a completely
separate function and it is important not to confuse the two.
The gain control affects the receiver and not the display as the brilliance
does.

SYMBOLS FOR RADAR CONTROL Tuning

Radar Off The tuning control can be compared to the tuning control of an ordinary
Radar On radio, in that it tunes the receiver to the frequency of the transmitter. Poor
Radar Stand By tuning adjustment may not be easily recognised on the screen. Tuning
Aerial Rotating slightly out will eliminate some very weak echoes, but still produce a clear
North-up Presentation picture of the stronger ones. Hence the importance of frequent fine tuning
Head-up Presentation of the set.
Heading Marker Alignment
Range Selector Range
Short Pulse The range control regulates the range at which the set operates. It simply
Long Pulse changes the size of the area on the display and hence the scale. You
Gain would change the range of the radar just as you would change charts for
Tuning passage planning or close-in piloting. The choice of range would depend
Anti-Clutter Rain Minimum on what you are using the radar for, and your locality.
Anti-Clutter Rain Maximum
Anti-Clutter Sea Minimum Sea Clutter Control (STC)
Anti-Clutter Sea Maximum The radar beam will bounce echoes off the sea around the ship,
Scale Illumination particularly if the weather is a little rough. This result will be a bright
Display Brilliance sunburst pattern in the middle of the screen which will be more pronounced
Range Rings Brilliance in the upwind direction. You could reduce this by turning down the gain, the
Variable Range Marker down side to that solution however, is that the echoes of more distant
Bearing Marker targets will be lost as well.
Transmitted Power Monitor
Rain Clutter Control (RTC)
SYMBOLS FOR RADAR CONTROL The rain clutter control will reduce the interference on the screen due to the
There are seven main controls that determine the performance of the rain and increase the chance of seeing targets within rain showers. The
radar: effect on returning echoes from rain on the screen is usually no more than
standby/transmit a transparent smear, looking a little like cotton wool, but it can be dense
brilliance enough to conceal other echoes within the shower.
gain
tuning Rain Clutter Control (RTC)
range The rain clutter control works by making use of the fact that the returning
anti-sea clutter control (STC) echo from rain is different from the returning echo of a solid object. The
anti-rain clutter control (FTC) returning echo from rain is much longer and very much less dense than the
echo from a solid object. The rain clutter circuitry works by passing on to
the receiver only the leading edge of a returning echo.

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Bearing
Setting Up Radar Display On a ship bearing can be relative or true in connection with traffic
START UP SEQUENCE surveillance, relative bearing are often used.
Radar ON/OFF
Radar Standby CPA (Closest Point on Approach)
Scanner ON/OFF CPA must not be mixed with the point where the target crosses own ship’s
heading, often referred to as BCP (Bow Crossing Point)

CHOICE OF RADAR PRESENTATION TCPA (Time Closest Point on Approach)

Many factors may influence a navigator’s choice of radar presentation. TCPA is the time estimated as measured along the echo line form its
Availability of equipment and own experience will naturally be deciding present position to the closest point on approach.
factors, but it is important that navigator is aware that he is not completely
free in his selection of radar presentations. Maneuvering Board
A navigator on a ship equipped with True Motion Radar, operating in an Plotting can be done with head up or north up however, regardless of
area with dense traffic is obliged to utilize True Motion radar presentation in selected radar presentation it is advantageous to plot with north up.
order to avoid additional problems in a possible collision case.
True Plotting
MEASUREMENT OF RANGE Gives a natural and easily understood picture of the course of events.
The range accuracy of radar is generally high. Range can be measured on Can be done directly in the chart if the scale is large enough to give a clear
radar with reference to fixed range rings equally spaced around own ships picture.
position on the radar screen Gives an easily understood picture of the situation
The Variable range ring should regularly be checked for accuracy against
the fixed range rings, which are normally most stable. With a variable Relative Plotting
range ring more accurate measurements can be taken Own ship is considered a fixed point. Plotting must be done with high
accuracy and great care.
BEARING ACCURACY Heavy traffic can make manual plotting impossible.
The bearing accuracy of massive radars is normally not so high
Beam with distortion, which can be partly eliminated by reduction in Electronic Plotting
gain. Today many modern radars are equipped with an electronic plotting
Heading marker error, which can be determined by various methods feature. Used together with EBL (Electronic Bearing Lines) is very good
Centering error, which can easily be corrected tool in the hands of a qualified navigator. These radar features make
Error due to yawing of own ship plotting direct on the radar display very convenient and replace the need
Error due to parallax when viewing the display for reflection plotter or plotting sheets.
Always read and follow the radar manufacturer recommendations for use
and maintenance of the radar equipment. This will save you time and Errors in Manual Plotting
money and ensure proper use of equipment. Even small errors in one or several of these parameters can cause large
and dangerous errors in the plot calculations. Always check these
PLOTTING parameters as thoroughly as possible in order to reduce the possibilities for
Purpose of Plotting “nasty surprises” during manual plotting work.
It can show whether danger of collision exists, how close will pass the
target and how much time there is left before this will take place. Sources of Errors in Manual Plotting
Approximate determination of the course and speed of the other vessel, so Bearing Error
that sensible avoiding action can be taken when needed. Distance Error
Manual plotting in connection to radar means to mark one or more echoes Error in timing between plots
within a specific time interval and thus decide the target’s movement in Error in speed
relation to own ship. Gyro Error
The objective of plotting is to obtain the clearest possible picture of the Relative Speed
situation. Maneuvering of own vessel
Unstable steering, yawing, etc.
The Plotting Process
Detection- recognition of the presence of the target. Errors in Manual Plotting
Selection- choosing of target requiring closer observation Collision Danger
Tracking- the process of observing changes in target position The usual method of deciding whether a collision danger is present is
Plotting- the whole process of detection, selection, tracking, calculation of taking several bearings. This is time consuming, and it requires that many
targets parameter bearings have to be taken.
A dangerous situation can quickly emerged by taking a few inaccurate
Target Aspect bearings from a comparatively long distance and then “forgetting” the
The aspect is defined as the angle of view however, in connection with target if the CPA is considered large enough.
plotting we will use the term “Calculated Aspect” in order to distinguish
between the two. Errors in Distance Measurement
It can be defined as the angle between the target ships heading and An error in distance measurement, as in bearing error, can produce grave
bearing to own ship, as seen from the target ship. results when judging the traffic situation.
In connection with plotting and use of radar and ARPA, we had better
define what we receive from these systems as calculated aspect. Errors in Timing
A timing error between two plots will result in calculation of incorrect target
Relative Speed course, speed and time to CPA.
Relative speed is defined as the target speed relative to own ship, as
deducted from a number of measurements of its range and bearing on the Errors in Speed
radar, expressed as an angular distance from own ships heading. An error on speed causes incorrect calculation in the same manner as
error timing. However, we must remember that in all plotting where we wish
Heading a picture of aspect, own vessels speed through the water must be utilized.
Defined as the direction in which the bow of a vessel is pointing, expressed Never make corrections due to current or drift. In connection with plotting,
as an angular distance from north. speed through water should be used.

Relative Bearing Gyro Error

If the relative bearing of an approaching target remains the same over Make it a habit to always correct the gyro for known gyro error target with
time, collision danger is observed. low speed.
Factors That Affects Manual Plotting
True Bearing Unstable Steering
On merchant ships, true bearing is mainly used for position fixing. Maneuvering of Own Ship

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The Technical Exactness of the Equipment 2. True Bearing – a direction measured

Rough Weather Conditions clockwise from the true north.
Target Relative Speed 3. Relative Bearing – the direction measured
The Navigator’s Experience and Lack of Plotting Practice clockwise from the own ship’s bow to the line
of bearing from own ship to the contact.
4. Target Aspect – It is an angle of view both
horizontal and vertical planes with the contact
present to the observer ship. The relative
bearing of own ship taken from the target. A
Relative Radar Plotting Symbols STBD or PORT bearing is indicated as GREEN
Symbols are signs, letters, or abbreviations used to replace words. They or RED. HEAD-ON is Zero Aspect, STERN-ON
are used in mathematics and certain sciences to good advantage by is 1800 Aspect.
reducing the amount of space required explaining a thing. Since symbols 5. Actual (True) Motion – a ship’s movement
take the place of words and, they form a language of their own her here is with respect to a fixed point on the earth’s
a list that is used in Radar Plotting. surface.
CPA - Closest Point of Approach. 7. Relative Motion – the change in position of an
DRM - Direction of relative movement object as observed from a moving reference
e - point of origin of the own ship ship. It is measured by relative distance and
e-m - Contact's vector direction of relative motion (DRM).
e-r - Own ship's initial vector 8. Polar Coordinate Plot – a concentric circular
e-r' - Own ship's final plot on which all points are determined by
OC - Own ship's initial course. direction and distance from the center. Two
m - The head of the relative motion vector (r-m) also the head of the examples are the (a) Relative Plot and (b)
contact's vector (e-m). Vector Plot, which are used to solve relative
motion problems.
RML - Relative Motion Line.
Relative Plot – display successive positions of the
SRM - Speed of Relative Movement.
maneuvering ship as observed from reference ship
TCPA- time closest point of approach
1. Reference ship – always at the center of the relative plot which,
NCPA- new closest point of approach
represent own ship and point of origin for all bearings.
ST- actual target’s true speed
2. Maneuvering ship – the ship whose position is plotted in bearing and
CT- true course of target
range from the reference ship at various times, Could be the contact,
mx- point of execution
target, etc.
AC- collision avoidance course
3. Relative Motion Line – a line connecting successive position of the
AS- collision avoidance speed
maneuvering ship on the relative plot, the direction of which is called
ROCS- resume ownership course and speed
Direction of Relative Motion (DRM), its length called Relative Distance
NRML - New Relative Motion Line the Relative Motion Line after own ship
(RD).
has maneuvered.
4. Parts of Relative Plot
r - The head of own ship vector (e-r).
a. Point R – position of reference ship, center of
r-m - The relative motion vector.
plot which represent own ship at the center.
M1 - First plotted position of contact
b. Point r – first position or initial position of
maneuvering target ship.
c. Point m – subsequent position of maneuvering
PARTS OF A RADAR PLOTTING SHEET AND THEIR USES
ship or target ship after an elapsed time.
1. Compass Rose
d. r-m line – Relative Motion Line (RML).
Uses:
e. r-m length – Relative Distance (RD).
a. Indicate bearing of the contact in relation to your ship.
f. r-m direction of relative motion (DRM).
b. To indicate course of own ship and other ship.
c. To indicate true or relative direction.
IV – STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE IN RADAR PLOTTING
2. Range Circle – series of concentric circles spaced at equal intervals
1. Relative Plot
from the center.
a. Determine the distance scale to be used
Use: To indicate distance or range of a target in
b. Plot own course line (reference ship at the center)
nautical miles from your ship.
c. Plot the first observation and label it as point r (with time of
3. Range Scales – graduated units to fit the entire length of the plotting
observation)
sheet.
d. Plot subsequent position and label it as point m (with time of
Use: To provide convenience in plotting
observation)
distances or ranges. Numerical spacing on
e. Connect point r to point m (the line with appropriate length
each circle is proportionate to the range
until id has passed the center of the plot, this is the RML
scale selected.
f. Slide the slope of RML to the center (R) and label DRM at the
4. Nomogram or Logarithmic Scale – A set of three logarithmic scale for
compass rose (edge of the plotting sheet)
ready means of the interconverting time, distance and speed calculation.
g. From the center at R make a 90 0 line which is perpendicular to
Use: To determine the time, distance and speed
RML. The intersection is CPA.
when any of the two quantities are known.
h. Then determine the CPA range (from R to CPA)
Example: Divider Method
a. To determine speed – place one point of divider on elapsed time and
b. Vector Plot – a distance or velocity-vector diagram
the second point on distance covered miles. Without changing the spread
used in the solution of relative motion problems.
of the divider, or the right-left relationships of the points place on 60, and
Each vector has a length.
the other point will indicate speed in knots.
b. To determine time - place one point of divider on given speed and the
THE VECTOR TRIANGLE
second point on distance covered in miles. Without changing the spread
of the divider, or the right-left relationships of the points place on 60, and
the other point will indicate time in minutes.
c. To determine distance - place one point of divider on 60 and the
second point on speed in knots. Without changing the spread of divider
or right-left relationship of the points, place the first point on time and the
second point will indicate the distance in miles.

TERMS AND DIFINITION USED:

1. Line of Bearing – an imaginary line joining
own ship and the contact direction of which is
expressed in degrees (TRUE). 1. Parts of Vector Plot

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a. Point e – represent the center, point of origin brightness.

for all true vectors. 4. Ice Detection
b. e-r Vector – length represent own ship’s actual a. Iceberg – maybe detected in 15 to 20 n.miles.
distance travelled within the plotting time b. Bergy bits – part of ice berg that was chip off. Rises 15
interval, direction represent own ship’s course. feet above sea surface, echoes are weak and may be lost in the
c. e-m Vector – length represent target ship’s sea clutter.
actual distance travelled within the plotting time c. Growler – most dangerous ice formation.
interval. Direction represents target ship’s course. Rises 6 feet above sea surface, extremely
d. r-m Vector – length represent the relative distance. poor radar target because it is round due to
Direction represents direction of relative motion wave action.
(DRM).
2.Ve \RADAR AS AN AID TO NAVIGATION
ctor Plot 1. Advantage of Radar in Navigation
a. Construct e-r vector the course and speed of own ship a. Radar can be used when no other methods is
point e at the center. available.
b. Slide the RML from point r and determine the length b. Use at night or during condition of low visibility.
of the r-m vector using the relative speed to c. Provide accurate range information.
determine point m d. Helpful anti-collision device.
c. Connect point e to point m to determine course of the e. Tract and locate squals and nearby tropical
target. storms.
d. Then measured the length of point e to point m as 2. Limitation (Disadvantages)
actual distance of traveled by target ship using the a. Sometimes less accurate fix than by visual means
appropriate speed scale in use to determine b. Minimum range affected by the pulse width of the
speed of target ship. radar.
a. By Relative Plot; Find the following: c. Radars are subject to electronic failure.
1. DRM 3. Radar Aids Navigation
2. RD and SRM a. RACON (Radar Beacon) – a responder type beacons which is
3. CPA (BEARING AND RANGE) triggered by a pulse from a ship’s radar. Sends out video signals
4. TCPA (characteristics / I.D.) when the radar pulses strike the antenna receiver.
5. BCR and BCT b. RAMARK (Radar Marker) – is a radar beacon which transmit
b. By Vector Plot; Find the following: on all radar frequencies continuously or at intervals, therefore your radar
1. True course of target set will receive signals during the time your scanner is pointing to the
2. True speed of target. direction of the beacon.
3. Collision Avoidance c. Transponder – provides positive identification and other
a. Alteration of course, maintain speed. New CPA relevant data.
range specified, determine new course to take. 4. Procedures and Techniques
b. Alteration of course, maintain speed. New course a. Radar fixes
to take given, determine new CPA. b. Look-out information
c. Change speed, maintain course. New CPA range c. Set and Drift
specified, determine new speed to use 5. Methods of obtaining radar fixes
d. Change speed, maintain course. New speed given a. Range and bearing to a single object, commonly
determine new CPA range. used when piloting close to shore.
e. Alteration of course and speed given and executed b. Two or more bearings (cross bearing), the same
at the same time. Determine new CPA. method used by the navigator when taking
g. Alteration of course and speed at the same time, visual gyro bearings.
new CPA given, determine new course and speed c. Two or more ranges, the most accurate method
to use. especially when augmented by a visual gyro
COLLISION AVOIDANCE (Method I) – Alter course, maintain speed bearings.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE (Method II) – Change speed, maintain course 2. Fix by Ranges: The navigator can plot a fix consisting of the
COLLISION AVOIDANCE (Method III) – Alter course and speed, intersection of two or more range (distance) arcs from charted objects. He
can obtain an object’s range or distance by the radar.
RADAR SCOPE INTERPRETATION
PIP CHARACTERISTICS Radar Ranges: The navigator may take ranges to two fixed
1. Size of PIP – depends on the following: objects. The intersection of the range arcs constitutes a fix.
a. Range of target Remember that the shoreline of low-lying land may move many
b. Size of target yards in an area of large tidal range, and swampy areas may be
c. Height of target indistinct.
d. Aspect of target: bow or broadside 3. Fix by Bearing and Range: This is a hybrid fix of LOP’s from a bearing
e. Material composition of target and range to a single object. The radar is the only instrument that can give
f. Correctness of tuning simultaneous range and bearing information to the same object.
2. Shape of PIP – depends on the type of target Therefore, with the radar, the navigator can obtain an
and contour. instantaneous fix from only one NAVAID. This makes the radar an
3. Movement or change in ranges and bearings. extremely useful tool for the piloting team.
The radar’s characteristics make it much more accurate
TARGET CHARACTERISTICS determining range than determining bearing; therefore, two radar ranges
1. Land Targets are preferable than a radar range and bearing.
a. Covers a greater area on the screen than other targets.
b. No motion with TRUE MOTION radar.
c. With RELATIVE MOTION radar, movement is opposite
and equal to the motion of the ship.
d. In the geographic plot, it should be at its expected position.
2. Ship Target
a. At medium range it is bright.
b. Steady and clearly defined image in the PPI.
c. PIP fades only when range becomes too great.
d. Small craft of fishing vessel appear at about 4 to 5 NM,
as extremely weak echo.
3. Aircraft Targets
a. Rapid motion of the echo on the radar scope.
b. Echo fades and appears again shortly.
c. It brightens and the rapidly decrease in

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Interference Rejector, and multi-level quantization

General Features
Stylish display
Choice of 10, 25 or 50 KW output for X-band; 30 KW output for S-band,
either in the transceiver aloft (gearbox) or RF down (transceiver in bridge)
Exclusive FURUNO MIC low noise receiver

ARPA System ARPA Features

What is ARPA? Acquires up to 20 targets automatically
An abbreviation for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids. Basically an ARPA is Movement of tracked targets shown by true or relative vectors (Vector
a computerized radar plotting system, which can perform radar plotting length 1 to 99 min. selected in 1 min steps)
manually or automatically according to operator’s choice. Setting of navigation lines, buoy marks and other symbols to enhance
When it works properly, ARPA is a fantastic tool in the hands of a qualified navigation safety
navigator with proper training.
ARPA Features
An ARPA assesses the risk of collision, and enables operator to see On-screen digital readouts of range, bearing, course, speed, CPA, TCPA,
proposed maneuvers by own ship. While many different models of ARPAs BCR (Bow Crossing Range) and BCT (Bow Crossing Time) of two targets
are available on the market, the following functions are usually provided: out of all tracked targets.
1. True or relative motion radar presentation. Audible and visual alarms against threatening targets coming into operator-
2. Automatic acquisition of targets plus manual acquisition. selected CPA/TCPA limits, lost targets, two guard rings, visual alarm
3. Digital read-out of acquired targets which provides course, speed, against system failure and target full situation
range, bearing, closest point of approach (CPA, and time to CPA (TCPA).
4. The ability to display collision assessment information directly on the
PPI, using vectors (true or relative) or a graphical Predicted Area of Danger DISPLAY CONTROLS - MODE PANEL
(PAD) display.
5. The ability to perform trial maneuvers, including course changes, speed HM OFF- Temporarily erases the heading marker.
changes, and combined course/speed changes. ECHO TRAILS- Shows trails of target echoes in the form of simulated
6. Automatic ground stabilization for navigation purposes. ARPA processes afterglow.
radar information much more rapidly than conventional radar but is still MODE- Selects presentation modes: Head-up, Head-up/TB, North-up,
subject to the same limitations. ARPA data is only as accurate as the data Course-up, and True Motion.
that comes from inputs such as the gyro and speed log.

Types of ARPA
In the early days, ARPAs of broad categories existed and were generally
referred to as “stand alone” and “integral”
Stand-alone ARPA DISPLAY CONTROLS - MODE PANEL
These were primarily intended as additions to conventional radars. They GUARD ALARM- Used for setting the guard alarm.
provided all of the ARPA facilities but derived their data from “host” radar. EBL OFFSET- Activates and deactivates off-centering of the sweep origin.
Stand-alone ARPA BKGR COLOR- Selects the background color.
Stand-alone equipment had to be interfaced to a variety of existing INDEX LINES- Alternately shows and erases parallel index lines.
equipment and while it was the less expensive and more expedient of the
two alternative, it was never the solution and so, today, most of the ARPA’s X2 ZOOM- enlarges a user selected portion of picture twice as large as
being fitted into the “integral” category. normal. (R-type only)
Stand-alone ARPA works in two ways; The radar system receives all the CU, TM RESET- Resets the heading line to 000 in course-up mode; moves
raw data and transmits all these data to ARPA for processing. own ship position 50% radius in stern direction in the true motion mode.
INT REJECT- Reduces mutual radar interference
Integral ARPA RANGE RINGS- Adjusts the brightness of range rings.
In the modern integral ARPAs, a computer, usually referred to as the
processor, is incorporated in the radar/ARPA system so that the ARPA data How is numerical data relating to a particular target found?
can be displayed on the same screen as the conventional radar data. By using the joystick and placing the gate marker ring over a particular
target, data in numerical form relating to that target can be obtained:
How ARPA is used? a. range and bearing
Having first set up the ARPA display (as normal radar display), select: b. course and speed
Range scale- e.g 12 miles c. CPA and TCPA
Plot- Relative (true) bearings This data may be made to appear sequentially simultaneously on a special
Mode- North-up (head-up or course up data display. Alternatively, alpha-numeric may be used to make the data
Mark the targets to be tracked (using joystick and gate) appear on the display, alongside the particular target.
Set the “vector length”--- in minutes
Check the course and speed input What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system?
Trial Maneuver
General Features It should be possible to simulate the effect to a maneuver-- “own ship”- o-
Daylight-bright high-resolution display on all tracked targets. This is done by the feeding in:
28 inch diagonal CRT presents radar picture of 360 mm effective diameter the propose course
with alphanumeric data area around it the proposed speed
User friendly operation by combination of tactile backlit touch pads, a the delay(if any)
trackball and rotary controls
What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system?
General Features Operational Warning
Audio-visual alert for targets in guard zone CPA warnings- it is possible to set limit of CPA and TCPA which if violated
Echo trail to assess targets’ speed and course by simulated afterglow by a tracked target, whether its vector actually reaches the warning area or
Electronic plotting of up to 10 targets in different symbols (This function is not, will activate an alarm. The offending target will be by a brighter than
disabled when ARPA is activated) normal or flashing vector or a special symbol.

General Features What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system?
Electronic parallel index lines Operational Warning
Interswitch (optional) built in radar or ARPA display unit b)Guard rings and zones- it should also be possible to warn the observer
Enhanced visual target detection by Echo Average, Echo Stretch, if any distinguishable target closes to a range or transits a zone chosen by

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the observer. The first appear will not activate the alarm. The existence of
guard rings should not be regarded as an alternative to keeping a proper Predicted Areas of Danger (PAD)
lookout. It is logical step from PPCs to indicate areas around these points into
which vessel should not do in order to ensure that some specified clearing
What extra facilities are available in the ARPA system? range is maintained.
Operational Warning
Target lost- the ARPA should clearly indicate if a target is lost with the last Methods of Testing an ARPA for malfunction
tracked position being clearly indicated. These usually take the form of self-diagnostic routines with some indicator
of the unit or Printed Circuit Board which is found to be faulty.
Methods of Displaying Information
Since the first computerized radar system came on the market and to this ARPA facilities
very day many different ways of presenting the information has been Finally the first true ARPA appeared, a system able to extract the signal
developed, produced and delivered. Today, regardless of graphic from the targets then pass them to a digital processor. Once the data is
presentation, all ARPA systems must be able to present target information within the processor of these equipment, a variety of facilities will present
in form of both relative and true vectors. information to the observer.

Methods of Displaying Information What alternatives facilities are available on ARPA system?
Both time of vectors should be time adjustable. In addition to displaying
target information graphically, all ARPA’s also display target information These facilities includes:
digitally on the traffic display or on a separate screen. 1. Relative Vectors
In additional a number of graphical symbols are used for different 2. True Vectors Output
purposes: 3. Predicted Areas of Warning
Defining stationary targets 4. Trial Maneuver
Indicating navigational marks 5. Digital Data
Sailing routes 6. Points of Collision
Pointing out targets that cause alarms etc. 7. Navigational Lines and Limits
8. Operational Danger
Symbols and Definition 9. History of Warning
TV - True Speed Vector indicates the targets speed and course. 10. Equipment
RV - Relative Speed Vector indicates target relative course and speed. 11. Rejection Boundaries
TH - Track History should be provided on request, consisting of at least
four equally spaced past positions of the echo.
PPC - POINT OF POSSIBLE COLLISION is the point at which a collision
could take place.

PAD - Predicted Area Of Danger is the area to be avoided based on CPA This section gives you information about IMO requirements for ARPA
and TCPA setting and relative target speed. system including performance standard for gyro and log.

Performance Standards for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA)

Area Rejection Boundaries (ARBs, AEBs) Resolution A.422 (XII)
It is possible to place electronic lines on the screen which eliminate
automatic plotting in selected areas. The lines are adjusted for “rotation”
and “transaction” controls. These reduced the load on the tracker when in Theory of ARPA Tracking System
the proximity to a coast echo.
Alternative systems provide automatic acquisition in zones which may be Explains processing delay and other important limitations in the system.
designated by range and sector controls. When operating the ARPA in Automatic Acquisition mode, the operator
must be aware of the following tracking system limitations:
Equipment Fault in ARPA system Normally the sensitivity of the ARPA tracking system is reduced when
Connection with other equipment operating in Automatic acquisition mode.
The connection of the ARPA to any other equipment should not downgrade When the “guard ring” philosophy is used by the ARPA tracking system,
the performance of that equipment. The failure of an input from other echoes can escape acquisition because the radar at a range closer that
equipment, such as log or compass, should activate an alarm. the distance to the inner guard ring detects them or the echoes remain
between guard rings.
Performance tests and warnings
Self diagnosis should activate a warning in the event of ARPA malfunction. When the “search area” philosophy is used, echoes can escape acquisition
Also means shall be available to check the correct interpretation of data because they are outside the specified area or to many echoes are picked
against a known solution. up, resulting in system overload.
Tracking Window
What alternatives facilities are available on ARPA system? The number of sweeps being digitized in each tracking gate depends on
Automatic Acquisition the tracking philosophy used by the actual ARPA manufacturer. Several
It is permissible for targets to automatically, as well as manually acquired. sweeps will always be required.
But where automatic acquisition is provided, the operator must be able to Tracking Window
select the areas in which it operates. In order to start digitizing the analogue radar echo is not lost by too many
scans during a specified time, as this will result in rejection of defining the
Manual Acquisition echo as a possible target and no further processing will be executed.
The operator specifies the target to be subsequently tracked. To do this, a Tracking Window
joystick and screen marker or tracker ball and screen marker are used. The
target is entered into or removed from the computer memory when the To define the echo as a target of interest, a minimum number of sweeps
acquire or cancel button is press. inside the gate must be defined above the threshold. A good working and
properly turned ARPA tracking system should be capable of acquiring all
Tracking and Acquisition Limits echoes, which can be seen by the human eye.
There will may be times when targets are close to own ship but present no Tracking Window
real threat, and whose vectors may well clutter up the center of the display.
It may be possible therefore to set limits on the ranges at which targets are Each of the radar echoes we want to plot must be processed like this. The
acquired and to which they are tracked. different ARPA manufacturers us different position on digitized echo as
reference for further processing. Possible target reference points are:
Potential Points of Collision (PPCs) The front edge
From the basic plot of a target, it is possible to determine the course to The center
steer in order a collision or interception will take place. It is possible to Or the back of the digitized radar echo
have these PPCs appear on the display and in this way, allow the navigator Tracking Window
to avoid them.

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Setting-Up Maintaining Displays

Kinds of Warnings Problems may occur in using ARPA
Collision Warning -- audible and flashing warning activated whenever a Errors in Interpretation of Display
traced target violates the pre-set collision criteria. Here are some possible treats:
Lost Target -- audible and flashing warning activated whenever the raster scan ARPA display “lock up”
system no longer can track a target. mixing trial and real time information
System Alarm -- audible and flashing warning activated when a pre-set wrong speed input or overlooking type of speed input to the ARPA
limit is violated. no correction for gyro course error before input to ARPA
misinterpretation of display symbols may cause severe problems
ARPA System Start Up procedure
Overlooking one or more of these points may cause serious Problems may occur in using ARPA
consequences:
Switch on the ARPA and checked that required radar is connected and Errors in Interpretation of Display
properly adjusted. operating long periods in “impure presentation” may have serious
Check that the ships connected course is fed into system. consequences
Check that the radar antenna alignment is correct, if not, correct it. exclusive reliance of ARPA will sooner or later give you a problem
Overlooking one or more of these points may cause serious Remember that ARPA is only a navigational aid and that its limitations
consequences: including those of its sensors, make exclusive use of ARPA dangerous.
Check that required log is selected Problems may occur in using ARPA
Select required radar mode, normally True Motion, Course Up or True
Motion, North Up should be used for traffic surveillance purposes. Automatic Acquisition Precaution
Select required range, vector length and collision warning criteria The majority of ARPA systems manufactured today provide and automatic
Familiarize yourself with the ARPA manufacturers recommended start up acquisition feature. This feature may reduce the operator’s workload during
procedures and other recommendations. busy periods and thus contributing possibility to safe sailing.
If navigation features are available on your ARPA and you intend to use
them, the following additional points must be checked: Problems may occur in using ARPA
Date and time should be displayed correctly on the ARPA information
screen. Automatic Acquisition Precaution
Own ships position input must be kept correct on the ARPA at all times, However, the operator should be aware of the fact that most ARPA systems
otherwise all position must be calculated by the ARPA will be incorrect. are less sensitive in auto-acquisition mode than in manual acquisition
mode. This is one good reason not to rely on the new target warning only,
c. In coastal areas, navigation check-points should be marked on the ARPA but at regular intervals visually observe the ARPA screen to make sure that
in order to assist the navigator in detecting the possible positioning error as all targets are acquired.
soon as possible.
Special requirements pointed out by the ARPA manufacturer
The main purpose of the ARPA is to provide the navigator with the possible
overview of the traffic situation at all times.
Problems may occur in using ARPA
The Importance of Incorrect Speed Input -Factors affecting system performance and accuracy:
Knowledge of ARPA sensor input performance-radar, compass and speed
The Importance of Incorrect Speed Input inputs, effects of sensor malfunction on the accuracy of ARPA data.
Effects of the limitations of radar range and bearing discrimination and
The table presents ARPA calculated result as given by four different accuracy, the limitations of compass and speed input accuracy on the
speed input sources: accuracy of ARPA data.
Electromagnetic log which gives correct speed through water. Knowledge of factors which influence vector accuracy.
Manual speed input, miscalculated by +0.5 knots -Tracking capabilities and limitations
Doppler log provides speed over ground without compensating for Knowledge of the criteria for the selection of targets by automatic
transverse drift. acquisition
Doppler log provides speed over ground and compensates for transverse Factors leading to the correct choice of targets for manual acquisition
drift. Effects on tracking of “lost” targets and target fading
Circumstances causing “target swoop” and its effects on displayed data
-Processing delay
Risk of Over Reliance on ARPA The delays inherent in the display of processed ARPA information,
Problems may occur in using ARPA particularly on acquisition and re-acquisition or when target maneuvers.
The risks of over-reliance on ARPA -When and how to use the operational warnings, their benefits and -
Appreciation that ARPA is only navigational aid and that’s its limitations, limitations
including those of its sensors, make over-reliance on the ARPA dangerous Appreciation of the uses, benefits and limitations of ARPA operational
in particular for keeping a look-out, the heed to comply at all times with the warnings, correct setting, where applicable, to avoid spurious interference.
basic principles and operational guidance for officers in-charged of a -System Operational test
navigational watch. Methods of testing for malfunctions of ARPA systems, including functional
self-testing
Problems may occur in using ARPA Precautions to be taken after a malfunction occur
The risks of over-reliance on ARPA -Manual and automatic acquisition of targets and their respective
Risk: limitations
impressive system Knowledge of the limits imposed on both types of acquisition in multi-target
no system is better that the weakest part scenarios, effects on acquisition of target fading and target swoop.
the operator must be aware of the ARPA limitations -When and how to use true and relative vectors and typical; graphic
An ARPA system in the hand of unqualified personnel is not only representation of target information and danger areas
dangerous, but can indirectly be the main reason for an accident. Thorough knowledge of true and relative vectors, derivation of targets true
courses and speeds
Problems may occur in using ARPA Threat assessment; derivation of predicted closest point of approach from
Errors and Precautions forward extrapolation of vectors, the use of graphic representation of
Errors in an ARPA system can be divided into groups: danger areas
errors in sensors (radar, log, gyro, etc.) -/When and how to use true and relative vectors and typical; graphic
errors in ARPA software representation of target information and danger areas
errors in ARPA hardware Effects of alterations of courses and/or speeds of own ship and/or targets
errors in interpretation of the actual display on predicted closest point of approach and predicted time to closest point
When working with computerized systems, always remember “Rubbish- of approach and danger areas
in-Rubbish-out” simple as that. Effects of incorrect vectors and danger areas
Benefit of switching between true and relative vectors

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-When and how to use information on past position of targets being

tracked
Knowledge of derivation of past positions of targets being tracked,
recognition of historic data as means of indicating recent maneuvering of
targets and as a method of checking the validity of the ARPA’s tracking.

Problems may occur in using ARPA

Setting up and maintaining displays
Selection of the time scale of vectors/graphics
Use of exclusion areas when automatic acquisition is employed by ARPA
Performance checks of radar, compass, speed input sensors and ARPA

Problems may occur in using ARPA

System Operational Test
System check and determining data accuracy of ARPA including the trial
maneuver facility by checking against basic radar plot.

Problems may occur in using ARPA

When and how to obtain information from ARPA display
Demonstrate ability to obtain information in both relative and true motion
modes of displays including:
Identification of critical echoes
Used of exclusion areas in automatic acquisition mode
Speed and direction of targets relative movement

Time and predicted range at targets closest point of approach

Course and speed of the targets
Detecting course and speed changes of targets and Limitations of such
information
Effect of changes in own ship’s course or speed or both
Operation of the trial maneuver

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