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T H E P R I M E R
O F O B J E C T
R E L A T I O N S
 T H E P R I M E R
O F O B J E C T
R E L A T I O N S

Second Edition

Jill Savege Scharff

David E. Scharff

JasonAronson
Lanham Boulder NewYork Toronto Oxford
Published in the United States of America
by Jason Aronson
An imprint of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

A wholly owned subsidiary of

The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowmanlittlefield.com

PO Box 317
Oxford
OX2 9RU, UK

Copyright O 2005 by Jason Aronson, Inc.

The authors gratefully acknowledge permission from Jason Aronson to reprint

revised or abbreviated material from: Object Relations Zndiuidual Therapy
(1998);Object relation,^ Therapy of Phy,sical and Sexual Trauma (1996);
Refinding the Object and Reclaiming the Self (1992);and The Sexual
Relationship (1982).

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Scharff, Jill Savege.
The primer of object relations / by Jill Savege Scharff and David E.
Scharff-2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7657-0317-7
1. Object relations (Psychoanalysis) 2. Psychotherapy. I. Scharff, David E.,
1941- 11. Title.
RC489.025S34 2003
616.89'14-dc21 2003040319

Printed in the United States of America

eTM
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper
for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO 239.48-1992.
 CONTENTS

List of Figures and Tables vi i

Preface IX

How t o Use This Primer xiii

PART I OVERVIEW O F T H E C O N C E P T S O F
BRITISH OBJECT RELATIONSTHEORY
I The Self and Its Objects

2 Basic Freudian Concepts

3 From Freud to Object RelationsTheory

4 Endopsychic Structure

5 Projective and lntrojective Identification and Containment

6 The Holding Environment

7 The Concept of Positions

8 Attachment Theory

9 Neurobiology and Affect Regulation

vi CONTENTS

10 Trauma
II ChaosTheory

I2 TheTherapeutic Relationship and the

Geography o f the Transference

13 Relation t o OtherTheoretical Systems and

Clinical Approaches

PART II OBJECT RELATIONSTHEORY IN PRACTICE

14 Principles o f Assessment 117

15 Technique I: Setting the Frame, Impartiality,

Psychological Space, and the Use o f the Therapist's Self 135

16 Technique Il:Working with Transference,

Countertransference, and Interpretation

17 Technique Ill:The Use o f Dreams, Fantasy, and Play 157

18 BriefTherapy 173

19 Technique and Theory Review with Clinical Illustration 1 79

20 Working Through and Termination 193

PART Ill APPLICATION AND INTEGRATION

21 Integration o f Individual Therapy with
Couple, Family, Group, and SexTherapies

22 The Application o f Object Relations Theory t o

Various Syndromes and Populations

23 The Role and Experience o f the Object Relations Therapist 22 1

24 The Development ofTherapeutic Capacity 227

25 A Guide t o Further Reading 235

Bibliography

Index
 F I G U R E S AND TABLES

Figures

Figure 4.1 The Endopsychic Situation

Figure 4.2 Amplification of Fairbairn's Model of
Psychic Organization
Figure 5.1 Projective and Introjective Identification in
the Mother-Infant Relationship
Figure 5.2 Object Construction through Projective and
Introjective Identification in Marriage
Figure 6.1 Winnicott's Organization of the Mother-Infant
Relationship
Figure 7.1 The Continuum of Endopsychic Positions
Figure 10.1 The Distortion of Relatedness and Psychic
Structure in Physical and Sexual Abuse
Figure 10.2 Dinosaur Squiggle
Figure 10.3 Scaly Ghost
Figure 10.4 Face Scared by a Ghost
Figure 12.1 Focused and Contextual Transference in
Individual Therapy
Figure 12.2 The Multidimensional Compass of the
Total Transference and Countertransference

vii
 FIGURES A N D TABLES

Tables

Table 4.1 Transitional Techniques of Relating

Table 5.1 The Steps of Projective Identification
Table 8.1 Classification of Infant and Adult
Attachment Types
Table 10.1 Effects of Physical and Sexual Trauma on
Development
Table 10.2 Technique of Object Relations Therapy for
Trauma
Table 12.1 Transference in Terms of Time and Space
Table 13.1 Bion's Basic Assumptions of Group Life
Table 13.2 Bion's Basic Assumptions Expanded
Table 14.1 The Eight Major Tasks of Assessment
Table 15.1 Elements of Technique of Object Relations
Therapy
Table 20.1 Readiness for Termination Shown by
Improved Capacity
Table 20.2 Criteria for Termination
Table 21.1 Psychoanalytic Principles in Couple and
Family Therapy
Table 22.1 The Object Relations of Attempted Suicide
 PREFACE

It's more than ten years since we wrote SchalffNotes, reprinted as The
Primer of Object Relations Therapy. Object relations theory was on the
fringe at that time. Since then it has gained in acceptance. Once excluded
from discussion, it is now featured at both psychoanalytic and family
therapy meetings. In the Sexton, Weeks, and Robbins Handbook of Fam-
ily Therapy, it was listed as one of five traditional approaches! It is time
for a second edition of the Primer, expanded to include revisions, clarifi-
cations, and advances in object relations theory and practice and now
called The Primer of Object Relations. The Primer is written to stand
alone, in the same accessible format for the ease of use of the same read-
ership, from undergraduate student to psychotherapy teacher. If you
want to go into object relations in greater depth, you might look up cita-
tions given in endnotes for each chapter, or dip into the reading lists, or
study more comprehensive texts also listed in the reference section.
Object relations theory continues to develop under the influence of
new knowledge in related disciplines and paths of clinical inquiry. Clin-
ical adaptations used in brief therapy, attachment research extended to
adults and couple relationships, studies of neurological development
and affect regulation, clinical insights on physical, sexual, and societal
trauma, and contemporary Kleinian ideas have validated and enriched
x PREFACE

object relations therapy. Principles of chaos theory dealing with nonlin-

ear dynamic systems are pushing object relations theory toward a para-
digm shift. The effects of these advances are evident in object relations
therapy today.
We have extended our description of the technique of object relations
therapy with individuals, couples, and families with young children, and
we've given inore examples, including work with dreams. We have
added a description of the Group Affective Model, an innovative
method for learning theory and technique, internalizing it, and applying
it in therapy. We have included our new guide to the geography of the
transference. Also new to this edition, we've added chapters on brief
therapy, attachment theory and its clinical application, and chaos theory,
explaining advances in our clinical thinking.
We want to reach undergraduate students who are learning the fun-
damentals of theory and therapy as well as graduate students in psy-
chology, social work, or marital and family therapy. We hope to interest
first-year residents in psychiatry and interns in psychology, social work,
marital and family therapy, and pastoral counseling. VC7e think that the
book will be useful for trainees in occupational therapy, art and other ex-
pressive therapies, and psychiatric nursing. And finally, we hope that the
primer will be a compact, convenient resource text for the teachers of
these various undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate students, and
for the experienced clinician who wants to integrate the unfamiliar per-
spective of object relations theory into an existing approach.
Mental health professionals from remote parts of the United States
and from other countries have no access to object relations theory other
than through textbooks. JVhen puzzled, they have no colleagues to turn
to for help. Although they may have enjoyed our inore complex books,
they want simplification and clarification of some of the ideas and further
discussion of how the concepts apply in their clinical situations. The con-
tent of this volu~nederives from these students' most frequently asked
questions at national seminars, together with our responses. Through our
lecture, discussion, and dialogue format, we re-create the seminar for
them and for you, in order to take you beyond the forbidding aspects of
theory and technique and give you access to object relations theory and
therapy as a sensible way of thinking and working that is easily under-
stood and immediately applicable to clinical practice.
PREFACE xi

We've continued to learn from teaching students and colleagues at

national and international workshops and seminars. But the greatest
boost to our understanding has come from working with students, fac-
ulty, and distinguished guests at the International Psychotherapy Insti-
tute, which we founded in Chevy Chase, Maryland, to provide a learn-
ing community for students and faculty who are otherwise isolated from
object relations training. That's where we refined the Group Affective
Model for teaching and learning object relations theory and practice, us-
ing a modular design so they could commute to join in workshops. In ad-
dition to attending lectures and clinical case presentations, participants
meet in small affective learning groups for integrating intellectual and
emotional understanding through discussion, personal and group expe-
rience, and clinical application. This has given us access to difficulties
that interfere with understanding and has led to insights and changes
that prove the value of the concepts. We hope to include you in the
learning community by sharing our new ideas in this second edition of
The Primer of Object Relations.
We are grateful to Jason Aronson for his commitment to publishing
texts on object relations theory and practice-especially for supporting
our idea of an affordable paperback primer-and to the staff at Rowman
and Littlefield for their editorial and promotional work.
We have reinvented the identities of the subjects of our clinical de-
scriptions so as to preserve a personal context for their universally ob-
servable dynamics without betraying their confidentiality. To those indi-
viduals, couples, and families, we give special thanks. We gratefully
acknowledge the intellectual stimulation and encouragement received
from mental health professionals at our seminars, where their questions
continually provoked further thought and challenged us to be clear and
concise. This book is for them and for you, mental health professionals
and students who are curious about the object relations approach.
 HOW TO U S E T H I S P R I M E R

In the interest of readability we do not break the flow to pause for ref-
erences in the body of this text. When we use a concept or an author's
name with which you may not be familiar, we cite it briefly in the chap-
ter notes that follow each chapter. In chapter 24, we offer a guide to
further reading both for the beginner and for the advanced student of
object relations theory. To satisfy our concern for attribution and ac-
cessibility to reference materials, we do give a complete bibliography at
the end of the book. The bibliography is divided into ten categories to
simplify the advancing student's search for more to read in a particular
category of interest. The categories are: object relations theory of indi-
vidual and group; application of object relations theory to couple and
family therapy; integration of object relations theory with other ap-
proaches; American object relations theory; transference and counter-
transference; self psychology theory applied to individuals and couples;
Freudian theory; attachment theory; chaos theory; other relevant con-
tributions.
With this design, you can read uninterruptedly and take in the mate-
rial as a whole the first time through. You can skip the references alto-
gether, look at them at the end of reading each chapter, or wait until you
have finished the book. Those of you who want to track down sources
xiv H O W T O U S E T H I S P R I M E R

will search for author and date in the chapter notes at the end of each
chapter, and then find the fill1 annotation in the relevant category of the
formal bibliography at the end of the book. We hope that this primer
format will bring object relations theory to you clearly and easily.
The primer may be used as the only text on object relations theory for
the eclectic therapist. It serves as an introduction and guide to reading
our more advanced texts. It also leads to wider recommended reading
in object relations theory and therapy.
 OVERVIEW O F T H E
CONCEPTS O F BRITISH OBJECT
RELATIONS THEORY
 T H E SELF A N D I T S OBJECTS

W H A T IS BRITISH OBJECT RELATIONSTHEORY?

British object relations theory is a theory of the human personality

developed from study of the therapist-patient relationship as it re-
flects the mother-infant dyad. The theory holds that the infant's expe-
rience in relationship with the mother is the primary determinant of
personality formation and that the infant's need for attachment to the
mother is the motivating factor in the development of the infantile
self. It is an amalgam of the work of British analysts Ronald Fairbairn,
Donald Winnicott, Harry Guntrip, and Michael Balint of the British
Independent group, augmented by that of Melanie Klein, and others
of the Kleinian group. Although Independent group and Kleinian
group theories are quite distinct from each other, and differ in the
ways that they each diverge from Sigmund Freud's theory of the mind,
they are similar in focusing on the importance of the infant's experi-
ence of the mothering relationship. The Independent group followed
Freud's use of the psychosexual stages of development, but disagreed
that the inevitable progression of these stages was based on the pri-
macy of the instincts. They proposed instead that the need to be in re-
lationship to a caregiver was the fundamental driving force and that
4 CHAPTER I

the characteristic kinds of relatedness seen at various ages were de-

termined by shifting dependent needs, not by instinctual loading of
the erogenous bases. The Kleinians stayed true to Freud's view of the
primacy of the instincts and elaborated upon the death instinct, but
they revised his psychosexual timetable. They described their ideas of
how the infant uses unconscious fantasy to effect the release of ten-
sion from the instincts and how the processing of fantasy creates psy-
chic structure. Both Independent group and Kleinian theorists devel-
oped theories of personality formation and psychic structure different
from Freud's, and different from each other. Nevertheless, the theo-
ries can be integrated because of their commonality in focus on the
first three years of life-in analytic theory referred to as the pre-
oedipal period of development-and their ernphasis on psychic struc-
ture arising from the infant's experience of the mother-infant rela-
tionship.

W H A T ARE OBJECT RELATIONS?

Object relations is an inclusive technical term that spans the intrapsychic

and interpersonal dimensions. It refers to the system of in-built parts of
the personality in relation to each other inside the self. These parts are
expressed in the arena of current relationships by which the original in-
trapsychic representations of object relations are further modified. In-
ternal objects and other parts of the self are reciprocal with outer ob-
jects so that, in any relationship, the personalities are mutually
influenced by each other. Our external relationships are in interaction
with our internal psychic structures.

W H A T IS A N I N T E R N A L OBJECT?

An internal object is a piece of psychic structure that formed from the

person's experience with the important caretaking person in earlier life,
captured in the personality as the trace of that earlier relationship. Not
a memory, nor a representation, it is a part of the self's being.
T H E SELF AND I T S O B J E C T S

HOW I S T H E INTERNAL OBJECT DIFFERENT FROM

T H E EXTERNAL OBJECT?

The external object refers to the significant other with whom the person
is in relationship. It might refer to the early significant other or the pres-
ent significant other. It bears a relationship to the internal object in that
the internal object is based on the experience with the original external
object and is expressed in the present choice of an external object. The
internal object is also modified by its relationship with the present ex-
ternal object.

W H A T FACTORS M A K E T H E INTERNAL OBJECT

M O R E T H A N A DIRECT, INTERNAL RECORDING O F
EXPERIENCE WITH T H E EARLY EXTERNAL OBJECT?

There are several factors. During the early relationship to the mother,
the baby has a limited capacity to understand what the mother is feel-
ing or expressing or to separate this from what the baby feels. The
baby's limited cognitive capacity distorts the view of the mother, so that
already the internal object does not accurately reflect the external ob-
ject. Later on, as the baby grows and develops, new issues at the fore-
front of development change what the baby thinks is happening with
the external object. So the baby creates a contemporary version of the
internal object to internalize. For instance, when the child is at a point
where autonomy and control are at the leading edge of development,
the child's capacity to hold on to, and let go of, the external object re-
shapes the internal object's organization. In summary, previous experi-
ence with the external object at all stages of development is curnula-
tively internalized. When child, adolescent, and adult meet new
people, they will expect the new relationships to be like those they
have known. Even if they are not really like that, the new figures may
be experienced as though they were, in order to reaffirm that new ex-
perience is familiar and will not create a demand for change in the in-
ternal object relationships. Pressure from healthy, new external objects
to maintain their integrity reverses this trend. Then, new relationships
6 CHAPTER I

can afford both partners the opportunity for further modification of

their internal object worlds.

D O E S T H E H U M A N PERSONALITY CONSIST ONLY O F

A COLLECTION O F OBJECTS?

No. Objects are only part of the personality. Infants are born with their
own potential personality. At birth, there is a self ready and prewired to
relate to the external objects that the infant will find in the environment.
In relation to these external objects, the self then grows and develops and
builds upon its experience with the objects to create psychic structure.

W H A T I S T H E SELF?

The self refers to the total personality growing through the life cycle. At
first it is a pristine, unformed self, gradually becoming enriched by ex-
perience with the objects. According to infant researcher Daniel Stern,
the baby is organized from the beginning to acquire experience in order
to build a personality and a sense of self. The self comprises: (1)the old-
fashioned concept of the ego as an executive mechanism that modulates
self-control through its control of motility, sphincters, and affect states,
and mediates relations with the outside world, (2) the internal objects,
and (3) objects and parts of the ego bound together by the affects (feel-
ings) appropriate to the child's experiences of these object relationships.
We've used the term self to refer to the combination of ego and in-
ternal objects in a unique, dynamic relation that comprises the charac-
ter and gives a sense of personal identity that endures and remains rel-
atively constant over time.

W H A T I S T H E RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SELF A N D OBJECT?

The self is the unique psychic organization that creates a person's iden-
tity. The external object is what the whole self relates to when it inter-
T H E SELF AND I T S O B J E C T S 7

acts with another person. The internal object is one of the substructures
of the self. Also inside the self are various other internal objects and
parts of the ego that correspond to them. The ego and its parts moder-
ate operations and feelings that are identified with the self, organized in
subcategories of the ego. These broad subcategories relate to corre-
sponding internal objects. These categories of the self and their relevant
objects are bound together by the emotion or affect that characterizes
the object relationship. Different lunds of internal object relationships
arise during different affect states.

C A N Y O U DEFINE A N
I N T E R N A L OBJECT RELATIONSHIP?

Internal object relationship is a term for the relationship between part

of the ego and its object bound together by the feelings that are experi-
enced by the ego in relation to that object. The internal object relation-
ship becomes an enduring, but potentially modifiable, part of the self
that may remain in consciousness or may need to be pushed out of con-
sciousness if it provokes intolerable anxiety.
We now have a view of the self as consisting of conscious and uncon-
scious parts. Object relations theorists hold that the unconscious is part
of the ego, in contrast to Freud, who described the unconscious as sep-
arate from the ego, located in a part of the personality that he called the
"id"-a seething mass of impulses seeking discharge and governed by ir-
rational thinking processes.

HOW D O E S T H E I N T E R N A L OBJECT RELATIONSHIP

F O R M I F T H E M O T H E R IS NOT RAISING T H E C H I L D ?

At their time of writing, the theorists were thinking of the influence on

the child of mothering by the actual mother, the woman who had borne
the child or who had undertaken to raise the child. Fairbairn and Win-
nicott noticed the reality of the holding and handling of the child, but
also noted the influence of the mother's personality on the mother-
infant relationship, whereas Klein was more concerned with the infant's
8 CHAPTER I

fantasies about the relationship. All of them underemphasized the fa-

ther's contribution to the child's experience, except as the mother's
partner.
Nowadays, with fathers taking a more active part in the raising of their
children and mothers working outside the home and the advent of two-
mother and two-father families, we use the term mother to refer to the
person who is centrally responsible for the daily care of the child. This
person might be the actual mother (biological or adoptive), the father
(or partner), an older sibling, the family housekeeper, or more likely a
combination of them. The impact of family dynamics on the individual
development of the older child has been described by Roger Shapiro
and John Zinner. We need more studies of the effect that sharing of the
mothering function has on the infant's development to be more precise
about its impact on personality, but for now we can say that the infant
integrates experience with multiple external objects to arrive at com-
posite internal objects. All of these significant people are in relationship
to each other. The relationship between these external objects affects
the integration of composite internal objects and their internal dynamic
relation.

W H Y W O U L D IT NOT BE B E T T E R T O C A L L T H E
T H E O R Y "SUBJECT RELATIONSTHEORY"?

Some people find the term object relations theory rather cold and im-
personal. They might feel happier calling it subject relations theoy. We
stick to Fairbairn's original "object relations" terminology, which was de-
veloped from its base in Freud's theory. Freud used the word object to
refer to the target that the drives aimed at and looked to for gratification
in the person of the caretaker. In his view, the object of the drives was
not personal, because the drives were an impersonal force seeking dis-
charge.
For us, however, the object is not an impersonal matter. Our view
stems from Fairbairn's original assertion that what is primary is the need
for a relationship (not the need for instinctual tension release) and that
the person in whose care the child is growing is vitally important as an
object of attachment (not of drive gratification).
T H E SELF AND I T S O B J E C T S

WHY NOT CALLTHIS APPROACH

"PERSONAL RELATIONS THEORY"?

This does sound more human, but it does not do justice to the history of
the development of the ideas, and it colloquializes what is really a tech-
nical matter. We reserve the term object relations t h e o y precisely to
highlight the technical aspects of the theory and its clinical application.

NOTES

For an excellent, concise overview of the contributions of Fairbairn (1944,

1952, 1954, 1958, 1963),Winnicott (1951, 1956, 1958, 1964, 1965, 1971), Gun-
trip (1961, 1969, 1986), and Balint (1986),we suggest the review article, "The
British Object Relations Theorists: Balint, Winnicott, Fairbairn, Guntrip"
(Sutherland 1980). For an easy approach to the theories of Klein (1935, 1946,
1948, 1952, 1955, 1957, 1975), see Segal (1964) and Klein and Riviere (1967).
The work of Freud is summarized for the beginner in Freud's introductory lec-
tures on psychoanalysis (Freud 1910a) and for the advanced reader in his final
published paper (Freud 1940), written at the age of eighty-two. The contribu-
tion of infant research to the development of the self is found in Stern (1985)
and Schore (1994). Papers by Shapiro (1979), Zinner (1989), and Zinner and
Shapiro (1972) are reprinted in Foundations of Object Relations Fanzily Ther-
a p y (Scharff 1989b).
 BASIC FREUDIAN CONCEPTS

Before we look at Ronald Fairbairn's scheme of the endopsychic struc-

ture of internal object relations in chapter 3, we must review Sigmund
Freud's topographic and structural theories and his basic psychoanalytic
concepts of (1)the unconscious; (2) the ego, the id, and superego; and
( 3 )resistance and defense.

T H E TOPOGRAPHIC THEORY

Freud's most outstanding contribution was to show that human behav-

ior is determined by factors outside conscious awareness. From his
study of associations to dreams and slips of the tongue, he concluded
that some of a person's feelings and ideas could be separated off from
conscious thought in response to trauma in infancy. Such trauma might
include a frightening event, a childhood seduction, a hospitalization, loss
of a parent, and so on. He found that the working of the unconscious
was not governed by logic and reason, but by primitive, impulse-ridden
thinking called prima y process. Freud's idea of analysis was to trace the
patient's associations to the manifest content of dreams and slips of the
tongue in order to reestablish the forgotten connections. In this way, he
I 2 CHAPTER 2

made the unconscious conscious, subjected it to the conscious form of

thinking called seconday process governed by rules of reason, and so
relieved the infantile neurosis. Freud originally described the mind as
being divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious areas. This
first tripartite theory is known as the topographic theory.

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Many years later, Freud postulated another tripartite theory of the

mind. In this theory he ascribed a structure to cope with the uncon-
scious. H e now called the unconscious the id, envisioned as a seething
cauldron of aggressive and sexual drives. To mediate between the unruly
id and the demands of external reality, the ego emerges out of the mess
of the id. The ego is constructed as a structure mainly (though not en-
tirely) engaged in preconscious and conscious functioning. The ego
comprises (1)the set of executive functions or mechanisms that medi-
ate between the id and the outer world and (2) the set of accumulated
identifications with the lost objects of the drives, all of which culminate
in a personal identity. After the resolution of the oedipal period of de-
velopment when the child gives up the wish to possess one parent and
kill the rival, the third structure, called the superego, develops, based on
selective identifications with the forbidding, critical qualities of the par-
ents and reaction formations against these. The superego has both con-
scious and unconscious elements and guides the child toward moral re-
sponsibility. The topographic and structural theories cannot be
superimposed exactly upon each other, but coexist as useful ways of
viewing the mind.

THETHEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Freud held that the human infant is motivated by two opposing in-
stincts. At first, Freud saw these as the sexual instinct (also called li-
bido), for getting on wit11 life and enjoylng sexual pleasure and the self-
presemative instinct, for repressing the sexual instinct in order to face
reality. Later, he saw opposition to the sexual instinct more in terms of
B A S I C F R E U D I A N C O N C E P T S 13

the death instinct, of which the manifestations were harder for him to
see but which he thought was diverted into the external world in the
form of destructiveness and aggressiveness. These instincts, or drives as
they are now more commonly called, have the aim of gratification by the
object that they fall upon. Their source is the pool of instincts, impulses,
or drives seething untamed in the unconscious part of the mind that
Freud called the id. These instincts have to be tamed in order not to lose
the love object. The infant takes inside successive versions of the love
object that have to be given up at each stage of development, and out of
these introjections are formed the child's ego (the conscious, executive
part of the selo and superego (the critical, forbidding, guiding part of
the self, based on the selective internalization of the parental function-
ing). Freud's case histories make it clear that he was well aware of the
mother's holding and handling of her infant, but in the formulation of
his theories he underemphasized the quality of the relationship. In-
stead, he focused on'the structure and function of the child's mind in
relative isolation and developed for this task a inodel of the mind based
on science. The organism seeks (1)discharge of instinctual tension, (2)
repetition of tension-reducing behavior so as to return to a state of
homeostasis, or (3)narcissistic retreat into the self, where needs either
do not disturb or their satisfaction can be imagined as vividly as if it were
occurring.

T H E PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES O F DEVELOPMENT

The instincts go through a series of psychosexual stages of de~elopment

that unfold in a predetermined, universal sequence.

Pre-oedipal Development

At first predominantly oral in nature, the instincts propel the infant to

suck-both for survival through being fed and for pleasurable, libidinal
gratification-and later to bite and spit as a way of releasing aggression.
When the mouth gives way to the anus as the dominant erogenous zone,
the child gains pleasure from the feces and from the control the anus
can exert over holding on to or letting go of them. In the phallic stage of
14 CHAPTER 2

development, the child is now aware of and seeks genital sensations, of-
ten confused with the urethral sensations of urination. As always, the
drives seek objects to gratify their expression. Naturally, the mother is
training her child to gain control over these impulses, and so she be-
comes forbidding as well as gratifying of her child's wishes. Aware of dif-
ferences in the genitalia between the sexes, the female child imagines
that the more obvious penis affords the boy greater pleasure than she
enjoys. This is a source of unhappiness and sometimes shame and poor
self-esteem. The sequence now moves on to the oedipal phase.

Oedipal Development

The little girl develops the fantasy of getting a penis for herself: the
best and biggest is the one that she seeks, namely her father's. The child
does not want to admit that this is her mother's territory and imagines
that she may have to get rid of her Mommy so as to have her Daddy, and
any babies that he might give her, all to herself. The girl is then afraid of
an angry mother who will lull her or her unborn babies. The boy notices
that his mother is interested in his father and assumes that her interest
has to do with her wish for his penis. Size comparisons notwithstanding,
the boy hopes that his mother will find his penis more attractive than
her husband's. If not, the boy imagines, he may have to kill his rival, the
father, who, if he should find this out, might angrily retaliate by killing
the boy (or at least might cut off his penis to punish him for wanting his
mother). Freud called the boy's fear of retaliation castration anxiety.
The girl was thought to have a castration conaplex, in other words to be
upset that she had already been castrated.
Freud thought that the girl's feminine identity forms as a result of her
castration complex, namely, her sense of inferiority at not having a val-
ued penis like a boy. His view of feminine identity as a deficit state has
been successfully challenged by observational infant research, feminist
psychology, and child analysis. We now know that girls have as strong a
sense of sexual identity as do boys, long before the phallic period of de-
velopment. Boys and girls alike envy each other's different sexual char-
acteristics. Excessive signs of castration complex and penis envy in the
girl occur when possessing a penis is imagined to make up for an inner
sense of deficit or loneliness. Envy of the procreative power of the fe-
B A S I C F R E U D I A N C O N C E P T S 15

male body leaves the boy feeling inadequate. One defense against this is
to devalue women and aggrandize phallic competence-which tends to
drive the penis envy of women and so divert attention from the womb
envy of men.
In both sexes, images of the forbidding parents are internalized as a
part of the mind called the superego, which operates as a conscience and
matures in its capacity for maintaining altruistic as well as moral values.
Capable now of more complex thinking, the child realizes that there is
no way of having everything and gives up forbidden sexual longings to
possess one parent and murderous wishes to kill the other, in favor of
being the child of two parents who are together. The Oedipus complex
is more or less resolved and the child moves on into the latency stage,
where ego and superego defenses against regression are strengthened
and issues of autonomy and skill-building come to the fore. If unable to
master the challenges of a particular developmental stage, a child may
become$xated there or even regress to an earlier developmental stage
inappropriate to chronological age.
The nature of the resolution of the Oedipus complex determines the
character structure by seven years of age, with one qualifier: the Oedi-
pus constellation comes up for reworking during the sexually energized
phase of adolescence. Its state of resolution by that time determines
the ego's degree of disengagement from the old incestuous objects,
which, in turn, determines how free the young person is to develop
age-appropriate, sexually experimental love relationships with peers.
The mate who is eventually selected will offer attraction and passionate
attachment powerful enough to defeat the tie to the old objects and yet
similar enough to inherit the transference to them.
Based in object relations theory, our ideas about the organizational
boundaries of the unconscious differ from those of Freud. Nevertheless,
we continue to view his concepts of unconscious motivation and uncon-
scious organization as basic to any psychodynamic approach. Similarly,
although we disagree with Freud's view of the instinctual basis of psy-
chosexual development in which the sexual instinct cathects the eroge-
nous zones in a preset sequence that then determines psychosexual de-
velopment, we do find that the sequence occurs as Freud described it
and that the child uses the oral, anal, urethral, phallic, and eventually
genital routes for the experience of arousal and discharge of sexual and
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