Year Semester Units Core Courses

Biology, Chemistry, Math I–II, Physics, Engg. Graphics,

I 1&2 37 units Workshop, Programming, Electrical Sciences, Thermodynamics,
Report Writing, Prob & Stats
Math III, Economics/Management, Electronic Devices, Digital
Design, Microprocessors, Control Systems, Signals & Systems,
II 3&4 42 units
Microelectronics, Electromagnetics, Discipline Electives,
Humanities, Environmental Studies
Analog & Digital VLSI, Communications, DSP, EM Fields &
36–
III 5&6 Microwave, Networks, Info Theory, Digital Signal Processing,
42 units
Architecture, RTOS, Network Programming, Electives
Humanities/Open Electives, Discipline Electives, Practice School
23–
IV 7&8 II (20 units) or Thesis (9 units + Electives) (universe.bits-
40 units
pilani.ac.in, bits-dubai.ac.ae)

Electrical
Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff's Laws

Network Theorems (Norton, Thevenin, Superposition)

AC circuits, Phasors

Transformers, Electrical Machines (basic intro)

Measurement Instruments (Ammeter, Voltmeter)

🔥 THERMODYNAMICS
1. Core Textbook:

Title: Engineering Thermodynamics

Author: P.K. Nag

Publisher: McGraw-Hill

Why it’s used: Standard in Indian engineering colleges, clear explanations, lots of problems.

2. Reference Books:

Title: Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics

Author: Moran & Shapiro
Why: A bit more detailed and concept-heavy—good for deeper understanding and global references.

Title: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Author: Yunus A. Cengel & Michael A. Boles
Bonus: Includes practical examples and real-world applications.

Title: Basic and Applied Thermodynamics

Author: P. K. Nag (again, this is a version for slightly more applied perspectives)

Topics Usually Covered:

Laws of Thermodynamics (Zeroth, First, Second)

Energy, Work, Heat, Internal Energy

Entropy and Enthalpy

Carnot Cycle, Otto Cycle, Diesel Cycle

Properties of Pure Substances, Steam Tables

Thermodynamic Systems & Processes

📝 Tips for Studying:

Practice numerical problems regularly (especially in thermodynamics).

Use simulation tools (like PSpice or Multisim) for Electrical Sciences lab topics.

For Thermo, always relate theory to physical systems (engines, refrigerators, etc.).

Network theorems are fundamental tools in electrical and electronics engineering used to
simplify complex circuits and analyze their behavior efficiently. These theorems are
particularly useful in linear, bilateral, and passive networks. Here's a detailed explanation of
the most important network theorems:

🔹 1. Ohm’s Law

Before we move to the theorems, it’s essential to recall Ohm’s Law:

V=I⋅RV = I \cdot RV=I⋅R

Where:

 VVV = Voltage (Volts)

 III = Current (Amperes)
 RRR = Resistance (Ohms)

🔹 2. Kirchhoff’s Laws

a. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The total current entering a junction (node) is equal to the total current leaving the junction.
∑I_in = ∑I_out

Used in: Node analysis, finding unknown currents.

b. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

The sum of the EMFs and potential drops around any closed loop in a circuit is zero.
∑V = 0

Used in: Mesh analysis, loop current calculations.

🔹 3. Thevenin’s Theorem

Any linear bilateral network with voltage and current sources and resistances can be replaced
by a single voltage source (Vth) in series with a resistance (Rth).

Steps:

1. Remove the load resistor (if any).

2. Find open-circuit voltage (Vth).
3. Find equivalent resistance (Rth) with sources replaced (voltage → short, current →
open).
4. Replace with a Thevenin equivalent circuit.

🔹 4. Norton’s Theorem

Similar to Thevenin’s Theorem, but uses a current source (In) in parallel with a resistance
(Rn).

Steps:

1. Remove the load resistor.

2. Find short-circuit current across load terminals (In).
3. Find Norton resistance (same as Thevenin’s Rth).
4. Replace the network with Norton equivalent.

🧠 Note: Thevenin and Norton are dual to each other. You can convert one to the other:

Vth=In⋅Rn,Rth=RnV_{th} = I_n \cdot R_n,\quad R_{th} = R_nVth=In⋅Rn,Rth=Rn

🔹 5. Superposition Theorem
In a linear network with multiple sources, the response (current or voltage) in any element is
the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each source acting alone, with all other
sources turned off (voltage → short, current → open).

Used for: Linear circuits only.

🔹 6. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance equals the
source’s internal resistance (or Thevenin resistance).

RL=RthR_L = R_{th}RL=Rth

Used in: Power optimization in communication circuits, amplifiers.

🔹 7. Millman’s Theorem

Useful for circuits with multiple parallel branches, each containing a voltage source and a
series resistor.

The equivalent voltage across the load is:

V=V1/R1+V2/R2+⋯+Vn/Rn1/R1+1/R2+⋯+1/RnV = \frac{V_1/R_1 + V_2/R_2 + \cdots +

V_n/R_n}{1/R_1 + 1/R_2 + \cdots + 1/R_n}V=1/R1+1/R2+⋯+1/RnV1/R1+V2/R2+⋯+Vn
/Rn

Used in: Parallel source combinations.

🔹 8. Reciprocity Theorem

In a linear, bilateral network, if a voltage source applied at one point causes a current at
another point, then the same current will flow if the source and the measuring point are
interchanged.

Used for: Transmission line and communication network analysis.

🔹 9. Tellegen’s Theorem

In any electrical network that obeys KVL and KCL, the summation of the instantaneous
power in all elements is zero.
Used in: Network validation and power analysis.

Summary Table

Theorem Application Network Type

KCL / KVL Fundamental analysis All networks
Thevenin's Circuit simplification Linear, bilateral
Norton's Circuit simplification Linear, bilateral
Superposition Source-by-source analysis Linear only
Maximum Power Transfer Power optimization Load matching
Millman’s Parallel voltage source combination Parallel circuits
Reciprocity Signal interchange validation Linear, bilateral
Tellegen’s Power conservation check All networks

AC Circuits (Alternating Current Circuits)

In AC circuits, the current and voltage vary sinusoidally (like a sine or cosine wave) with
time, unlike DC circuits where current remains constant.

🌀 AC Voltage and Current:

 AC Voltage: v(t) = Vm * sin(ωt + φ)

 AC Current: i(t) = Im * sin(ωt + θ)

Where:

 Vm and Im = maximum (peak) values of voltage and current

 ω = angular frequency = 2πf (f = frequency in Hz)
 φ, θ = phase angles

🧭 Phasors

A phasor is a complex number representation of a sinusoidal function, which simplifies

analysis of AC circuits.

Example:

If you have:

cpp
CopyEdit
v(t) = Vm * sin(ωt + φ)

The phasor form is:

arduino
CopyEdit
V = Vm∠φ or V = Vm (cos φ + j sin φ)

where ∠ means "angle" and j = √(-1) (imaginary unit).

Phasors are rotating vectors that help in comparing the amplitudes and phase differences
between voltages and currents without worrying about time t.

🧩 Components in AC and Their Behavior

Component Voltage-Current Relationship Phase Difference

Resistor (R) V=I×R Voltage and current are in phase (0°)
Inductor (L) V = L × (di/dt) Voltage leads current by 90°
Capacitor (C) I = C × (dv/dt) Current leads voltage by 90°

🔄 Impedance (Z) in Phasor Domain

Impedance is the AC equivalent of resistance, and it's complex-valued:

Element Impedance (Z)

Resistor (R) Z = R
Inductor (L) Z = jωL
Capacitor (C) Z = 1 / (jωC)

In phasor analysis, Ohm's Law becomes:

ini
CopyEdit
V = I × Z

⚙️Solving AC Circuits Using Phasors:

1. Convert all time-domain sinusoids to phasors.

2. Replace R, L, and C with their impedances.
3. Apply circuit laws: Ohm’s law, KVL, KCL, voltage division, current division.
4. Solve the phasor equations using complex algebra.
5. Convert phasor results back to time-domain (if needed).

🔁 Example:

If a voltage source is:

v(t) = 10 sin(ωt + 30°) V
and it’s connected to a resistor R = 10 Ω:
 1. Phasor voltage: V = 10∠30°
2. Impedance: Z = 10 Ω
3. Phasor current: I = V / Z = 10∠30° / 10 = 1∠30°
4. Time-domain current: i(t) = 1 sin(ωt + 30°)

Would you like a visual explanation, phasor diagrams, or numerical problems with solutions

TRANSFORMERS – Basic Introduction

🔹 What is a Transformer?

A transformer is a static (non-moving) electrical device that transfers electrical energy

between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction.

🔹 Principle of Operation:

 Based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

 Works on mutual induction between primary and secondary windings

🔹 Basic Parts:

1. Primary winding – connected to the input supply

2. Secondary winding – connected to the load
3. Core – provides a path for the magnetic flux

🔹 Types:

 Step-Up Transformer – increases voltage

 Step-Down Transformer – decreases voltage

🔹 Ideal Transformer Assumptions:

 No core loss (hysteresis/eddy current)

 No copper loss (resistance in windings)
 100% efficiency

🔹 Applications:

 Power transmission (grid)

 Electric devices (chargers, TVs)
 Isolation (safety)
⚙️ELECTRICAL MACHINES – Basic Introduction
🔹 What are Electrical Machines?

Devices that convert energy between electrical and mechanical forms.

There are two major categories:

1. Motors – Convert electrical energy to mechanical energy

2. Generators – Convert mechanical energy to electrical energy

⚡ TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

1. DC Machines (Direct Current)

 DC Motor: Used in electric vehicles, robotics

 DC Generator: Rare now; used for small applications

Principle: Lorentz Force Law (for motors), Faraday’s Law (for generators)

2. AC Machines (Alternating Current)

a. Synchronous Machines

 Rotor speed = stator magnetic field speed

 Used as alternators in power plants

b. Induction Machines (Asynchronous)

 Most common motor type

 Single-phase and three-phase induction motors
 Used in fans, pumps, compressors

Principle: Rotating magnetic field and electromagnetic induction

Summary Table:
Machine Type Energy Conversion Example Use
Transformer Electrical ↔ Electrical Power distribution
DC Motor Electrical → Mechanical Electric cars, toys
DC Generator Mechanical → Electrical Older power units
AC Synchronous Mechanical ↔ Electrical Power generation (alternator)
 Machine Type Energy Conversion Example Use
AC Induction Electrical → Mechanical Home appliances, industry

Would you like diagrams, formulas, or detailed working for any one of these?

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Measurement Instruments: Ammeter & Voltmeter

🔌 1. Ammeter

 Function: Measures current in a circuit (in amperes, A).

 Connection: In series with the circuit element.
 Internal Resistance: Very low, to allow maximum current flow without affecting the
circuit.
 Types:
o Analog Ammeter (uses a moving coil)
o Digital Ammeter (uses ADC and display)

Example: If you connect an ammeter to a resistor, it shows how much current is flowing
through that resistor.

⚡ 2. Voltmeter

 Function: Measures voltage (potential difference) between two points (in volts, V).
 Connection: In parallel with the circuit element.
 Internal Resistance: Very high, so it doesn’t draw current and disturb the voltage
across the component.
 Types:
o Analog Voltmeter
o Digital Voltmeter

Example: Place a voltmeter across a battery to measure its terminal voltage.

🔄 Differences at a Glance:

Feature Ammeter Voltmeter

Measures Current (A) Voltage (V)
 Feature Ammeter Voltmeter
Connection In Series In Parallel
Internal Resistance Very Low Very High
Affects Circuit Slightly Minimally

✅ Tips for Usage:

 Always connect an ammeter in series or it may be damaged.

 Always connect a voltmeter in parallel or you’ll get wrong readings.
 Ensure you don’t exceed the instrument’s range to avoid damage.

Laws of Thermodynamics

1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

o If body A is in thermal equilibrium with body B, and body B is in thermal
equilibrium with body C, then body A is in thermal equilibrium with body C.
o Basis for defining temperature.
2. First Law of Thermodynamics (Law of Energy Conservation):
o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
o ΔQ=ΔU+ΔW\Delta Q = \Delta U + \Delta WΔQ=ΔU+ΔW
 QQQ: Heat added
 UUU: Internal Energy
 WWW: Work done by the system
3. Second Law of Thermodynamics:
o Heat cannot flow spontaneously from cold to hot.
o Entropy (disorder) of an isolated system always increases.
o Introduces concepts of irreversibility and efficiency limits.

⚡ Energy, Work, Heat, Internal Energy

 Energy: Capacity to do work.

o Types: Kinetic, Potential, Internal
 Work (W): Energy transfer due to force over distance.
o In thermodynamics, work can be pressure-volume work: W=∫P dVW = \int P \,
dVW=∫PdV
 Heat (Q): Energy transfer due to temperature difference.
 Internal Energy (U): Sum of microscopic kinetic and potential energies.

♻️Entropy and Enthalpy

 Entropy (S):
o Measure of disorder or randomness.
 o For reversible process: dS=dQrevTdS = \frac{dQ_{rev}}{T}dS=TdQrev
 Enthalpy (H):
o Total heat content: H=U+PVH = U + PVH=U+PV
o Used in constant pressure processes.

🔄 Thermodynamic Cycles

1. Carnot Cycle (Ideal and Reversible)

 4 processes: 2 isothermal + 2 adiabatic.

 Efficiency:
ηCarnot=1−TCTH\eta_{Carnot} = 1 - \frac{T_C}{T_H}ηCarnot=1−THTC
(Most efficient possible for given temps.)

2. Otto Cycle (Petrol engines)

 4 processes: 2 adiabatic + 2 isochoric (constant volume).

 Efficiency:
η=1−1rγ−1\eta = 1 - \frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}η=1−rγ−11
r=r =r= compression ratio, γ=CpCv\gamma = \frac{C_p}{C_v}γ=CvCp

3. Diesel Cycle (Diesel engines)

 4 processes: 2 adiabatic, 1 isochoric, 1 isobaric (constant pressure).

 Efficiency is slightly lower than Otto for same compression ratio.

💧 Properties of Pure Substances & Steam Tables

 Pure Substance: Same chemical composition throughout (e.g., water, refrigerant).

 Steam Tables:
o Provide thermodynamic properties like enthalpy, entropy, specific volume at
different pressures and temperatures.
o Important in analyzing Rankine cycle and boilers.

🔧 Thermodynamic Systems & Processes

 System Types:
o Open: Mass & energy can cross boundary (e.g., turbine)
o Closed: Only energy crosses (e.g., piston-cylinder)
o Isolated: Neither mass nor energy enters/exits (e.g., insulated bottle)
 Processes:
o Isothermal: Constant temperature
o Adiabatic: No heat exchange
 o Isobaric: Constant pressure
o Isochoric: Constant volume
o Polytropic: Follows PVn=CPV^n = CPVn=C

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