COMMUNICATION: Communication can broadly be defined as exchange of ideas,

messages and information between two or more persons, through a medium, in a manner
that the sender and the receiver understand the message in the common sense that is, they
develop common understanding of the message.

NATURE OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication has been defined as:
● A two-way process of reaching mutual understanding

● It emphasises on sharing information, ideas and messages. It is not merely issuing

orders and instructions.

● When you communicate, there has to be a receiver or an audience that would

reciprocate. Only then can your communication be complete.

● Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non-verbal

messages. It is considered effective only when it achieves the desired reaction or
response from the receiver. The response may be positive or negative. In case of
absence of any response, communication is incomplete.

Communication occurs through different channels or mediums, such as face-to-face

conversation, written documents, phone calls, video conferences, emails, and more. The
choice of channel affects how the message is delivered and received.

Q. TRACE THE EVOLUTION OF TRADITIONAL FORMS OF MEDIA HOW THEY

ARE DIFFERENT FROM MEDIA THAT ARE TODAY. ILLUSTRATE

Traditional forms of media have undergone a remarkable transformation over the centuries,
adapting to technological advancements and evolving consumer preferences. Here's a glimpse
into their journey, highlighting the key differences from today's media landscape:

1. Print Media:

 Early Days: Handwritten manuscripts and limited printed materials like scrolls and
pamphlets dominated the scene. Information dissemination was slow and restricted.
 Evolution: The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450
revolutionized print media. Newspapers, magazines, and books became widespread,
fostering literacy and knowledge sharing.
 Today: While print media still exists, its consumption has declined significantly.
Digital alternatives like online news platforms, e-books, and blogs have emerged,
offering instant access and interactive features.

Illustration: Imagine a scholar meticulously copying a manuscript versus someone scrolling

through news articles on their smartphone.

2. Radio:
  Early Days: Invented in the late 19th century, radio offered real-time news and
entertainment through audio broadcasts. Content was linear and listeners had limited
control over what they consumed.
 Evolution: The introduction of transistors made radios portable, and advancements
like FM and satellite radio expanded content variety and quality.
 Today: While radio stations still exist, podcasting has become a dominant force.
Listeners can choose from a vast library of on-demand content, often with interactive
elements and deeper dives into specific topics.

Illustration: Imagine families huddled around a bulky radio listening to a live broadcast
versus individuals using earphones to listen to a personalized podcast playlist.

3. Television:

 Early Days: Black and white televisions emerged in the mid-20th century, offering a
visual dimension to entertainment and news. Programming was limited and viewers
had to adhere to scheduled broadcasts.
 Evolution: Color televisions, cable, and satellite expanded content options. VCRs
allowed for limited recording and control, while DVDs offered higher quality and
portability.
 Today: Streaming services like Netflix and Hulu have revolutionized television.
Viewers have access to a vast library of on-demand content, allowing them to watch
what they want, whenever they want. Additionally, smart TVs and connected devices
offer interactive features and personalized recommendations.

Illustration: Imagine families gathered around a single television watching a specific

program at a specific time versus individuals choosing from a personalized list of shows on
their smart TVs at their convenience.

Key Differences:

 Accessibility: Traditional media was often limited in its reach and accessibility.
Today's digital media is readily available on various devices, offering greater
flexibility and personalization.
 Content: Traditional media offered limited content options and control for
consumers. Today's media landscape is overflowing with diverse content, allowing
for on-demand access and user-generated content creation.
 Interactivity: Traditional media was primarily one-directional, with limited
interaction between creators and consumers. Today's media fosters two-way
communication through comments, social media engagement, and interactive
features.

This evolution highlights the constant adaptation of media to meet the changing needs and
preferences of consumers. While traditional forms still hold cultural significance, the rise of
digital media has fundamentally transformed how we access, consume, and interact with
information and entertainment.
Q. Evolution of Media Organizations in India: A Journey of Transformation

Media organizations in India, considered the fourth pillar of democracy, have undergone a
remarkable transformation over the years, reflecting the changing socio-political landscape of
the nation. Here's a glimpse into their evolution, focusing on key aspects:

1. Pre-Independence Era:

 Limited Reach: Media was primarily print-based, catering to a limited, educated

elite. Newspapers like The Hindu and The Statesman emerged as influential voices,
often critical of British rule.
 Focus on Nationalism: The media played a crucial role in the Indian independence
movement, fostering national consciousness and mobilizing public opinion against
colonial rule.

2. Post-Independence Era (1947-1990s):

 State Control: The government established All India Radio (AIR) and Doordarshan
(DD), the national broadcaster and television network respectively, promoting
national integration and development goals.
 Limited Plurality: Private ownership of media was restricted, leading to concerns
about censorship and lack of diverse viewpoints.

3. Liberalization and Globalization (1990s onwards):

 Explosion of Media: Economic liberalization led to a surge in private media

companies, establishing numerous newspapers, television channels, and radio stations.
This fostered greater diversity in content and perspectives.
 Technological Advancements: The emergence of satellite television, cable networks,
and the internet significantly expanded media reach and accessibility, catering to
diverse regional and linguistic audiences.

4. Rise of Digital Media:

 Social Media Proliferation: The rise of social media platforms like Facebook,
Twitter, and YouTube has democratized content creation and dissemination,
empowering individuals to become citizen journalists and challenge traditional media
narratives.
 Convergence and Competition: Traditional media organizations have embraced
digital platforms, offering online news, streaming services, and interactive content to
remain competitive in the evolving landscape.

NORMATIVE THEORIES:

A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and
operated by the government, authority, leader and public. Normative theories are more
focused in the relationship between Press and the Government than press and the
audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of the media and who
controls the press or media in the country. These theories are basically different from
other communication theories because normative theories of press are not providing any
scientific explanations or prediction.

Authoritarian Theory: stemmed from Thomas Hobbes and Plato (state is safe only in
hands of few wise man)

Principle: In authoritarian communication theory, communication is primarily a one-way

process controlled by those in authority. The government or ruling elite determines what
information is disseminated to the public, with limited input or dissent allowed.

Communication is tightly regulated by the state. It often serves the interests of the ruling
authority. There is little room for dissent or criticism of the government. Communication
is often used to maintain and reinforce the authority's power and ideology. Information is
filtered or restricted to ensure it aligns with the government's agenda. Many steps are
taken to curb the freedom of press like licensing, censorships, approval of content prior to
publication and punishments etc. The registration of the media will be done by the state.
Press should be subordinate to vested power and authority. The government may punish
anyone who questions the state's ideology and the Media professionals are not allowed to
have any independence within the media organization.

Ex- Dictatorship during reign of Hitler and Mussolini- Press was under the control of the
authority and No press can question against or publish against these two dictators.

Totalitarian Theory:

Principle: Totalitarian communication theory takes authoritarianism to an extreme level,

where the government exercises complete control over all forms of communication.
Totalitarian regimes seek to dominate all aspects of public and private life, including
information and communication. The government exerts total authority over media,
education, and communication channels. Communication is used to manipulate public
perception and maintain the regime's ideology. Citizens are often subject to intense
surveillance, and dissent is met with severe consequences.

Examples: Historical examples include Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and the Soviet
Union under Joseph Stalin.

Libertarian Theory:

Principle: The libertarian communication theory emphasizes individual freedom and

autonomy in communication. It advocates for minimal government interference in media
and communication, allowing for a free flow of ideas and information. Individuals have
the right to express their views and ideas without censorship or government control. The
founding fathers of this theory (Milton, Locke, Mills). It is a free marketplace of ideas
where anyone can publish his/ her views and expressions but cannot defame or be
obscene. There shall be minimum checks and balances by the government. The
libertarians had a very modern approach which was quintessential to serve the purposes
of the modern society based on rise of democracy, religious freedom, expansion of
economic freedom, etc.

Examples: Countries with strong press freedoms and laws protecting freedom of speech,
such as the United States, often adhere to principles of libertarian communication theory.

Social Responsibility Theory:

Principle: Social responsibility theory recognizes that while freedom of the press and
communication is essential, media organizations also have ethical responsibilities to
society. This theory emphasizes the media's role in providing accurate and balanced
information while holding those in power accountable. Media professionals are expected
to adhere to ethical standards, including accuracy, fairness, and objectivity. Media
organizations should prioritize the public's right to know and make informed decisions.
The media should act as a watchdog, monitoring government and corporate actions and
exposing wrongdoing.

Examples: Many Western democracies promote social responsibility in media through

journalistic codes of ethics, regulatory bodies, and self-regulation by media outlets.

Soviet Communism (Marxist-Leninist) Theory:

Principle: Soviet communism theory is rooted in Marxist-Leninist ideology, emphasizing

the role of communication in advancing the interests of the working class and promoting
the principles of communism. The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass
media is to educate the greater masses of working class or workers. The government
controls all media outlets to serve the goals of the communist state. Opposition to the
communist ideology is not tolerated, and communication serves to maintain the party's
control. Theory says the state have absolute power to control any media for the benefits of
people. They put end to the private ownership of the press and other media. The
government media provide positive thoughts to create a strong socialized society as well
as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation and mobilization.

Examples: The Soviet Union and other communist states, particularly during the Cold
War era, implemented this theory in their media and communication systems.

Hypodermic Needle Theory (Magic Bullet Theory):

It was founded by Harold Laswell (1927). The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known
as the Magic Bullet Theory, suggests that mass media has a powerful and direct effect on
its audience. It assumes that media messages are like "magic bullets" that immediately
and uniformly influence individuals, shaping their attitudes and behaviors. This theory
implies that audiences are passive and vulnerable to media influence without critical
thinking or resistance. Media messages are believed to have an instant and direct impact
on the audience. It assumes that all audience members respond similarly to media content.

Critiques: This theory has been largely criticized for oversimplifying the complexities of
media influence and audience responses. Research shows that media effects are often
more nuanced, influenced by individual differences and social contexts.

Two-Step and Multi-Step Flow Theory: (Limited Effects Theory)

Principle: The Two-Step Flow Theory suggests that media messages first influence
opinion leaders or "opinion elites" who then filter and interpret the messages for the
broader public. The main players in this theory are a) Media b) Gate Keepers c) Opinion
Leaders c) Opinion Followers. The flow of information moves in this above order and
gets massively filtered and reinterpreted by the time it reaches the opinion follower. The
Multi-Step Flow Theory extends this idea by acknowledging that information may pass
through several intermediaries before reaching the mass audience. Opinion leaders are
individuals who are well-informed and trusted by others. They play a critical role in
shaping public opinion. This theory highlights the indirect nature of media influence, as
the impact on the mass audience is mediated by opinion leaders.

Examples: In politics, opinion leaders could be political pundits, commentators, or

community leaders who help interpret political messages for the public.

Spiral of Silence Theory: Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann

Principle: The Spiral of Silence Theory posits that individuals are often reluctant to
express opinions that are in the minority for fear of social isolation or rejection. People
gauge public opinion through media and their social environment, and if they perceive
their opinion to be in the minority, they may remain silent. The fear of isolation drives
individuals to conform to what they perceive as the majority opinion. Mass media can
influence perceptions of public opinion and contribute to the spiral of silence. Some
individuals may be more willing to express minority opinions if they have a strong sense
of conviction or support. This theory is often applied to understand how public opinion is
shaped and why some issues gain widespread support while others do not.

Gratification Theory (Uses and Gratifications Theory):

Principle: The Gratification Theory suggests that people actively choose and use media
for specific purposes and gratifications. It emphasizes that individuals seek out media
content that satisfies their needs and desires. This theory focuses on the active role of the
audience in selecting and using media content. People use media for various reasons, such
as information, entertainment, social connection, and escapism. The theory highlights that
audiences are not passive but actively engage with media content to fulfill their needs.
Researchers use this theory to understand why people consume specific media content
and how it satisfies their psychological and social needs. In other words, it can be said
that the theory argues what people do with media rather than what media does to people.
Also, this theory is in contradiction to the Magic Bullet theory, which states that the
audience is passive.

Cultivation Theory:

Principle: Cultivation Theory, developed by George Gerbner, posits that long-term

exposure to media content, especially television, shapes an individual's perceptions of
reality. It suggests that heavy media consumers may develop a distorted view of the world
influenced by media portrayals. Over time, heavy viewers of television tend to share more
similar perceptions of television reality, regardless of their demographic backgrounds.
Cultivation Theory suggests that prolonged exposure to violent or negative media content
can lead individuals to believe the world is more dangerous than it actually is. For some
individuals, personal experiences and real-life events may reinforce the media's impact,
intensifying the cultivation effect. This theory is often used to study the long-term effects
of media consumption on attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. The theory has been used to
explain how children who watch violent cartoons become violent themselves.