MICROPROCESSOR REVIEWER ★Pentium Series (1993-present): Introduction of

superscalar architecture, multiple cores, and 64-bit

Overview processing.
1. Introduction to Intel microprocessors ★Pentium (1993): First superscalar architecture (executed
2. History of computers multiple instructions per cycle).
3. Functions of the microprocessor
★Pentium Pro (1995): Optimized for 32-bit applications,
4. Basic computer terminology (bit, byte, data, memory
used in servers. Formerly named the P6.
systems, OS, I/O)
★Pentium II (1997): Enhanced multimedia processing with
History of Computers MMX technology.
★Blaise Pascal (1642): Invented a mechanical calculator
Pentium Xeon Microprocessors (mid-1998): Specifically
designed for high-end workstation and server applications
with gears and wheels.
★Pentium III (1999): Improved performance with SSE
★Charles Babbage (1823): Developed the Analytical Engine,
(Streaming SIMD Extensions).
a steam-powered mechanical computer.
★Pentium 4 (2000): Introduced Hyper-Threading for better
★Herman Hollerith (1889): Developed punched card data
multitasking.
storage and mechanical tabulating machines.
Core2 Microprocessors: Available at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
★Konrad Zuse (1941): Invented the Z3, the first
electromechanical computer.
Microprocessor-Based Personal Computer System
★Alan Turing (1943-1944): Developed the Colossus, an Block Diagram of a Computer System
electronic code-breaking machine.
★ENIAC “Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer”
(1946): First general-purpose electronic computer with
17,000 vacuum tubes.
★Invention of Transistor (1947): John Bardeen, William
Shockley, and Walter Brattain developed the transistor,
leading to modern microprocessors.
★Intel 4004 (1971): First microprocessor, developed by Components
Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor. ★Microprocessor (CPU): Processes instructions and
controls system operations.
Microprocessor Evolution ★Memory System: Stores data and instructions.
★8080 (1973): First general-purpose 8-bit microprocessor. ★I/O Devices: Interfaces for user input/output.
★8085 (1977): Enhanced version of 8080 with better ★Buses: Data, address, and control buses for
efficiency. communication.
★8086 & 8088 (1978-79): First 16-bit processors with
1MB memory addressing. Memory Systems
★80286 (1983): Introduced protected mode and 16MB ★Real Memory System (First 1MB): Used in early IBM PCs,
memory addressing. supported by all Intel microprocessors.
★80386 (1986): First 32-bit microprocessor, capable of ★Extended Memory System (Above 1MB): Introduced in
addressing 4GB memory. 80286 and later processors.
80386EX (1995): Called an embedded PC
★80486 (1989): Integrated math coprocessor, cache
memory.
Types of Memory ★BASIC, C, C++, Java, Python: Modern languages for
★TPA (Transient Program Area): Holds OS, drivers, and various applications.
active applications.
★System Area: Stores BIOS, video memory, and system Software Development in Microprocessors
configuration data. ★Assembler: Converts assembly code to machine code.
★Extended Memory (XMS): Used in advanced OS like ★Compiler: Translates high-level language to machine code.
Windows. ★Operating Systems: Manage system resources and
hardware interactions (e.g., DOS, Windows, Linux).
I/O System and Bus Structure
★I/O Devices: Keyboard, mouse, printer, storage devices.
★Address Bus: Determines memory/I/O location. Modern and Future Microprocessor Trends
★Data Bus: Transfers data between components. Recent Microprocessor Advancements
★Control Bus: Manages operations of memory and I/O ★Multi-Core Processors: Improves processing power and
devices. efficiency (e.g., Intel Core i9, AMD Ryzen).
★64-bit Architecture: Supports larger memory addressing
Microprocessor Architecture and Functionality and improved performance.
Basic Functions of a Microprocessor ★AI and Neural Processing Units (NPUs): Enhancing
★Data Transfer: Between microprocessor, memory, and I/O. computing for AI-driven applications.
★Arithmetic and Logic Operations: Performs mathematical ★Quantum Computing: Future of computing with qubits
and logical computations. replacing traditional bits.
★Program Execution: Fetches and executes stored
instructions. Intel Itanium and EPIC Architecture
★Decision Making: Uses conditional operations to modify ★Itanium (2002): Introduced Explicitly Parallel Instruction
program flow. Computing (EPIC).
Key Features
Types of Microprocessors ★128-bit architecture.
★CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer): Large instruction ★Advanced parallel execution capabilities.
sets, optimized for complex operations (e.g., Intel x86 ★Used in high-end servers and scientific computing.
processors).
★RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer): Simplified
instructions, optimized for speed (e.g., ARM, PowerPC). Summary and Additional Notes

Programming and Software Development ★A computer is a programmable machine that:

Programming Languages Evolution - Receives input
★Machine Language: Binary code (0s and 1s) executed by - Stores and manipulates data
microprocessor. - Provides output
★Assembly Language: Uses mnemonic codes (e.g., ADD,
MOV) instead of binary. Basic Components:
- CPU (Central Processing Unit)
High-Level Languages - Memory (RAM, ROM)
- Input and Output (I/O) Unit
★FORTRAN (1957): First high-level programming language.
★COBOL (1959): Used for business applications.
Bus System: ★Control Unit
- Address bus - Directs operations inside the processor
- Data bus - Manages execution of instructions
- Control bus
★Register Sets
Basic Components of a Microcomputer - Temporary data storage inside the CPU
Central Processing Unit (CPU) - More registers = Better performance
- Executes program instructions Types:
- Controls the computer's operations - General Purpose Registers: Store temporary data
- Includes: - Special Purpose Registers: PC, SP, CCR
- Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
- Control Unit
★Accumulator
- Register sets
- Stores intermediate results of calculations
Memory
- RAM (Random Access Memory): Stores data temporarily ★Condition Code Register (CCR)
- ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores permanent instructions Stores status flags:
- BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): Controls startup ￚ Z (Zero Flag): Indicates zero result
operations ￚ C (Carry Flag): Shows overflow in operations

I/O Unit ￚ N (Negative/Sign Flag): Indicates negative result

- Communication between the computer and external devices ￚ V (Overflow Flag): Shows signed number overflow
- Input Devices: Keyboard, Mouse ￚ I (Interrupt Flag): Interrupts can be controlled by setting
- Output Devices: Monitor, Printer or clearing a flag, but modifying it may be restricted to
- Storage Devices: Hard disk, Optical disk, USB supervisor mode.

Data Sizes
★Program Counter (PC)
- Nibble: 4-bit
- Holds the address of the next instruction
- Byte: 8-bit
- Increments automatically after execution
- Word: 16-bit
- Long Word: 32-bit
★Stack Pointer (SP)
- Stores addresses during function calls and interrupts
Internal Structure of a Microprocessor
- Operates in Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) manner

★Bus System
Data Bus
- Bi-directional
- Transfers data between CPU, memory, and I/O devices
- Can handle 8-bit or 16-bit data

★Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

- Performs arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction)
- Executes logical operations (AND, OR, NOT)
Address Bus
- Unidirectional
- Specifies memory locations
- The width determines the number of accessible memory
locations

Control Bus
- Sends control and timing signals
- Synchronizes CPU operations with memory and peripherals

Microprocessor Clock
- Determines the speed of instruction execution
- Regulates timing of all system components
- Measured in Hertz (Hz) or Megahertz (MHz)

Examples of Microprocessors
★Intel 8086: First 16-bit microprocessor
★Motorola 6800: 8-bit microprocessor
★Zilog Z80: Widely used in early computers