ADDITIONAL TOPICS ON FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTING
Applications of Computers
Computers are used extensively in diverse fields including but not limited to:
• Business: Accounting, inventory management, payroll.
• Education: Computer-aided learning, research.
• Healthcare: Diagnosis, medical imaging, patient records.
• Science and Engineering: Simulations, data analysis.
• Entertainment: Gaming, video streaming, animation.
• Communication: Emails, social media, teleconferencing.
• Industry and Manufacturing: Automation, quality control.
• Military: Command and control systems, simulations, reconnaissance.
Hardware Components
Hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer system. The main hardware components include:
• Input Devices: Devices used to enter data into the computer. Examples: keyboard, mouse,
scanner.
• Output Devices: Devices used to display or produce output from the computer. Examples:
monitor, printer, speakers.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): Includes the Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU). Processes instructions and manages data.
• Memory:
• Primary Memory: RAM (volatile memory) and ROM (non-volatile, stores firmware).
• Secondary Storage: Hard disks, SSDs, optical drives for long-term storage.
• Motherboard: The main circuit board connecting all components.
• Peripherals: External devices connected to the computer like external drives, webcams, etc.
Software Components
Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do.
• System Software: Helps run and manage the computer hardware and provides a platform for
application software.
• Examples: Operating System (Windows, Linux), utilities, device drivers.
• Application Software: Programs that perform specific tasks for users.
• Examples: Word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers.
• E-Accessibility Software: Software designed to assist users with disabilities.
• Examples: Screen readers, speech recognition software.
Software Categories Based on Licensing:
• Open-Source Software: Source code is freely available; users can modify it.
Examples: Linux, Apache.
• Freeware: Software free of cost but source code is usually not available.
Examples: Adobe Acrobat Reader.
• Proprietary Software: Commercial software with restrictions on usage and modification.
Examples: Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop.
Basics of Computer Networks
• Node: Any device connected to the network (computer, printer, router).
• Link: Communication pathway that connects two or more nodes (wired or wireless).
• Data Transmission: Movement of data from source to destination across the network.
• Network Interface Card (NIC): Hardware that connects a device to a network.
• Switches and Routers: Devices that help direct data across a network efficiently.
Network Protocols
• Definition: A set of rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
• Enable devices from different manufacturers to communicate correctly.
Methods of Data Processing
• Single User Programming: One user runs one program at a time.
• Multiprogramming: Several programs reside in memory simultaneously, CPU switches
among them for efficiency.
• Real-Time Processing: Immediate processing and response to input (used in embedded
systems, industrial control).
• On-line Processing: Interactive processing where data is processed immediately after input.
• Time-Sharing Processing: CPU time divided among multiple users/processes to provide
concurrent access.
• Distributed Processing: Multiple computers/processors share processing tasks over a network.
Key Concepts in Computer Security
• Threat: Any potential danger that can exploit a vulnerability to breach security.
• Vulnerability: Weakness in a system that can be exploited.
• Attack: Any action that exploits a vulnerability to harm a system.
• Risk: Likelihood of a threat exploiting a vulnerability causing harm.
• Countermeasures: Steps or controls to reduce security risks.
Types of Computer Security Threats
1. Malware (Malicious Software)
• Programs designed to damage or disrupt computer operations or gain unauthorized access.
• Types include:
• Virus: Malicious code that attaches to files, spreads by executing infected files.
• Worm: Self-replicates and spreads over networks without user action.
• Trojan Horse: Disguised as legitimate software but performs harmful activities.
• Spyware: Secretly monitors user activities and sends information to attackers.
• Ransomware: Encrypts data and demands payment for decryption keys.
2. Unauthorized Access
• Intruders gaining access to systems or data without permission.
• Can lead to data theft, alteration, or destruction.
3. Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks
• Attacks aimed at making systems/services unavailable by overwhelming resources.
4. Phishing and Social Engineering
• Attempts to trick users into giving sensitive information via deceptive emails or communications.
5. Insider Threats
• Malicious or negligent actions by authorized users resulting in security breaches.
6. Data Breaches
• Unauthorized disclosure or theft of sensitive data.
Sources of Computer Security Threats
Source Description Examples
Mistakes by users or administrators leading to Misconfiguration, weak
Human Error security lapses. passwords
Employees or users with access who misuse
Malicious Insiders privileges intentionally. Data theft, sabotage
Hackers/Crackers External attackers exploiting system vulnerabilities. SQL injection, brute force
Viruses, worms, ransomware, and other malware
Malicious Software spread from various vectors. Email attachments, downloads
Events causing physical damage to computer
Natural Disasters hardware and data centres. Floods, fires, earthquakes
Hardware and System crashes or failures leading to data loss or
Software Failures vulnerabilities. Disk failures, OS bugs
Security Measures and Best Practices (Brief Overview)
• Strong Passwords: Use complex, unique passwords and change them regularly.
• Firewalls: Prevent unauthorized access to networks.
• Antivirus Software: Detect and remove malware.
• Regular Updates: Patch OS and software to fix vulnerabilities.
• Backup: Periodically backup important data.
• User Education: Train users about phishing, social engineering, and safe computing.
• Access Controls: Implement user authentication and authorization.
