📝 Page 1: Quantum Mechanics
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the
physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It's the foundation of
all quantum physics, including quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology,
and quantum information science.
Key Postulates of Quantum Mechanics:
1. State Vector: The state of a physical system is completely described by a state vector,
∣Ψ⟩, in a complex vector space called the Hilbert space (H). This vector contains all
possible information about the system.
2. Observables and Operators: Every measurable physical quantity, or observable (like
position, momentum, or energy), is represented by a linear, Hermitian operator on the
Hilbert space. The eigenvalues of this operator correspond to the possible measurement
outcomes.
3. Measurement: A measurement of an observable A yields one of its eigenvalues, an.
The state of the system collapses to the corresponding eigenstate, ∣un⟩. The probability
of obtaining the eigenvalue anis given by P(an)=∣⟨un∣Ψ⟩∣2.
4. Time Evolution: The time evolution of the state vector is governed by the Schrödinger
equation:
iℏ∂t∂∣Ψ(t)⟩=H^∣Ψ(t)⟩
Here, H^ is the Hamiltonian operator, which represents the total energy of the system.
The Uncertainty Principle
First formulated by Werner Heisenberg, the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is
impossible to simultaneously know with perfect precision certain pairs of physical properties of a
particle, such as position (x) and momentum (px). Mathematically, this is expressed as:
ΔxΔpx≥2ℏ
Here, ℏ is the reduced Planck constant (ℏ=h/2π).
📝 Page 2: Classical Electrodynamics
Maxwell's Equations
Maxwell's equations are a set of four fundamental equations that describe the behavior of
electric and magnetic fields. They are the cornerstone of classical electromagnetism.
1. Gauss's Law for Electricity: The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to
the total electric charge enclosed within that surface.
∇⋅E=ϵ0ρ
(ρ is the charge density, ϵ0is the permittivity of free space).
2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism: The magnetic flux through any closed surface is always
zero, implying that magnetic monopoles do not exist.
∇⋅B=0
3. Faraday's Law of Induction: A changing magnetic field induces a circulating electric field.
This is the principle behind electric generators.
∇×E=−∂t∂B
4. Ampère-Maxwell Law: A magnetic field can be created by an electric current or by a
changing electric field.
∇×B=μ0(J+ϵ0∂t∂E)
(J is the current density, μ0is the permeability of free space).
Electromagnetic Waves
A key prediction of Maxwell's equations is the existence of electromagnetic (EM) waves that
propagate at the speed of light (c=1/μ0ϵ0 ). These waves consist of oscillating electric
and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. The
entire electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, visible light, X-rays, etc.) is
described by these equations.
📝 Page 3: Statistical Mechanics
Introduction to Statistical Mechanics
Statistical mechanics bridges the gap between the microscopic properties of a system's
constituent particles and the macroscopic, thermodynamic properties of the system as a whole.
It uses probability theory to predict the behavior of large ensembles of particles.
Key Ensembles:
1. Microcanonical Ensemble: Describes an isolated system with a fixed total energy (E),
volume (V), and number of particles (N). All microstates corresponding to this energy are
equally probable. This ensemble is used to define entropy (S) as S=kBlnΩ, where Ω is
the number of accessible microstates and kBis the Boltzmann constant.
2. Canonical Ensemble: Describes a system in thermal contact with a heat reservoir at a
constant temperature (T). The system can exchange energy with the reservoir. The
probability of a microstate with energy Eiis given by the Boltzmann factor:
P(Ei)=Ze−Ei/kBT
Z is the partition function, which normalizes the probabilities.
3. Grand Canonical Ensemble: Describes a system in contact with both a heat reservoir
and a particle reservoir, allowing for the exchange of both energy and particles. The
state is specified by temperature (T), volume (V), and chemical potential (μ).
The Partition Function (Z)
The partition function is a central quantity in statistical mechanics. It contains all the
thermodynamic information of a system at a given temperature. For the canonical ensemble, the
partition function is the sum over all possible microstates i:
Z=i∑e−Ei/kBT
From Z, one can derive other thermodynamic quantities like internal energy, entropy, and free
energy.
📝 Page 4: Condensed Matter Physics
Introduction to Condensed Matter Physics
Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics, dealing with the
macroscopic physical properties of matter. It seeks to understand how the collective behavior of
a vast number of particles gives rise to new phenomena, like superconductivity, magnetism, and
superfluidity.
Crystallography and Band Theory:
● Crystal Lattice: Most solids have a regular, periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules
called a crystal lattice. The symmetry of this lattice is a crucial factor in determining the
material's properties.
● Band Theory: Describes the range of energy levels that electrons can occupy within a
solid. It arises from the splitting of atomic energy levels as atoms are brought together to
form a crystal.
○ Conductors: Materials with a partially filled valence band or an overlapping
valence and conduction band, allowing electrons to move freely.
○ Insulators: Materials with a large energy gap between the valence and
conduction bands, preventing electron movement.
○ Semiconductors: Materials with a small energy gap, where electrons can be
excited into the conduction band by heat or light.
Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a phenomenon where certain materials, when cooled below a critical
temperature, exhibit exactly zero electrical resistance. A key feature is the Meissner effect, the
expulsion of a magnetic field from the superconductor's interior. The microscopic theory of
conventional superconductivity is the BCS theory, which explains the formation of Cooper
pairs—bound pairs of electrons—that move through the lattice without resistance.
📝 Page 5: General Relativity
Introduction to General Relativity
Einstein's theory of General Relativity is a theory of gravitation that generalizes special
relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It describes gravity not as a force, but as a
consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of mass and energy.
The Equivalence Principle:
A cornerstone of general relativity, the Equivalence Principle, states that the effects of a
uniform gravitational field are indistinguishable from the effects of a uniformly accelerating
reference frame. This principle led Einstein to conclude that gravity must be a manifestation of
spacetime curvature.
Einstein's Field Equations:
These are the central equations of general relativity, relating the curvature of spacetime
(described by the Einstein tensor, Gμν) to the distribution of mass and energy within it
(described by the stress-energy tensor, Tμν).
Gμν+Λgμν=c48πGTμν
● Gμν: The Einstein tensor, representing spacetime curvature.
● gμν: The metric tensor, which defines distances in spacetime.
● Λ: The cosmological constant, representing the energy density of the vacuum.
● Tμν: The stress-energy tensor, representing the density and flux of energy and
momentum.
● G: Newton's gravitational constant.
● c: The speed of light.
Key Predictions and Phenomena:
● Gravitational Time Dilation: Time passes more slowly in a stronger gravitational field.
● Gravitational Lensing: Light from a distant source is bent as it passes by a massive
object, acting like a lens.
● Black Holes: Regions of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even
light, can escape.
● Gravitational Waves: Ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate as waves,
first directly detected in 2015.
