George Pocheptsov

Public relations for

professionals About the
Author Introduction Chapter One
Public Relations: General Strategies
§1 . Public Relations: everyone
needs it § 2. PR: Definitions
§ 3. PR: from history §
4. PR campaign and its
components § 5. PR: organization
§ 6. PR: Audience § 7. PR-relevant
communication models
§ 8. PR: Goals and means
§ 9. PR: literature § 10. PR as
a profession Chapter Two. Basic
approaches to Public Relations

§1. Factors that give rise to PR

§ 2. Areas of application of PR §
3. Elementary PR operations §4.
Marketing strategies in PR § 5. Working
with the image in PR §6. Some concepts
of communication theory for PR
§7 . PR for post-communist countries
Chapter Three. Public Relations: tools
§ 1. Relations with mass media
§ 2. Political performances
§ 3. Non-verbal communication §4.
Speeches, their writing and delivery
§5. Crises and rumors §6. Stereotypes
and Myths as an integral part of PR
work § 7. Political campaigns § 8.
Psychological operations Chapter Four.
Public Relations: specific strategies
§ 1. PR for power structures
§2 . PR for business §3. PR
for the politician §4. PR for
show business §5. PR for the
CIS countries §6. Lobbying
Chapter Five. Communication
space as the scope of PR
§1 . General features of the
communication space §2. Formation of a
communicative space using public
relations methods §3. Communication
campaigns §4. Changes in the field of
communication space §5. Model of work
in the communicative space of the
modern state §6. Different areas of PR
work in the communication space
Government PR Financial PR
 Lobbying Business PR
Electoral (political) PR Charity Internal
PR §7. Communication
model of PR technologies
§8. The material object as
a communicative message §9.
Leader as a sign object §10.
Information Wars Chapter Six.
Sciences of the communication
cycle that are important for PR
§1 . Communication theory
§2. Studying rumors §3.
Semiotics §4. Neuro-linguistic
programming, psychoanalysis , and
group psychotherapy Rhetoric.
theory of argumentation. pragmatics
6. Hermeneutics. theory of
literature. Theory of myth §7. Propaganda,
motivational and content analysis
§8. Theory of negotiations §9.
Political psychology 10. Intelligence
theory §11. Conflictology
§12. Organizational development
Conclusion References

About the author

Pocheptsov G. G., President of the Ukrainian Association of Public Relations,

Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head of the Department of International Communications
and Public Relations of the Institute of International Relations
of Taras Shevchenko University of Kyiv. Author of books: Communicative aspects
of semantics (Kiev, 1987), A totalitarian person. Essays on totalitarian symbolism and
mythology (Kiev, 1994), Image maker. Public relations for politicians and businessmen
(Kiev, 1995), Communication theory (Kiev, 1996), National security
of transition countries (Kiev, 1996), Public Relations (Kiev, 1996), Symbols in political
ads (Kiev, 1997), Image: from pharaohs to presidents (Kiev, 1997), Image and elections
(Kiev, 1997), History of Russian semiotics before and after 1917 (Moscow, 1998), Profession:
image maker (Kiev, 1998), Public Relations, or how to successfully manage public
opinion (Moscow, 1998), Theory and practice of communication (Moscow, 1998), Imagelogy:
theory and practice (Kiev, 1998), Information wars. Fundamentals of military
communication research (Kiev, 1998), How to become president.
Election technologies of the XXI century (Kiev, 1998).
(c) G. Pocheptsov, 1998

Two of them look down.

One sees a puddle, the other sees stars
Alexander Dovzhenko

Introduction

Alexander Dovzhenko is right: we can see very different characteristics in the

same object . The only question is what exactly we want to see in it. The object itself,
as a rule, is so multi-faceted that it allows you to find out in the following ways:
it is both, and the other, and the third. The task of public relations (hereinafter
referred to as PR) is precisely to place the object on the right side and at the
right time. Therefore, PR should not be considered as an option for generating
false information. It is impossible to move endlessly on untruth, and sooner or
later such a chain will break. No PR tools can help you overcome the reality. As
E. Schwartz wrote, no connections will help make a big leg small...
Let us now take a real example. Estonian President L. Meri, after returning from
Japan in March 1997, where he heard criticism about the dirt in the toilets of
Tallinn Airport (oh, those fastidious Japanese), held his first press
conference on his native land in the airport toilet, among the broken toilets.
Such a PR campaign naturally spread all over the world, simultaneously
solving the problem of cleanliness at home.
Public relations increases the number of controlled elements of communication
processes, which are regulated accordingly. The history of the emergence
of this direction can be considered as a transfer of management methods
from the production sphere to the non-production one. It becomes a crucial
element, since there is a transition from the physical characteristics of the
product that are interesting for production, to its psychological characteristics
that are important for the consumer. The first examples of public relations work
in the United States are related to the work of railway companies that could
not develop in the era of their origin, because people were afraid of railway
accidents. Public opinion specialists proved to the audience that the number
of victims here is no greater than in any other transport situation. They also
suggested new ways for companies to work in the event of accidents, laying
the foundations for future crisis public relations.
In the West, such public relations as crisis,
financial and government are most actively developing. In the CIS, political
(electoral) technologies come out on top. Observers estimate that the 1996
Russian presidential election campaign costs $ 300-400 million, while political
consultants earn $ 2 to $ 4,000 a month. These two examples show that they
work most actively with public opinion where there is sufficient money for this
purpose. After all, the peak of advertising in Russia came at the time of MMM,
Tibet and other trusts. Public relations transfers
communication technologies from internal to external audiences, feeling
their importance for production processes. A different type of person who has
grown up during this time requires serious attention to himself, which has led to
the emergence of such sciences with a strong applied focus as Conflictology,
Negotiation Theory, and Public Relations., as
"communication studies" (see Zemlyanova L. M. Modern American
Communication Studies, Moscow, 1995). Both Russia and Ukraine
have started to train the first students in this specialty, and we believe that
the appearance of the first professionals should radically change the market
for these services. This book partially uses the text from the publication G. G.
Pocheptsov. Image maker. - Kiev, 1995 which just grew out of the author's lectures to
students of the Institute of International Relations of Taras
Shevchenko University of Kyiv, specializing in public relations. Not being
an expert in public relations, S. N. Parkinson nevertheless outlined the range
of her research interests quite accurately: "Why are contacts so important
in industry? Because there is such a thing as a vacuum. If we don't take care of
our reputation, others will do it for us, and they will definitely not put us in the
best light. In the modern world, there is plenty of information. People are
overwhelmed with facts, theories, and recommendations about anything,whether written,
printed, or broadcast. To surround themselves with a veil of secrecy or to keep
a proud silence-this is not something that any industrial group can afford today
. It is silence that opens the way to all sorts of rumors, the range of which
is very wide... And you can only blame yourself for this. We created a vacuum that
couldn't fail suck it in all this swamp slush" (Parkinson's S. N. Parkinson's Laws, Moscow,
1989, P. 317). It can be argued that
public relations as a profession is designed to deal with such a vacuum. The task
is not just to fill the information space, but to generate messages that are
favorable for the development and functioning of the organization, structure,
leader, and even the country. In the information civilization, to which the whole
world is gradually moving, and it can not be otherwise.
Public relations was also actively used in our past history, when we didn
't even know the name. Then "Comrade Stalin" called people of a similar
profession "engineers of human souls", which quite accurately reflects
the problems we need. The key
to the future of public relations lies in its intelligence and at the same time a strong
creative nature of the tasks being solved. It is these two aspects- intellectualism
and creativity - that will always attract the eyes of the younger generation to this
area . In the book, we have described a number of
levels required for a PR specialist, highlighting in a separate sixth chapter a brief
excursion into a number of sciences, knowledge of which is necessary and to
which we partially referred in the main text.
 Chapter One Public Relations: General Strategies
§1 . Public Relations: Everyone needs it

Public Relations (hereinafter referred to as PR) analyzes the communication flows

of any structure, hence the term "communication audit" adopted within its
framework, which reflects the initial stage of analyzing the organization's work. At
the same time,the goal of such work is to establish positive relations between this
structure and its public, and they are strongly based on existing communication
flows. Any organization for its successful functioning must take into account the
opinions and moods of both its own employees (after all, labor productivity
is directly related to people's job satisfaction) and those with whom it is associated
with numerous types of dependence. PR also solves
the problems of the communicative organization of society as a whole. Any structure
is forced to create its own ideology, even if it is of the most primitive nature,
to clearly differentiate yourself from other similar structures that are competitive with
it (otherwise, their images merge). There is an ideology at the level of the
country and there is an ideology at the level of, for example, some cafe. But both
perform the same functions only at different levels. On the other hand, the presence
of a mass audience radically changes the type of communication. Communication
can no longer be based on individual memory. Today we are dealing
with references to social memory, with the use of objects "recorded" there as
a given. The type of communication becomes larger and more spectacular; it is like
moving a person from the flow of pedestrians to the circus arena, under the rays of
searchlights. Once there in the role of, for example, a clown, this person, in order to
communicate with a mass audience, must get blush-covered cheeks, a bright
nose and red curls will appear, even shoes can become unimaginable sizes. There
was an exaggeration of all the features of a person in order to be able to talk to
a mass audience, in order to capture their attention. Examples of
this or that communicative organization of society exist within the framework of any
civilization. In the past, there have always been, for example, appeals to
soothsayers. However, it should be recognized that even now we often hear about
appeals to fortune tellers, astrologers and others. But if today such appeals are
optional, then in the past they were not marginal, but basic communication
positions. For example: "The soothsayer told him that he could not attack
the enemy until one of his troops was wounded or killed. "It will happen," said the
soothsayer,"that I will go before you, and you will go after me, and you will win, and
I believe that death awaits me." He wasn't wrong in his prediction: as soon as the
combatants entered the battle, he himself, as if guided by some secret fate, was the
first to jump out of the ranks and, rushing into the enemy's ranks, found death there"
(Xenophon. Greek History // Historians of Antiquity, vol. 1, Moscow, 1989, p. 454). Every
society has an interest in increasing the predictability of its members ' behavior,
as the laws of mass behavior come into effect, designed to reduce uncertainty
in the world around us. However, we can predict the behavior of people we
know well, but with strangers-this is more difficult. That is why society is interested
in the existence of norms of behavior, for the maintenance of which, in the end,
there was power in the person of kings, pharaohs, etc., soothsayers were turned
to in an even more complex, abnormal situation. For example, in the case of war,
when it was necessary to establish types of behavior in a situation of greater risk.
Today we have replaced the appeal to fortune tellers with more modern names such
as analytical planning, but this is the same approach to solving the problem. At the
same time, such a situation allows for stabilization and direct appeal, for example, to
soldiers. And this is once again a massive audience. For example: "Citizens! You must
behave in such a way that each of you is deeply convinced that he is the main culprit
of the victory. With God's help, this victory will restore us to our homeland, home,
freedom, honor, children - to those who have them - and wives. Blessed are those
of us who are destined to win and see this most joyous day. Happy are those who are
destined to fall in battle: no rich man in the world will erect such a wonderful monument
himself. When the time is right, I will be the first to sing the paean; at the words of t
song that calls Enialius, we will with one accord drop the song.I am on the enemy and
we will take revenge on those who insulted us" (In the same placeThis kind of appeal (like
any propaganda during the war) is intended to underestimate the role of the biological
coordinates of a person in favor of his social coordinates. Like the axiom that it's an
honor to die on the battlefield. This is a kind of social "anesthesiology", whose task is
to slow down some natural reactions in favor of others that are socially more
justified at the moment.
Note that both divination and appeal to the people ultimately
work in the same direction. They exclude the variability of behavior, require
you to stick to one option, which should bring victory. But this is achieved
in different ways. Divination in its essence is not subject to dispute, because these are
the words not of a person, but of a deity. It is only enforceable. The army order seems
to be from the same sphere, but in a special situation it is reinforced by an appeal
(similar to the above), built, by the way, so that the listeners do not
even think about the impossibility of victory.
In honor of the victory, festivals were organized with sacrifices, which were also
elements of social management, "marking" the victory (for a genuine victory
in semiotic terms is not complete if it is not followed by a genuine
holiday). There is a very clear relationship here. For example: "When the news of
this [victory over the barbarians] reached Rome, the Senate decided to hold fifteen-day
festivals in honor of the gods, which had never happened before in any victory.
But, on the other hand, the danger itself, when so many hostile tribes rose up at the
same time, seemed enormous, and the love of the people for Caesar surrounded his
victories with a particularly bright shine" (Plutarch. Comparative biographies // Plutarch.
Essays. Moscow, 1983, p. 131). At the same time, all kinds
of indications for the future attracted attention. This is especially true for proper names.
"On another occasion, when the army was storming an equally steep and impregnable
rock, Alexander sent the young Macedonians ahead and, turning to a young man
who was also called Alexander, said to him:"Your name obliges you to be courageous."
Fighting bravely, the young man fell in battle, and this greatly grieved the king"
(In the same place. - P. 99). The proper name generally enjoyed special attention in
ancient times, people were called in accordance with strict regulations, partially
preserved to this day.
Civilization is strongly defined by its main communicative
component. Ancient civilizations that were based on oral
communication channels were naturally oriented towards tradition, since
such channels do not allow for modernization. Any innovation is easily extinguished
in them due to the rather slow circulation of information. Today, on the contrary, the
concept of a "global village" has emerged, when an event is even from a remote point
the world can immediately become a topic of discussion for everyone. The TV
channel, accepted as the main one by modern civilization, changes the rules
of communicative behavior for everyone. Even politicians become different,
transforming their behavior to the norms of the television channel in order to be
sufficiently telegenic. By the way, probably, the era of L. Brezhnev "died"
by coming into conflict with the TV channel - the shambling and slow Brezhnev could
not meet the requirements created by the TV channel. But these
requirements were met to the maximum extent by another General Secretary, Mikhail
Gorbachev. So we can assume that L. Brezhnev, among other things, was filmed by
television, and it also exalted Mikhail Gorbachev in the first period, when the
population was surprised not only by the "walking", but also by the self-speaking
General secretary. Since ancient times, the society has assigned to a special
workshop those who serve in the communicative sphere of social management. It
was in antiquity that the first speakers appeared. Judicial eloquence then often served
as a means of saving a person's life, and many then began to learn oratory.
A person's communication skills are part of the basic requirements for almost any
profession. This was important because societies with a small number of members
were able to solve their problems directly with each other in the past. Today
's types of democracy are based on delegating power to representatives
elected from a certain number of people.
Among the first high - class professionals are Demosthenes in Greece and Cicero in
ancient Rome. Plutarch gives an example of Cicero's skill: "Truly,
this man was best able to show the Romans how attractive eloquence can make a
right cause: he showed that the truth is irresistible if it is expressed skillfully, and that a good
statesman should always prefer what is right to what is pleasing to the crowd, and
with speech brighten up the bitterness of useful things. An example of the charming
charm of his words can be found in the following case, which occurred because
of the seats in the theater during his consulate. Until now , the horsemen had
sat in the theater mixed with the crowd and watched the spectacle with the people,
but it occurred to Tribune Mark Otho the first to honor the horsemen by separating
them from the rest of the citizens and giving them a special place that they still retain
. But the people took this as a disgrace to themselves, and when Otho
appeared in the theater, they began to whistle, the horsemen applauded him warmly.
The people raised their whistles, and they raised their applause, and then the parties
turned against each other and began to quarrel, so that the theater was in disarray.
But when Cicero, informed of this, came to the theatre, and having summoned
the people to the temple of Bellona, affected them with words of reproach and
persuasion, they returned to the theatre, and applauded Otho with a loud voice, and
competed with the horsemen to show him signs of respect and honour." (In the same place.
- P. 311).
But it is not only the experience of public speaking professionals
that is of particular interest. In fact, all types of behavior are iconic, convey one or
another meaning, respectively, influencing their audience. As if
continuing a series of our examples, Yuri Lotman writes: "Nicholas I perfectly
studied the art of grandeur" (Lotman Yu. M. Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, Moscow,
1982, p. 135). He also speaks about the romantic type of behavior and personality:
"A characteristic feature of romantic behavior was a conscious orientation to one
or another literary type. A romantically minded young man identified himself
with the name of one of the characters in the popular mythology of Romanticism: A
Demon or Werther, Melmoth or Ahasuerus, Giaur or Don Juan. Among the people of
his environment, he also appropriately distributed the roles of literary (or
historical) heroes. The artificial world obtained in this way became
a double of everyday reality. Moreover, for him it is more real than the "vulgar"
surrounding reality. This is how he saw and understood the world and people" (In the same place.
- P. 59).
Thus, we have a picture of the existence of not only
the real world, but also the symbolic world, as well as the information [Link]. Millions
of events occur in the real world, but only a fraction of them make it to the pages of print,
that is, to the information world. But an even smaller part of them will end up in another
world-the symbolic one. There are barriers between these worlds. For
an event to be published, for example, it must have a specific news
character. To get into the symbolic world, where there are even fewer objects, you need
to successfully symbolize reality. Not just to present a typical phenomenon,
but to display the situation as vividly as possible. Why is the symbol more convenient
for mass communication? From the point of view of content, it is more economical, since
it contains more information than any other information unit equivalent in volume. From the
point of view of form, the symbol allows repetitions, references without duplicating a large
chain of characters (which would be unavoidable if it were not for the "collapsed" character
of the symbol). The symbol is also advantageous because it can be easily translated into
nonverbal codes. Examples include American symbols such
as the Statue of Liberty, Uncle Sam, donkey and elephant as symbols of the Democratic
and Republican parties,respectively, and so on. When expanded, these symbols
would require large texts to clarify their content. And these expanded
texts would not be so easy to duplicate in the required number of copies, which
is quite easy to do with the symbol. But at
the same time, we see that this is not just a movement from an event to information about
it and then to a symbol that any process tends to obey.
The above examples from antiquity illustrate this process: winning a war, telling
a story about a victory, celebrating a victory. However,the opposite effect is also obvious
: symbols also strongly influence our behavior. So, to approx so,
we feel an elementary lunch as a real event. However, in ancient Rome, lunch was given
a special symbolic meaning, which is described by modern researchers
as "prestige": "Dinner among the Romans was a public act, it
was considered a misfortune to have dinner alone, and the patron's behavior during dinner
towards customers formed one of the essential components of his reputation -
the reputation of a rich and powerful person..." (Knabe G. S. The category of prestige
in the life of ancient Rome / / Life and history of antiquity. - Moscow, 1988. - p. 151)
appreciate the role of dinners as a symbolic event in the following words of Plutarch about
Caesar: "... his dinners, feasts and generally brilliant lifestyle contributed
to the gradual growth of his influence in the state. At first, Caesar's envious
followers ignored this, believing that he would be forgotten as soon as his funds
ran out. Only when it was too late, when this force had already grown so much that it was
difficult to oppose anything, and was heading straight for the overthrow of the existing
system, did they realize that it was impossible to consider an insignificant beginning in
any matter" (Plutarch Edict op. - p. 117). By the way, it is interesting that some periods
of human history were "marked" in a special way by their attitude to antiquity,
such as the Renaissance, which saw its predecessors in
antiquity, and not in the Middle Ages. If we fast-forward
to another century, we will notice that lunch, as it is described in the description,
for example, by Otto von Bismarck, also had a share of symbolism at that time: "At
dinner, I was surprised by the strange schedule compared to Berlin: the whole society
was divided into three categories with a special menu for each, and all those persons,
those who were invited to the table received a ticket with the following number at the entrance:m"
Thoughts and Memories, Moscow, 1940, p. 110). This is Paris. When Bismarck arrived in
Russia, his descriptions often "symbolized" the insane spending and theft:
"It is said that once the emperor noticed an exorbitant amount
of fat, which is put on the bill every time the Prince of Prussia arrives; as a result
, it turned out that on his first visit, the prince wanted
to eat for dinner after a ride slice of bacon. The requested lot of fat turned into poods during
the next visits. The misunderstanding was clarified in a private conversation of the highest persons an
caused an explosion of fun, which served to benefit the sinners involved in this matter."
(in the same place, p. 165). And if we go back to our time, then, for example, in today
's Russia, as, by the way, in any other country, protocol events during
an official lunch or dinner are designed to "inflate" the position of the first
person. "The distance from the main table is determined on the basis
of the protocol seniority in the country approved by the President. The first is the president,
the second is the Prime Minister, then the heads of the Federation Council, the State Duma, and
courts - the constitutional, arbitration, and supreme courts. After - Deputy Prime ministers, first
deputies Shumeyko, Rybkin, ministers" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1995, September 22).
The order of toasts is determined accordingly: "There are only two toasts at all receptions
. First, the host greets the guest, says toast in honor of his wife,
the people he represents. After that,according to our protocol practice,
the guest speaks. Then there is a normal conversation, musical accompaniment enters.
There are no more toasts" (In the same placeThis situation is interesting because
there is a kind of clash of hierarchies: one's own and another's. Therefore, any actionthe greeting
becomes doubly symbolic.
Some facts of this kind, which have symbolic significance, when they pass into
the world of symbols, indicate much more than just the events behind them. The
same Otto von Bismarck recalled how during his stay in St. Petersburg in 1859
, the emperor could not find out why there was a sentry on one of the lawns. "We couldn't
establish the reason for the original order, no matter how hard we searched. And then one of the
who is already retired, remembered what his father said to him as he passed by this
place in the Summer Garden: "And the sentry is still standing and watching the flower. Empress Ca
once saw the first snowdrop at this place much earlier than usual and
ordered to make sure that it was not plucked." They put a sentry here to carry out the order, a
since then it has been standing year after year. Such facts cause us to blame and ridicule,
but they express the primitive power, stability and constancy on
which the strength of what constitutes the strength of Russia as opposed to the rest of Europe
is based." (In the same place. - P. 165).Relying on symbols in communication is important becaus
way we dramatically reduce the form element while simultaneously increasing the content,
because the content content of the symbol is much larger.
Communication permeates all aspects of society. Public Relations
(another version of the name - strategic communications), of course, solves not only
global, but also local problems, striving to ensure that any of our problems
are solved at the communicative level. These local problems may
arise, for example, at the level of a nuclear power plant, when the symbolism of the past
Chernobyl interferes with the operation of the safest nuclear power plant in
Ukraine today. Problems may arise at the level of a particular company, which would like to
buy the factory, but public opinion is against this form of privatization.
Presidents also have similar problems. Let's recall the storm of indignation among
Americans caused by the delay of flights at the airport, which occurred due to the fact that
President Clinton decided to get a haircut. Or the recent problem related to
the unwillingness of the same Clinton to receive the Chinese president on the White House lawn:
"Communist China is a treacherous mine on steep electoral paths. The blanks
of the ceremonial cannons that Bill Clinton unhesitatingly used to celebrate
the arrival of both Boris Yeltsin and Leonid Kuchma in America can turn into a
barrage of fire if such honors are paid to the leader of a country where, according
to the majority of Americans, there is no freedom" (Izvestia, 1995, October 4).
Or let us recall the visit of Helmut Kohl to Moscow for the anniversary of the Victory,
who, again , because of problems with public opinion, could not attend the military
parade, which also included military operations in Chechnya. As we can see, the
motive associated with public opinion is very often repeated in the history of
mankind. The Soviet state system treated the problems of public
opinion lightly, simply preventing the appearance of alternative views on the pages
of the press. Now the right to vote has made a person more free, but at the same
time, it has also made politicians and authorities more sensitive to what they can
say about them and their [Link] of the new streams that brought the politician
to the public 's attention was television. Americans have been selling their
presidents as advertising merchandise since the fifties, thanks to television. You can
win or lose the presidential election, depending on the candidate's ability to smile
and win over the audience. But, on the other hand, television has taken the place of
the lost personal contact that was in public systems before, only then it was
necessary to win over those with whom you came into direct contact: smile, bow
your head or, on the contrary, proudly raise it, pass by.
Let us again turn to antiquity for an example. "Cicero seems to have been the first
to find Caesar's activities suspicious and alarming
, as calm as a smooth sea in appearance, and to recognize in this man a bold and
resolute character, hidden under a mask of kindness and gaiety. He said
that in all the thoughts and actions of Caesar, he sees tyrannical
intentions. "But," he added, " when I see how carefully his hair is arranged and how
he scratches his head with one finger, it always seems to me that this man cannot
be plotting such a crime as the overthrow of the Roman state."
(Plutarch Edict soch.. - p. 118). But if we fast forward to our time, we will find that
Helmut Kohl's image makers have been looking for a long time for his hairstyle type.
When he simply combed his hair with his fingers, and opinion polls showed that the
Germans trust this person, they decided on this hairstyle... That is, as we can see,
the same technique is repeated over the centuries, and again it works flawlessly.
Television brought a person closer to us, showed a close-up of his eyes and
gestures, which were previously hidden in the case of print. The type of public
policy that requires a greater degree of openness than it was before has changed.
Here are two examples from August 1998 in Russia. Boris Yeltsin in his TV interview
(Vremya program, 1998, August 14) declares that he will not interrupt his vacation,
so as not to create the impression that a financial crisis is taking place: "Everything
is going as it should. Otdy's Presidentkhaetu". By the way, the change in the names
of the government's program is symptomatic: S. Kiriyenko calls it "anti-crisis", and
B. Yeltsin calls it"stabilization". These changes also lie in the sphere of the authorities
' new dependence on public opinion. The second example is the attention paid to V.
Zhirinovsky by the tax service, which claims that it does this deliberately. Although
V. Zhirinovsky , as a State Duma deputy, cannot be prosecuted, but he will make
such a fuss that everyone around him will see how important it is to pay taxes.
If we turn back to antiquity, even in Cicero we can find variants
of the advice of today's "PR specialist": "We follow nature and avoid everything
what offends our eyes and ears; the posture, the gait, the way we sit, the way we
recline at the table, the expression of the face, the eyes, the movements of the hands-all this
should remain appropriate" (Cicero. About duties / / Cicero. About old age. About friendship.
On duties, Moscow, 1975, p. 91). If you exclude the method of reclining at the table,
then everything else is quite suitable for training both a politician and a businessman.
With a TV channel in their hands, politicians now need to be more actors than
politicians. We need to be able to smile, hold the audience's attention, and so on, as
Cicero warned us long ago : "Really, we must not allow good qualities to be
peculiar only to actors and speakers, and they are alien to us" (In the same placeAt the same
time, we must not forget that it is difficult for a person to be an expert in everything at
once, what an actor or politician manages also did not fall from the sky, but was built
and rehearsed as a result of hard work. And we are hardly ready to repeat this difficult
path, even for the sake of good results.
The conclusion from the above can be formulated as follows: what is important is not just
not only the content, but also the form of how something was done. Let's remember how
some apologies are similar to insults. It's an apology in substance, but not in substance.
It's not just about the ability to speak, but about the ability to convince. Today,
there is a dialogue of equals, and not an army order, as it was before. Subordinates
cannot evade the execution of an order. But when the sides are equal, you need to be
able to convince, not order. For example: "Caesar so skilfully defended himself that the
Senate was satisfied, and the supporters of Caesar became even more emboldened
and urged him not to back down in his plans, because the support of the people
would ensure him primacy and victory over his opponents" (Plutarch Edict op. - p. 119).
The system of persuasion is, first of all,a system of psychological influence,
which goes on both at the verbal and non-verbal levels. Quite
professionally treated this already in the days of antiquity. Cicero also said: "Let
our conversation, in which the Socratics are most adept, be calm and full of compliance;
let it be pleasant. And it is not really necessary to exclude other people from
it, as if we had taken possession; no, as in other cases, so in general conversation,
we must find it quite fair that everyone should speak in turn. At the same time,
first of all, it is necessary to take into account what they say: if on important subjects,
severity must be introduced into the conversation; if on amusing ones, agreeableness;
but first of all, one must be careful that the conversation does not reveal any
defect in the person's disposition, which usually happens most often when people talk
with partiality about absentees, wishing to denigrate them, and either portray them with
a smile. funny side, or they speak harshly, spitefully and insultingly" (Cicero edict op. -
p. 92).
The American Eric Hoffer in 1951 published the book "The True Believer", where
he tried to reveal the various components of social movements that
are so characteristic of humanity (Hoffer E. The true believer. - N.Y., 1966). He believes
that mass movements have a strong desire for change. Among the factors that
serve to unite the masses, he names hate ("A mass movement can
arise and spread without faith in God, but never without faith in the devil" - p. 86);
imitation since it is necessary to spread uniformity; propaganda and
coercion (he ties the two together, because even sophisticated
propaganda can't make people believe when they've lost that faith, and that's when
power comes to the rescue.); leadership ("Once a situation has developed, the presence
of a strong leader becomes unavoidable" - p. 104); action (actions are also
unifying, as Hoffer writes: "people of thought rarely work well together,
whereas people of action usually easily form friendships" - p.
111); suspicion ("Mass movements actively use suspicion
in their mechanisms of dominance" - pp. 114-115).

Those or other characteristics of personal communication that facilitate the impact and
which we are only now beginning to discover, have long been included in the arsenal
of impact in antiquity. Here is what Plutarch says about Cicero: "Working with great
zeal in the political field, Cicero believed that if artisans, dealing with tools
and other inanimate objects and tools of their skill, are well aware of their name, place,
and suitability for work, then a statesman, whose activities are related to public affairs ,
should be able to use the tools and other inanimate objects. related activities are carried
out through the medium of people, and it is even more shameful to be so careless and
careless that you do not know your fellow citizens. Therefore, he not only taught himself
to remember their names, but also knew about the residence of each of the most
prominent people, and about their estates that they owned, and about the people whose
friendship they enjoyed, and about their neighbors" (Plutarch edict op. - pp. 305-306).
The same words, but only from their own, modern context, describe
the current British Margaret Thatcher, and the Lithuanians Algirdas Brazauskas. And
such attention is understandable, if a politician seeks to take the position of "his" and
not "someone else's", since we will always treat the words of someone else with suspicion,
while our own is perceived with a greater degree of trust.
From all of the above, we should understand that PR occupies
a much more serious position in the Western world than in our own. For example,
two lay people are engaged in creating the image of the Pope: the editor-in-chief of the
Vatican newspaper and the permanent presenter of press conferences (Literaturnaya
Gazeta, 1992, September 9). The article "How to" pack "the president of the United
States" quotes David Gergen, the permanent creator of the image of American
presidents, about one of his "clients": "I don't have to tell him: here's what you need to
do in the next three days. I must say: here are your opportunities, you must imagine the
consequences and choose" (Moskovskie Novosti, 1994, No. 1). At the same time, it is
clear that the expert's hint will always push the first person to choose exactly the path
that they are being guided to.
Vladislav Surkov, a Russian PR professional who advised the government, in
an interview (which, by the way, is very interestingly called: "We are ours, we
will build a new myth") said:
"The regime that had existed in our country since 1917 was based on myths alone.
Communist leadersThey took propaganda very seriously. Thanks to her, they
managed to win the war and raise the country from the ruins. Fear alone, even though it
is also important, could not be done. They are interesting to me only as
propaganda professionals" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1992, June 6).
The field of public relations as the ability to solve communication problems accompanies
humanity everywhere, everywhere and at all times. Intuitively, we are all
experts in building good relationships. It remains to put this
intuition on the platform of theory and practice, to move from a random to a systematic
approach. Public relations grows out of solving negative situations that arise before
the production or the leader. And here the "kill the messenger" rule is unacceptable-
killing the one who brought bad news. This is information that you should work
with, not hide from it. At the
same time, PR should be distinguished from both journalism and advertising, which in
our view can be called the closest "neighbors" of PR. Unlike
journalism, which describes a fait accompli, PR is often self-reported.
acts as the creator of the event, which will then be described by the same
journalists. Hence the interesting term adopted in this field - pseudo-event.
That is, a specially created event that is designed to "illustrate"
certain qualities of a leader or organization that are currently needed. If
journalism moves in the chain "situation - word", then PR in the situation
"word-situation" and only then "word", since PR actions are made for the sake
of their widest coverage in the media. But PR and journalism come together when
their texts are combined side by side on the"free" pages of the newspaper.
Advertising, unlike PR, is located on the paid pages of the newspaper. PR tends
to move to a different place because the level of trust in news pages is higher
than in paid ones. Moreover, as French PR expert Philippe Boisry notes,
advertising and PR are different professions for them: "We have a ministerial
decree that prohibits engaging in advertising activities if you are engaged in
public relations, and vice versa, and it is also forbidden to be a press attache to
a journalist, etc." ("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 11). However,
there are also characteristics that bring these professions closer together. Like
advertising, PR is both a science and an art form. This is explained, among
other things, by the following very important reason: science is primarily focused
on the analysis of an object, art - on the creation of a new object. These are two
seemingly opposite tasks. However, in our case-advertising, etc. - it is
impossible to create a communicative message without having not only the tools
for creating it, but also certain technological requirements for this object.
The most creative types of art-music and painting-also require a long
educational and intellectual preparation, since there are strict
technological requirements and norms for the resulting product.
There is another important phenomenon in the field of PR (and similarly in the
field of advertising) that makes us turn to the analysis of the situation. This is a
strict dependence on the consumer of the product. Pure art, on the contrary, can
be created as if in isolation from life, relying on sponsorship. Commercially
oriented art such as a movie or a best-selling book is already moving according
to precise technological calculations. There, for example, it is known in advance
what type and age of the hero, heroine, antihero, [Link] be, for example, in
a soap opera. Similar problems require:
a) focus on creating a communicative product, b) increase the
degree of effectiveness of the influencing force of this product, which gives the
special combination that characterizes these two areas. Let's look at a concrete
example of such a decision - the parliamentary elections. Entering the arena
of multiple batches is no different from entering any other product. Moreover,
what complicated the situation in advance was that the product was new, at
least for most of the participants in this political market. This
is a standard Western procedure for promoting a new product - the largest
pre-war English campaign to promote a new product to the market-
overseas fruit - even then cost one million pounds.
So technologically the parties faced two tasks - highlighting and motivation:
a) stand out from others,
b) motivate voters to vote for themselves.
But the creative solution to this problem could be anything. In other words, science
has set requirements for the type of problem, and creative solutions have filled these
niches with their own findings. For the first task, parties try to create an association
with their numbers on the list, famous pop singers, or actors and actresses. But this
was only driving a "nail" on which to hang a "picture"
(motivation). The second stage shows that the parties are not ready for it precisely
from the point of view of scientific justification. Almost all of them stopped at the first
stage. There was not enough motivation to make a decision in favor of a particular
party. The results achieved by most parties cannot be considered results at all,
since they are completely incomparable with the amount of funds spent. This can
be a combination of science and art.
Creativity should also be put on a concrete track in order to achieve
a positive result. If in the field of art we can focus on
communication processes, then in the field of PR we definitely need the next step -
to transfer the audience to a new model of behavior, that is, to make a change in
behavior. And it is almost impossible on the purely intuitive basis on which
art is built. Accidentally-yes, but systematically-no. And any technology requires
a systematic solution, not a random one. Let's give
another example - the conscription of women into the Canadian Army. The Army
Command of Canada estimates that there may be 250 women per 1,000 military
personnel, who since 1989 have been eligible to serve in all units except the
submarine fleet. How the situation of "enticement" proceeds can be seen from the
following description: "Recruiters are trying hard - they put ads in newspapers aimed
specifically at women, arrange meetings with those who have already chosen military
service. One such meeting was held near Toronto. They even brought a tank, and
everyone could sit in it" (Izvestia, 1998, April 18). A similar task of providing
conscription (and not for women, but for men!) It also stands before the Ministries of Defense
of the CIS countries. But nowhere has it received proper PR-registration yet. No
clear target groups were identified. The reasons for refusal were not structured, and
positive motives were not found that would help attract young people to the army.
As a result, there is a situation in which the army authorities throw up their hands,
while not trying to solve problems in a new way.

§ 2. PR: Definitions

Public Relations how science deals with the organization of the communicative space
of modern society. The American Public Relations Society sees its
goals as follows:"PR pomogayeenable an integrated, pluralistic society to make decisions and
function more effectively by building mutual understanding between
groups and institutions. It helps to combine private and public
interests in a harmonious way." What is the reason for this role of PR? Modern society is
heavily dependent on communicative reality. Presidents determine the time
of their arrival in a foreign country, taking into account the fact that they can get
into the corresponding news release. Parliamentary elections are a battle of
communications. Some researchers (for example, Sergey Kurginyan's group) attribute
the collapse of the USSR to its defeat in the Cold War, as a result of which
Western symbols replaced those of the previous period. Therefore, we
can also consider public relations as the science of public opinion management.
The area in which the PR operates can be defined as public
communication services. It differs from both ordinary and
mass communication. Everyday communication - personal, dialogical,
oral version. Mass - non-personal, monologue, print (or
another type of technical
implementation), which allows you to reach a mass audience. In general , mass communication
forms a mosaic of a wide variety of information, since this channel
is neutral in relation to the objects described in it. Here you can also find a story
about the miners ' strike in the Donbass, and about the war in Yugoslavia, and
about prices in the bazaars of Kiev. In contrast to such a neutral channel, the
PR system is closed to itself, as it tells about its own objects, of which it is a part.
In this respect, it is close to everyday communication, since it also deals with
objects that can be used for [Link] speaker is personally involved.
On the other hand, since PR should reach the general public, it is based on the
laws of communication with a mass audience. Therefore, reliance on the QMS is
so essential in the case of PR. Thus, we have outlined the scope of PR.
Let us now turn to specific definitions of PR. Researchers counted up to 500
such formulations. Sam Black, the most well-known expert in the CIS and author
of a book on PR, offers the following definition, which is consistent with the
officially accepted one: PR - "it is the art and science of achieving harmony through
mutual understanding based on truth and full awareness" (Black With., decree.
Op.-p. 17). Such a definition seems to us overly ideologized
and smoothed, since it is based on words true, full
awareness, harmony.
Soviet publication on Marketing (Zavyalov P. S., Demidov V. E.. - p. 278-279) defines
PR as "the
art of creating a favorable climate, a favorable attitude towards
the selling company (manufacturer of goods) not only for potential customers, but also
for the general public, and at various levels, up to the government
(officials of foreign trade departments, customs services, etc.)".
J. White and L. Mazur emphasize the importance for PR to be not so much a
technique as an approach, to focus on the ethical motives of PR, which should
not be a means to hide unpleasant facts (White J., Mazur L. Strategic communications
management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 6).
Therefore, they consider PR as a certain an umbrella, covering areas such as:
- corporate communications,
- problem management,
- product publicity,
- investor relations,
- financial communications,
- lobbying,
- public relationssocial relations,
- media relations,
- community issues,
- crisis management,
- event management,
- sponsorship,
- a set of services that fall under all this (in the same place, p. 12). This general
consideration also leads to a more general definition of the goal of PR, which
sounds like influencing the behavior of groups of people in relation to each other.
Edward Bernays, one of the first PR professionals in America, defines PR as
"an area of action that is designed to deal with interactions between an individual,
group, idea, or other unit of the public on which it depends."
"PR Adviser,- he thinks,- this is an expert who provides advice on
public relations. They try to identify the socially relevant
characteristics of their client or project. It tries to detect, by
investigating, the correspondence or inconsistency between its client's behavior and
the expectations of the public on which it depends. He advises the client to change
their behavior patterns, their positions in order to meet the requirements
of the public, and to achieve the goals that were agreed upon. When
the client's behavior is changed in the necessary way, it advises how to give a better
the client to the public. Since we live in a competitive society,
the PR specialist tries to convince the public to accept the point of view of the clien
product. PR covers the relationship of a person, organization, and idea with their public."
At the same time, Edward Bernays constantly emphasizes that the basis of
PR is social sciences, not journalism, since behavior can only
be influenced by relying on the full range of social sciences, and not purely
philologically. He's counting. that if a person does not live in the jungle,
he is always dependent on other people. Any idea, any object, any
corporation, religion or country always depends on the public.
At the same time, Edward Bernays opposes the use of the term "image" in
professional use of PR, considering it insufficiently clear. He writes:"The word
"image" makes the reader or listener believe that the PR is dealing with hints
and illusions. This word gives a false impression of a profession that deals with
clear facts of behavior, attitudes and actions, does not require the ability
to assess public opinion and advise the client and employer on how
to change in order to achieve socially recognized goals and inform and convince
the public."
We see the desire of Edward Bernays to bring PR out of the ephemeral
world, largely created by the joint efforts of all the humanities. We can
recognize this trend as correct in principle, but, unfortunately, unrealizable.
No matter how much we want to get rid of subjective concepts such
as image, symbol, etc., PR will still work in this area, because, as
Pitirim Sorokin wrote, otherwise "the national flag becomes just a piece
of cloth tied to a stick <...> without a meaning component, all socio
-cultural phenomena become purely physical or biological". Here , laws of a different ord
come into play, transforming objects of the physical world that fall under the
influence of analysis, characterized by the paradigm of natural sciences,
into phenomena of a symbolic plan. In these objects, such symbolism begins
to strengthen and exaggerate. "National flag,- writes Pitirim Sorokin,- which physically
is only a stick with a piece of cloth attached to it, as a result of constant
use, it becomes an emblem of independence, power, dignity, honor and
glory of the nation. He ceases to be regarded solely as a piece of cloth
attached to a stick, and is transformed into an idol."
Edward Bernays is quite right in another statement that permeates his entire
book: the idea of the need for professionalization. He writes that we will not allow
a doctor to work in the society who has not passed the appropriate training
and does not have the necessary license. At the same time, any person who
calls himself a PR specialist is quite acceptable. Edward Bernays is afraid of
deprofessionalization of PR. At the
same time, he considered it fundamentally wrong for the PR to focus only on
journalism. "In the United States, more than 75% of public relations courses
are taught in schools or departments of journalism or communication. PR
is usually considered as a division of communication. Words are the foundation of learnin
The main focus is on writing skills, not social science. Graduates
of regular and special courses were trained to be press agents, which is not
insignificant in the world of mass communications. But these graduates are word workers.
PR, first of all, is basically an adviser on actions based on
social responsibility."
Here are other definitions.
Frank Jefkins: "PR consists of all forms of planned communication, both externally and in
between the organization and its public for the implementation of specific goals
aimed at achieving mutual understanding."
World Assembly of Public Relations Associations (Mexico, 1978):"PR practice
is an art and social science of analyzing orientation and predicting
consequences, advising leaders of organizations and implementing planned
action programs, which serve both the interests of the organization and the public
interest."
"The Bible" of American PR specialists, written by Scott Cutlip
associates: "PR is a management function that establishes and
maintains a mutually beneficial relationship between the organization and the public, on wh
success or failure depends." (Cutlip S.M. a.o. Effective public relations. - Englewood Cliffs,
1994). In this definition, in our opinion, the communicative nature
of this professional sphere is lost, and the most common translation
of the term public relations as "public relations" suffers from the same disadvantage. It
is lost in many other variants, but it is present in such areas as "strategic
communications", "public communications", and "social communications".
Allen Sentor and Patrick Jackson: "The term PR is often ambiguous because it is used
inaccurately. If used correctly, PR describes processes practices: techniques,
strategies, structures and tactics...".
Among Russian practitioners, there is also a view of PR as a craft, a sum
of techniques, which negates to one degree or another scientific approaches.
What is the difference between PR and such targeted impact processes as propaganda
and advertising? Sam Black fundamentally rejects even a hint of such a rapprochement,
insisting that in the case of PR, it is only a matter of truthful information. However,
let's be objective, the scope of truthful information,even if it is recognized,
allows for too wide a range of actions. True information - all and in
full - will never be covered by the QMS, and therefore must be selected. PR
rather works with symbolic information, and the truth in it is only one of the paramet
of the phenomenon that needs to be displayed. In reality, we need to use a minimum
of words to reflect many [Link] is a natural phenomenon, so each element of ou
communication solution must have the significance of a symbol in order to reflect the b
in a small way. For example, the general public quite agrees that television is truthful,
because on the screen we see real events, that is, the truth. But in the story abou
the plant, we can show the workers both at the machines and during a smoke break
And for some reason, it is the first option that will appear on the screen, and there
will be a positive characterization of this plant. Although both representations are true.
However, from the point of view of compliance with reality, it does not always turn o
to be a communicative truth, which is also in the PR's area of interest. Keep this i
, especially if we are interested in fulfilling our customers ' orders.
It is the communicative truth that allows you to use it in advertising, for example,
Stirlitz and Muller, who preferred the bonds of the Nizhny Novgorod
housing loan to "dirty" dollars ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, February 20).

M. Valovaya also rightly noted in this regard that propaganda is not always evil
for our consciousness, because we used to promote a healthy lifestyle, knowledge,
and books (Gross M. Let's talk in prose / / "Adviser". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 25). Moreover
, with the current nostalgia for Soviet-era films,
nostalgia for propaganda may well arise. She also quotes a popular Western saying
about the distinction between all these types of communication effects: "If a man
goes to a party and then tells some woman that she needs
a man and therefore she should go home with him, then this is marketing. If he stands
on a chair and announces to the assembled company that he is experienced in love,
then this is an advertisement. If he tells a woman that he is - magnifyIf she has the
greatest lover in the world and she has to go home with him immediately, then it's a
sale. If she approaches him and says that she has heard of him as a wonderful lover
and is ready to go home with him, then this is public relations." They
often emphasize the difference between PR and advertising, focusing on the
commercial nature of advertising. But the services of PR specialists are also not free.
They are simply implemented in a different form. After all, if, for example, an
American is hit with 1,200 advertising messages per day, then, as a result, he tries to
close them. This is helped by the distrust filter, which distinguishes advertising from
the general flow of information as paid communication, and therefore insincere. It is
on this basis that the PR is trying to shift to non-advertising pages of newspapers,
since the level of trust in such information among the population is higher. That is why
the PR builds its texts in accordance with the laws of the genre of these
non-advertising pages, and in some cases even creates events that would meet the
requirements of these pages. In this case, the concept of correspondence to reality in general
looks strange, since we ourselves create the reality that we then begin to reflect through
mass communication. Here the original message is reality itself,
not words. The PR begins to speak with events, not words.
Frank Jefkins tries to distinguish between advertising and PR in the following way:"The
ad may not be used by the organization, but each organization deals with PR.
For example, a fire brigade doesn't advertise fires or its services, but it does have
public relations. PR concerns everyone and everything, while advertising is limited
to special sales and purchase tasks. < ... > PR deals with the general communication of
the organization, so they are [relative toresearch in the field of PR] more extensive and comprehensive
than advertising. Sometimes PR can use advertising, which is why PR is neither
a form of advertising nor part of advertising." Frank Jefkins also sees differences in
the payment system: while advertising agencies receive commissions from the QMS
for purchased time or space, PR sells its own time and expertise.
We can find the difference between PR, advertising, and propaganda by using the
following parameter. Advertising is a positive story about a specific object for a
specific audience (there is no point in advertising seat belts among those who do not
have a car). Plus, the ad is focused on one specific action - a purchase.
Propaganda is like a different pole. We are used to seeing propaganda as a positive
story about a non-specific object for the widest possible audience. There is no
focus on such a specific, well-defined action as
buying a product.
Totalitarian propaganda was by no means as stupid as we try to make it
out to be today. In the "Moscow News" was given such an interesting example:
example:

"Once upon a time, director Alexander Stolper, shooting a memorable wartime picture "Wait
for Me", shared doubts with the screenwriter Konstantin Simonov
about whether the audience would believe the Yuletide story that they
tell from the screen.
"That's not the point," the writer said.- At the front and in the rear, people need valerian
drops. We give them to you." (Moscow News, 1995, No. 3).
The film "At Six o'clock in the evening after the war" was shot even before the
victory came, it even had victory salutes and bombs modeled in advance.
You can imagine how such a film was viewed by viewers during the war.
Propaganda has an overly abstract object, this does not
reduce its effectiveness. Because of the abstractness of the object,
propaganda works much better in times of crisis, such as war. During
such periods, a person needs more information, is more receptive, and there is
also a certain restriction on alternative communication channels. PR,
like advertising, works fundamentally in an alternative environment, where
there is competition in the communication sphere. Wartime propaganda (as
well as totalitarian propaganda in general) strongly prohibits alternative
sources of communication. The same path is followed by the influence in totalitarian
sects, where alternative sources are "cut off" as a first step, for example, the
words of everyone, including parents, are declared diabolical in advance.
As a separate institution, propaganda emerged in 1633 within the Roman
Catholic Church, when Pope Urban VIII founded the Congregation for
Propaganda. The Latin word "propagare", which formed the basis of this term,
means the practice of a gardener planting shoots in the ground to get a new
plant that differs from the naturally grown one. This committee of cardinals was
called to deal with the foreign missions of the church, because without such
cultivation, people could not touch Christianity. It was only after the First World
War that propaganda became associated with lies and methods of dishonest
information. From this we can draw the following conclusions. Unlike
advertising, PR is designed to reach the general public, and not a narrowly
defined circle of potential consumers. On the other hand, unlike propaganda,
PR can have more clearly defined goals and objects in the direction of which
the public should be informed. Both advertising and PR also operate in the
system of alternative communesHowever, propaganda tends to operate in a
non-alternative communication environment.
Frank Jefkins believes that "propaganda, like advertising, is predisposed to
its object: high-level PR materials, on the other hand, must be
factual, open-minded, and free from self-praise." We can recognize this statement
only as an ideal option that we can strive for, but at the same time practice
shows that PR also strives for a positive characterization of its object. But
this does not mean that PR is untrue. A. Chumikov emphasizes this positive
orientation of PR in the following way: "The trick of white PR is this ... in the
interpretation of truthful figures and facts, including the layout (manipulation) of
information. So, one truthful fact can be loudly shouted out, and the other can
only be whispered; the tenth most important fact should be put forward in the
first place, and the first most important-in the tenth "("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 11.
- p. 35). By the way, A. Chumikov defines PR as a type of information business.
The authors of the world's most famous textbook on PR, called by some
experts the "bible of PR" (I mentioned it above), combine
the following functions of PR from various definitions:
1. Conducts planned and ongoing work as part of management.
2. Deals with the relationship between the organization and the public.
3. Monitors consciousness, opinions, attitudes, and behavior both inside
and outside the organization.
4. Analyzes the impact of policies, procedures and actions on the public.
5. Modifies policy elements, procedures, and actions when they
conflict with the public's interests and the organization's life.
6. Advises the introduction of new policies, procedures and actions that
are interdependentwe are from organizations and the public.
7. Establishes and maintains bilateral relations between the organization
and the public.
8. Makes specific changes in opinions, attitudes, and behaviors inside and
outside the organization. 9. Influence
new and / or sustained relationships between the organization and
the public. The American PR Society defines a list
of organizations that PR deals with: businesses, unions, hospitals, schools,
colleges, and religious institutions. These are the organizations that
are most dependent on the public, and their existence is possible only
in conditions of a favorable attitude of the public towards them, since in
some cases they are engaged in raising funds for their normal functioning.
An interesting example of a PR problem arose in St. Petersburg, where
the representative office of Dagestan developed proposals for creating
a positive image of natives of the North Caucasus ("Adviser". - 1997. - No.
11. - p. 38). Naturally, the chosen path turned out to be in many respects
purely Soviet: actions in the field of literature and art, holding Days of
Culture in Dagestan, publishing works by Caucasian authors. But the goal
is very interesting and relevant - to save Dagestanis from the negative
image of "persons of Caucasian nationality", to help them gain the trust
of Russians. PR seems to
be broader than any of the possible definitions, so we focus, as it seems
to us, on a more generalized approach, considering PR as the science of
managing public opinion.

§ 3. PR: from history

Humanity in its development is constantly creating and practicing certain

methods of communicative influence. This happens both at the level of the
unconscious and at the level of the conscious, when various factors are
used efficiently to achieve the desired effects. We can list several
historically established species persuasive communication:
1. Ancient rhetoric It originated at a time when the ability to speak publicly was
an essential characteristic of a citizen. Aristotle defined rhetoric as
"ability to find possible ways of persuading about each given
subjectThere are three types of speeches: deliberative (which are intended to
incline to an opinion or reject it), judicial and epictic (which
are intended to praise or blame something). Isocrates noted: "High
perfection will be achieved in the arts, and eloquence among them, if
the artist's skill and brilliance are valued not for novelty, not for originality in choosing a them
to distinguish oneself in its development." In our opinion, this is a fairly clear
idea of professionalism.
2. Religious communication the essence of which is also seen not in the transfer
of information as such, but in the promotion of personal transformation. During
a person's church service, as J. R. R. Tolkien put it. Randall Nichols,"they lead you through
series of carefully selected linguistic events" (Nichols J.R. The restoring word.
Preaching as pastoral communication. - San Francisco etc., 1987).
3. Court speech it also has a clear application goal, and therefore it is built according
to a carefully developed plan. And even the Soviet era gave us a set of examples
for the history of this type of impact.
4. Parliamentary speech. We first appreciated the importance of this type only recently,
although parliamentary readings and debates have long been commonplace in the
West. After the election of S. Kiriyenko as Prime Minister of Russia, speaking in the
program "Hero of the Day" (NTV, 1998, 24 Apr.) the first Deputy Chairman of the
Duma, V. Ryzhkov, said that S. Kiriyenko should also learn to speak in the Duma, that
this is a special kind of speech, where you need to be able to hear the other, "where
you can say clumsily and fascinate the audience," and you can smoothly, and get
nothing. 5. Mass communication (including advertising and propaganda, since they are
located in this particular channel). Gradually, it was this type of communication that
pushed out all the others, which is probably explained, on the one hand, by the
expanded scale of human society, and on the other, by the new psychology of a
person directed outward, and not inward, as it was previously.
6. Literary communication. This is one of the oldest types of impact that
continues to retain its significance. As Eric Havelock very interestingly observed:
"The narrative form attracts attention because narrative, for
most people, is the most enjoyable form that
a language, whether written or spoken, can take. Its content is not ideology, but actions and
situations that this action creates."
7. Advertising communication. We plunged into the world of modern advertising, hardly
imagining the paradoxes that arise. As a result, a lot of parodies
appear, emphasizing that today we have no problems left, except for dandruff and
sanitary pads. The famous French advertiser Jacques Segela
traces the present and future of advertising in this way: "A few decades ago
in France, advertising was a purely consumer act:' I am washing powder. I wash
very clean!". In the 80s, we added such a concept as appearance, "image". That is,
not just powder was advertised, but Woolite, which washed cleaner than all the
others, "whiter than white" (... On the other hand, at the threshold of the third
millennium, you will need to give a certain moral aspect to the advertising message.
The consumer must "rise above himself" by making the purchase act. It should be
ennobled by advertising. He will trust not just brands, but those that
are involved in the struggle for universal values" ("A& PR digest". - 1998. - No. 1 -2
. 40). Probably, it is for this reason that the Western version
of advertising is quite often seriously rejected by the population.
8. Actually PR. We adhere to the rather old definition of PR as the science of
public opinion management. In periods when the role of society increases, PR
takes a dominant position. In our past and partially present, there are two
the branches of the structure of the modern world - the state and society-were
unevenly developed. If in the West the state is modeled as an apparatus that
is hired with taxpayers ' money to manage, that is, the state comes from
a stronger component-society, then in our world society looks more like
a product of the state. All the delays in the development of PR in our world
are related to this. But until the citizen takes his rightful place in our world,
there will be not only no democracy, but also no real democracy. Edward
Bernays opened his own fame management firm in New York City in 1919 . At
that time, as he himself emphasizes, there were no educational courses, no
books, no corresponding association. And there was no word public relations,
because in his first book in 1923, he used the term public opinion under the
influence of the famous book by Walter Lippman. Bernays ' mother was
Sigmund Freud's sister, and his father's sister was Freud's wife. It wasn't just
Ameri who called him to workHe turned down the French presidents, but also
Franco and Hitler, the latter two he refused, but did not refuse, for example,
Enrico Caruso. It is known that his book was lying on Goebbels ' desk.

"At first, we called our activity "fame management", - written by

Edward Bernays. - We were going to give advice to clients on how to
direct their actions so that they would be visible to society. But within a year,
we changed the service and its name to "public relations tips". We realized
that all client actions that go public need advice. The public significance of
one client's action may be tainted by another that is not in the public
interest. We took the word "advice" from jurisprudence. The words public relations,
as we later discovered, were used in the 1830s to denote actions for
the public good. Then they disappeared from view. These two words were
once again used in the trade union press of utilities and other industries
attacked by squabblers in the early twentieth century to describe the
work of newspapermen who were hired by the attacked to whitewash
themselves. But these two words were never released to the general public."

This is one point of view, although there are others. Among them, the first
place claims the opinion of Ivy Lee, a journalist who conducted PR work
for the coal industry, then for the Pennsylvania railways, and in 1914
became an adviser to John Rockefeller. He considered it his task to
create good relations between the press and entrepreneurs, and
specifically he dealt with accidents in the coal industry and on the railways.
It is not so important who was the first, but a more global fact is important:
at the end of the XIX- beginning of the XX century, a new type of
professional activity related to management is crystallizingcontrol of public
opinion. At the same time, the Soviet Union already in the thirties also had
a fairly strong practice of this kind. While maintaining a sufficiently
repressive regime, it largely remained in the eyes of both its own and foreign
public (recall the visits of Bernard Shaw, Anatole France,Andre Gide, and
many others) a very progressive and attractive state. The work of PR specialists
(their positions, of course, were called differently) was obvious. Their task
was made easier by the lack of alternative sources of information, but still
this work was gigantic in scale. Even now, we feel strongly within the
framework of that system, sometimes nostalgically "returning" to the past.
If you look further back, then, for example, Frank Jeffkins saw
elements of PR even in the holy books:"We can also say that the sacred books
World religions are a form of public relations in which ancient scribes tried
to convey an understanding of their faith. This type of communication is older than
the early relics found in the form of Greek or Roman advertisements concerning the sale
of slaves or reporting events in the Colosseum." The first functionaries of this kind in
Britain, Frank Jeffkins considers press secretaries, their positions were introduced
by the British Treasury in 1809, and the postal service in 1854. The British
government first turned to such activities in 1912, when Lloyd
George organized a group of lecturers to explain the government's new approach to
pension provision.
American researchers track the history of PR in their country by
government crises. Frank Jeffkins admits that if PR at
the government level in Britain appeared 200 years ago, then PR consultations
in Britain were developed later than in America. This was due to the fact that during
the Second World War there were not enough goods, and therefore there was no need
for advertising. After the Second World War, many advertising specialists became
PR consultants in ministries and departments. Americans identify such
periods of their intensive work on PR: World War I, the Great Depression
and the New Deal, World War II, the Korean War, Vietnam, the Cold War,
the invasion of Panama, and the Gulf War. At the same time, from the point of view of
PR, they highly appreciate President Roosevelt, who clearly knew how to
write what he wants, through which channels it is best to distribute it. Americans
describe the PR boom that lasted from 1945 to 1965. The number of practitioners
then exceeded 100 thousand. Training in colleges began, and by the end of
this period , 14 universities were awarded bachelor's degrees in PR. There was a
constant development of PR programs in industry, trade associations, and government
agencies. The number of consulting firms grew. Books on PR
began to be published en masse, although they largely repeated each other. In 1955
, the International PR Association was founded.
But even in the previous period (from 1930 to 1945), many successful
ideas were found. For the first time, specialists in political campaigns appeared. Clem
Whitaker and Liana Baxter formed the first such firm in 1933, which
ran 80 campaigns between 1935 and 1958 and lost only 6 of them. In the thirties
, massive public opinion research began, initiated by George
Gallup. The period from 1965
to the present refers to the era of the information society, which began in 1956-1957.
In 1957, the Soviet satellite marked the beginning of a new generationLike, in
1956, for the first time in American history , there were more white-collar workers than
ordinary workers. Gradually , a different status of information appeared in front of us,
which was not there before. today, any structure is by no means indifferent to what it
will look like on the pages of the media. In some cases , strong financial and industrial
structures create their own media outlets to help build this positive image. For
example, here is how to answer the question about media financing by Deputy Head
of the state. Head of the Public Relations Development Department of RAO Gazprom
A. Kotov: "We partially finance the Trud newspaper and the Rabochaya Tribuna
newspaper. We have, however, a very small number of shares on ORT, almost 30% of
NTV shares, one hundred percent of our TV and radio company Prometheus. There is
a press that is funded by our regional structures. We have created
a joint-stock company Gazprom-Media, which will be responsible for relations with
Russian and foreign media" (the "Adviser"). - 1998. - No. 1. - p. 11).
Banking and other wars in Russia, as a rule, begin with a war of compromising
materials, which is facilitated by the fact that the leading media are distributed among
different financial and industrial groups. Here's how the newspaper Moskovsky
Komsomolets (1998, 23-30 Apr.) describes exactly the information pressure from B.
Berezovsky about the approval/non-approval of S. Kiriyenko by the Duma: "Berezovsky,
as they say, was very unpleasantly surprised. As a result, the TV channels essentially
refused to support Kiriyenko. Moreover, they work quite effectively against it. Endless
"round tables" for the leaders of Duma factions, where they are forced
to demonstrate their unyielding courage, practically cut off their paths back.
Analysts tirelessly say that if the Duma accepts Kiriyenko, It is necessary to pay attention
to the indirect version of such pressure, namely, indirect influence is considered
the main skate of the PR: there was not a direct call not to approve, but the actors
themselves were brought to public statements about the impossibility of approving
S. Kiriyenko. About the indirection of influence as the priority of PR, the following
statement by J. P. Blavatsky also speaks. Thomas: "After all, if advertising conveys
exactly the information that they want to report, then PR is the transfer of the same
information from the words of a journalist, which in most cases does not imply direct
payment. The whole problem takes on a completely different sound, and especially
from the point of view of the consumer, when he gets acquainted with the opinion
of a journalist about a new product (or its modification), the advice of an outsider
can be decisive for the reputation of the product" (Thomas J. Smith Changing priorities //
"Adviser". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 15). PR as a soft influence begins to work as
the toughest version of the impact, because it transfers the process of persuasion inside
the person who now feels that he came to this decision on his own. While
the order clearly acts as an externally imposed decision.
We should focus in more detail on this feature of indirect
influence, which characterizes PR. The order,like the whole army situation,
is designed to drastically reduce alternative actions. It is clear that in a crisis
situation, the importance of executing an order increases dramatically. The order also
implies blocking any other personal decisions and actions. The decision is made as
if outside the level of a subordinate person (cf. the typical "a soldier should not be able
to think, but should perform"). What happens in the new situation, when
is PR involved in social management? Now the level of decision-making and execution
are the same: I have to make a decision myself, which I will have to do.
There is no order as an external compulsion, but there is a variant of internal
compulsion, which does not feel like such, since I have
to make this decision myself.
Indirection becomes a method of evaluating certain PR approaches. So, in France
, plans have been developed to attract tourists, as the importance of France in
the field of long-term tourism is decreasing. There were two possible plans: "The first
plan looked quite aggressive. The official campaign aimed at
improving the service of foreign tourists was supposed to be carried out to the sound
of fanfare and with a great many posters hung around the country. But experts
convinced officials to moderate their fervor: there was a risk of scaring away potential
tourists with such a powerful pressure and irrepressible temperament. The choice
was made in favor of "hospitality contracts". They were signed by about 20 thousand
service companies. They pledged to "smile", "take care of their
appearance", and "answer the phone in a friendly and qualified manner".
The hotel or store participating in the campaign can be identified by a small
"Bonjour" sign on the door" (Shchegolev I. Descendants of Gauls learn to smile //
"Adviser". - 1997. - No. 10. - p. 31).
The priority of indirection also implies an emphasis on such popular PR
tools as patronage, sponsorship, lobbying, and rumors. All these
completely different areas are united by a significant component as an indirect
impact. When a tobacco company sponsors a car race, we
are faced with a more complex version of the impact. This is not a direct hit
attempthit the target, but as if reflected. In this case, it
is much more difficult to perform the planned work effectively. The same situation
occurs (and even with even greater force) in the case of refutation of negative
information. As an example, we can mention the crisis with the company "Mattel
Toys", which produces a Barbie doll. The Mayak was informed that it contained some
harmful substance, as a result of which buyers began to throw away the dolls and
demand their money back. How was the work done to convince the population of the
opposite? "The firm provided us with all the information materials, after analyzing
which, we attracted specialists from Rospatent, Rostest, the Sanitary and
Epidemiological Service and organized interviews from third parties. If
representatives of Mattel Toys started speaking, no one would believe them, but
when an outside expert speaks, it causes a different effect " ("Old" Russians from
America // "Adviser". - 1997. - No. 1. - p. 15). There
are also interesting ways to use unofficial individuals to support the administration's
actions in the United States, as we wrote about in our book (see <url>). Pocheptsov G. G.
Public Relations, or how to successfully manage public opinion, Moscow, 1998).
They are based on the same idea that an official who tries to justify a particular
situation is doomed to be skeptical in advance, since it is known
that he should generate such texts based on the fact that he himself works in
the administration. We are
constantly under the influence of direct and indirect methods of influence. Elements
of social governance have always existed, and no society has been without them, no
matter how far back we look. If we turn to
the history of ancient Egypt, we will see that the society of that period was colossally
conservative, focused not on the futurenot like today, but like the past. According
to the ideas of that time, people were first ruled by the gods, and then by their
direct heirs - the pharaohs. Therefore, the Pharaoh's authority is sacred. Thus, the political
symbolization of the Egyptians, in today 's language, interpreted the Pharaoh
as the successor of the work of the gods (recall the "faithful successors of the
work of Lenin" or similar bundles of Clinton - Kennedy, Major- Thatcher; so the same
model of symbolization is used today). It also followed from the orientation to the
past of a person of that time that the best model for him was to
preserve the same order of things as it was in the time of the god Ra. Today, we also
face similar options. For example, Reagan's slogan "Let's make America great
again" or Zhirinovsky's "I will raise Russia from its knees." In other words, this is an
appeal to the past as the best option for some parameters. This
is probably based on a pattern known to almost everyone: the past, as
a rule. it is evaluated positively, since
it is the negative details that are first erased from memory. Ideological
support for the authorities was provided by two types of equivalence: fusion in
space and fusion in time. As an example of the first merger, the following quote can
be cited: "Some archetypal places, such as
the primeval hill,were considered to exist in several places of the country
at once, because these places shared important characteristics with their prototype"
(Frankfort G. et al. On the threshold of philosophy, Moscow, 1984, p. 42). Our version of suc
"ideological support" is, for example, the Lenin Museums and the mausoleum. Merging
in time can be considered a variety of holidays such as New Year's. The USSR also
used such "jubilee" occasions, when, as it were, unity was [Link] with the
events of 1917. Until now, we continue to regularly celebrate the victory of 1945, as
if combining us with that time; on this day, for example, soldiers can put
on old tunics.
Ancient society attached great importance to eloquence. Isocrates wrote: "Eloquence
among us has become so honorable that almost everyone aspires to master it
, realizing that only the gift of speech elevates man above animals, that in everything
else intelligent people fail, and fools often achieve success, but the art of speech is
inaccessible to fools, being the lot of only the gifted, that it is impossible to master it. -
the most important sign of education is that not by courage and wealth, but by speech
, true nobility and true upbringing are known, that those who speak the word
are respected not only in their own city, but everywhere" (Isocrates. Panegyric / / Orators
of Greece, Moscow, 1985, p. 45). What is the reason for such attention to public
speaking? Speech occupied an important place in the framework of ancient
democracy. With democratic equality of people, the importance of communication
immediately increases dramatically: you can defend yourself in court by speech, you can
attract your supporters as a politician, and so on. But not only public communications
were so important for the statesman of the ancient era, for a harmonious society
,internal and domestic communications are also important. Today, PR specialists
produce branded magazines for home reading, which, for example, are received by
every employee of a company or corporation. Plutarch also thought in the same direction:
"A fire rarely begins with a temple or a public building, but a lamp left in a house, or
household rubbish caught in a fire, has more than once caused great flames and
public calamity; just as a city is not always stirred up to its heart's contentthere
are bickering over public affairs, but often personal confrontations
create discord that spills over into public life and outrages the entire nation.
And here the statesman should heal and prevent the disease, trying to avoid one
quarrel at all, another, having begun, immediately ended, and the third, although it did
not grow and did not affect public life, but remained in the circle in which it was born.
He must be aware of it himself, and impress upon others that from private quarrels
there are national ones, and from small ones - great ones, if they are neglected
and not taken care of at the very beginning with healing and persuasion" (Plutarch.
Instructions on state affairs / / Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 625).
Therefore, any expert on PR will subscribe to Plutarch's statement: "It is best
to prevent unrest in advance, and this is the greatest and most beautiful work
of political art" (In the same place. - P. 624). Or such an observation: " A
statesman should not neglect such disagreements,which spread quickly, like a disease
in the heat, which it is important to capture, contain and heal in time; our attention,
as Cato said, makes a small evil out of a big one, and reduces a small one to nothing.
There is no better way to convince the warring parties than to act in frequent
disagreements as a calm, inaccessible to anger mediator, who patiently considers the
initial accusations, without departing from them and without introducing either ambition,
irritation, or other passions that communicate irreconcilability and
bitterness to the inevitable disputes." (In the same place. - P. 625-626). Today's
leader must be as competent as possible in this new field, especially for us. Here's
how Yu describes it: Luzhkov is an English journalist. "A vivid example of the skillful
use of public relations is the work of Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkovbut. His Saturday
trips around the city provided him with 90% of the vote in the Moscow elections.,
The City Day celebration was successfully held. This is a skilled politician who remains in
Yeltsin's shadow, denying that he can take part in future elections. But he
needs the support of the entire country, which treats Moscow as an elite city.
To improve his image, Luzhkov has launched a series of projects that will
involve the entire country, including showing a Moscow program on national
television. If this experiment is successful, Luzhkov will be able to address
the entire nation via television. He, like any professional in the field
of public relations, can not fail to understand how important the regions are" (McDonell L. Delo
i slovo [Business and Word]. - 1998. - No. 2. - p. 11). By the way, in 1998 Yu.
received the Russian national award "PR-person" of the year in the field
of public relations development. And the press service of the President of the Russian
Federation received the award for the best "PR-project" , and S. Yastrzhembsky
received it. The list of these nominees demonstrates firsthand the status of PR work in
Russia. Today's political campaigns actively attract well-known individuals as their
"tools". The program "Itogi" (NTV, 1996, February 9), telling
about the election campaign of A. Korzhakov, stated that Tula had not yet seen such a
large number of"stars". And A. Lebed, moving to the governor's chair in Krasnoyarsk,
even invited A. Delon to help him. This is possible because the amount spent
on the election campaign increases dramatically. At a meeting with the President
of Ukraine Leonid Kuchma on April 21, 1998, one of the newly elected deputies
- representatives of business-determined these expenses in the amount of one million
dollars per mandate. So modern history opens up and more otkit digs for us more
and more complex schemes of influencing mass consciousness.

§ 4. PR campaign and its components

Some specialists define PR as the sum of receptions. In this case , the importance
of certain technological approaches to solving a particular problem is even
stronger. At the same time, it should be noted that in most cases, the PR campaign
is built on the same model, whether it is the promotion of a policy or product to
the market. At the same time, the emphasis on mass media in planning such a
program remains very strong. For this reason, in the Western world, most of those
involved in PR are journalists. After all, they are the ones who are able to generate
news according to media standards, so that they are accepted and allowed into the
communicative flow. Even more , PR is one of the most favorable options for continuing
a career for a journalist. A very similar model of "recruitment" has now become
widespread in Ukraine. A former student journalist works in the media for a certain
period of time, and then shifts to the field of PR. At the same time, this creates a
danger in the absence of special knowledge in the field of PR, since journalistic skills
and abilities alone are clearly not enough. Some firms enter the PR struggle with
the slogan: there are no unsolvable problems, there is a shortage of resources. Let
us mention the remark of A. Chumikov on a similar occasion: "Conversations like" we
will not conduct such a campaign for less than the amount of N", in my opinion, are
basically unprofessional. A dialogue on the scale of "white" PR starts with something
else: what do you want to get? Then the options for achieving the goal are already
suggested: long and short, cheap and expensive, but in all cases not the "only
acceptable solution", but the OPTIONS" ("Expert Advisor". - 1997. - No. 11. - p. 35).
Here, of course, there is an element of guile, because certain tasks are basically
impossible to solve with a certain level of funds. But in fact, the correctness is present
precisely in the existence of alternative ways to solve a particular problem.
Let's give an example of a PR campaign that French PR specialist Philippe Boiry
considers his merit: "[I] worked for the Natalis chain of stores for expectant mothers
located on the Champs-Elysees. I got them exclusive rights to supply goods to
Brigitte Bardot's newborn baby. The store brought clothes, furniture, etc. for her child
to Bridget's house, which was guarded by 200 photographers from all over the world.
Therefore, many pictures of employees have appeared in the world press ."Natalis
" in uniform, bringing large packages with a large corporate inscription into the
house. And the brand "Natalis" became known all over the world "("Adviser". - 1997.
- No. 12. - p . 11). Based on our scheme, we see that the Natalis store managed
stand out. However, two important components of such allocation were involved
here . On the one hand, a real event has passed before us, and not just conversations
about something intangible and invisible. On the other hand, this event was at the
forefront of media attention. As a result, it immediately "resonated". After all, in that
situation, photojournalists themselves were "charged" to search for new information.
And these two aspirations coincided: the desire for information and the event.
The American PR Bible describes the PR management process in this way (Cutlip
S.N. a.o. Effective Public Relations. - Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1994) as consisting of four
steps:
I. Defining the problem.
II. Planning and programming.
III. Action and communication.
IV. Evaluation of the program.
In turn, Peter Green, a member of the British PR Institute, sees a series of such
elements in creating a PR campaign program (Green P.S. Winning PR tactics. - London,
1994):
- general view (PR tasks are formulated in accordance with the general context
of the campaign organization, which helps to define goals and analyze the current
situation from the public's point of view).
- intentions and goals (they reflect the specifics of the PR program).
- target audiences (identification of clearly defined groups with which it is necessary
to reach mutual understanding);
- key messages (determining what should be communicated to these target
audiences, taking into account the knowledge, misinformation, and prejudice that
they already have;
- strategy (definition of a general approach, within which a
specific tactic is implemented);
- tactics/activities (this is the basis of the program; Peter Green
emphasizes:"It is important to recognize that planning an approach and choosing from a set
of possible activities is at least as important as carrying out a project.
[selected approaches] to life");
- schedule (It's important to time your campaign accurately; Peter Green points out:
"Since many PR activities are not tied to specific
deadlines, the program can easily start to slide if a clear schedule is not introduced");
- expenses (it is necessary to take into account all expenses, including the time spent by
your own employees, evaluating them in comparison with the amount of work of
invited consultants);
- control (it is necessary to have a clear control system as part of the program).
In conclusion, we note a rather harsh idea of Peter Green:
" Unstructured PR activities will never be so effective.
effective as the planned program."

Frank Jefkins offers his PR model, made up of six components (Jefkins

F. Public Relations. - London, 1992):
I. Assessment of the situation.
II. Opredivision of goals.
III. Defining the public.
IV. Selection of mass communication channels, impact techniques.
V. Planning бюджета.
VI. Evaluation of results.
To assess the situation, he suggests moving in the direction away
from the set "hostility, prejudice, apathy, ignorance" go to the set "liking, recognition,
interest, knowledge". At the same time, each of these components
receives a fairly detailed consideration. For example, for a business
company , the following possible set of goals is proposed:
- change the image if the company has entered new activities;
- provide the public with unknown information about the company
and get support for further development;
- make the company known in new export markets;
- prepare the exchange market for a new issue of shares;
- educate users, introduce them to a new product;
- restore public confidence after a natural disaster a disaster that
has demonstrated the inefficiency of the company's activities;
- to create a new image of corporate representation;
- to make known the participation of top officials in public life;
- inform politicians about
the company's activities;
- make the company's research activities known. And
if, for example, this is a politician, and moreover-a woman, then PR
specialists set the following task:
"It is much more difficult for a woman to break through in politics. You start inventing things
that make her look more masculine: a man's profession, a determined gait,
a man's cut of clothing... The less female-the better" (Komsomolskaya Pravda,
1993, October 29). Edward
Bernays emphasized that defining goals is a rather serious and
complex task: "One of the most difficult problems for PR practitioners is how
to bring clients and employers to a definitionunderstanding your goals and intentions. Only if
practitioners know the goals and intentions of the first persons can they, as social technicians
, advise them on the attitudes and actions necessary to achieve
their goals in communicating with the public. We live in a very competitive and complex society.
If the goals are not clearly defined, and the strategy and tactics are not really
planned, we can become a victim of chance."
Having considered the existing concepts, we once again return to
the ideas of American specialists in PR, especially since the four
points listed above are in principle standard steps for any rational
action. Let's take a closer look at them.
I. Problem definition. Without a clear definition of the problem we are facing, we
will never come to the right solution. To better understand it, the Americans
suggest that we use several questions that are necessarily posed in
the present tense, since we are interested in the current state of the problem, and
not its historical cross-section.
What is the source of the problem?
What division of the campaign is it associated with?
When does this phenomenon become a problem?
Who is involved in this?
How are they enabled? Why is this
a concern for the organization and its public? Naturally, when developing a solution,
we are interested in the communicative aspect of the issue. For example, there are
not enough available funds for the construction of a kindergarten. There is a problem
of finding the missing money - this is already a communicative task. All collected
facts are divided into two types: internal and external. Internal facts: descriptions
of programs, products, the charter, the history of the organization, biographies
of key managers, a description of how the organization is currently coping with the
situation, and so on. External facts: newspaper and magazine clippings about the
organization and the issue; content analysis of the press; results of public opinion
polls; lists and basic information about those who share the organization's concerns;
lists and basic information about those who oppose the organization on this
issue, etc. All this makes it possible to understand it strength, weakness, define it
opportunities and threats.
II. Planning and programming. PR is sometimes defined as strategic
communication because it is occupied with long-term goals. Planning is
always a complex process that is constantly running out of time. We are always
more preoccupied with today's concerns. But still, the winner is the one who
determines his own strategy, and does not go with the flow. PR specialists can help
their organization if they are able to ensure that it has the following information
priorities: 1. Analysis of changes in public opinion and behavior of the public and key
actors.
2. Create the main source of information about the organization.
3. Transfer of information for internal use.
4. Coordination of activities that affect the organization's relations with the public.
In general, this stage should provide answers to the following questions:
- program goal (what exactly are we aiming for);
- target audience (who exactly should be covered by your impact);
- requirements (what exactly should be achieved with each of the audience types).
Such planning is necessary to ensure that, with the help of changes in
public opinion to reach changes in behavior.
III. Action and communication. The main condition for successful campaign
management today is coordination of actions and communication, because the
effectiveness of one depends on the effectiveness of the other. At the same time, the
laws of communicative influence require the most precise convergence of the
communicator's and audience 's [Link] in this case, you can achieve maximum
success. To do this, American PR specialists offer the following technique::
1. Use the media that most closely aligns with
the audience's position.
2. Use the communication source that is most
trusted by the audience in this issue.
3. Avoid emphasizing the differences between the position of the communicator and the
audience. 4. Find common ground with your audience in the dictionary and events
you mention.
5. Formulate the communicator's position as that of the majority.
6. Use a link to identify a group (social, age,
religious, professional, etc.) if it can help you.
7. Modify the message to meet the organization's needs. There
are standard requirements for what is recognized as the norm for QMS messages: they
must have a news character, be understandable, and be tied to the audience,
place, and time.
Thus, the third step includes the following elements:: action strategies,
communication strategies, program implementation plans.
Here is how the process of "shaping the image of a politician" is described, which takes into
account many factors, including the opinion of the audience by one of the experts: "First of all
, the political and economic platform on which the candidate speaks is outlined.
Its program is clearly outlined. Then the external qualities of a person are studied - their
character, habits, and manner of behavior... And then, inside the specified volume, you start
to come up with a type. What for? The population will easily perceive a typical person.
It is clearer and more harmonious. The types themselves can be different. Well, for example,
"sly fox". Or - "father to soldiers". If we make a person a conservative, this
does not mean that he should be limited, deprived of personal charm. However-not
a shirt-guy: a little dry, correct. Not formal, not prim, but collected.
Not very emotional. If we create an image of a cheerful, charming,
smiling person, then we should not say that he is a conservative. Such a person should not
have a conservative policy. When a type is conceived, sociologists should find out how
it corresponds to the aspirations of the majority of the population" (Komsomolskaya Pravda,
1993, October 29). If we are talking about
the president, then the requirements of the population are already different: "It is absolutely
clear that he should not demonstrate high anxiety and aggressiveness.
What should I do? It depends on what kind of image he chooses for himself. If a person
is radical, both the gait and gestures should be appropriate. If you are a moderate
, then everything is being rebuilt in the opposite direction. <...> I think we have already
left, but we have not yet returned to the situation when the president is elected-an aksakal
who is wise in life experience. Obviously, now they will try to choose
a younger person: within 40-50 years. However, not age will play a major role.
Energy, sharpness of mind-that's what will be appreciated in the first place" (In the same placeHere
we can disagree with the unambiguously negative assessment of the parameter
"aggressiveness", because quite often the population requires this characteristic
from its leader, which ensures the coordinated existence of all influential
groups in the country.
IV. Evaluation of the program. It consists of two directions:
- evaluation plans, where objective criteria for evaluating
future actions are developed in advance.
- feedback and program review plan, which offers options
for changes in accordance with the received estimates. However, to make an estimate
moreover, levels are laid that allow us to distinguish the number
of messages sent (which we are usually proud of) from the number of people who
actually changed their behavior.
This is a very important point of the program, because it will be
the main focus of the client's attention, even at the stage of ordering. Therefore
, more objectified data such as changes in brand awareness
as a result of a campaign, for example, from 7% to 30%, will look better here. This
most difficult moment, and these difficulties are objective in nature. For example, here is
the opinion of the English specialist J. R. R. Tolkien: Thomas, who used this
cross-section to compare advertising and SO on: Pizza Hut can determine, with an
accuracy of almost one pizza sold, what will be the effect of a new advertising campaign
launched, say, at 7 pm on Friday, by the end of the same day. It is more difficult to
the results of PR, because a change in perception or an increase in awareness about the
occurs over a rather long period of time" ("Expert Advisor". - 1997. - No. 12. - p.
same time, it should not be forgotten that PRS are also referred to as "strategic
communications", and strategic planning can have its own, not always
quantitative, types of assessments.
Informational actions should precede any other ones, if there is
a need to achieve an effective result. So, the head of the Department for
Public Relations and Mass Media of the State Tax
Service of the Russian Federation N. Nikolaev (and the staff of his department is 20
people) says about the upcoming introduction of the tax code: "We have developed a
federal program for conducting advertising and propaganda campaigns in Russia. We are
conducting a campaign to adopt the tax code and we want to involve all interested
structures in this work. The concept of this campaign has been developed. It is necessary
to raise awareness of all participants in tax relations and neutralize possible negative
reactions. To achieve this goal, measures have been developed to provide
comprehensive and objective information to the public, among which the first priority is to
familiarize a wide audience with the ideology of the tax reform being implemented"
("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 10. - p. 8). His concern is understandable, because taxes
object to which all one hundred percent of the population has a negative attitude in
advance. It is very significant in this regard that he also opposed the well-known videos of
the tax police as built on negativity, considering that in a democratic society it is
impossible to talk to people from a position of strength.
And the last example of a PR campaign, from recent history. This refers to the Chechen
war in Russia, where the army, government and special services were under such
critical fire that they admitted defeat in the information war with Chechnya. During the
fighting, the campaign's propaganda support was completely rebuilt
. But all in vain. Even the announcement that journalists
were bribed by the Dudayev regime didn't help.
Let's pay attention to an article that appeared in Komsomolskaya Pravda under the
headline "Feeding prisoners in front of TV cameras is more useful than shooting them"
and with the subtitle "Our generals still have a lot to learn in order to"sell"
their wars to the Russian democratic mass." The article analyzes the behavior
of the American and Russian military in cases
of the Gulf War and the war in Chechnya, respectively. Here are three quotes from this
material by Alexander Vasiliev, because the problems of relations between the state and
mass media in Russia and Ukraine are very similar in many ways. Fortunately, we do not
have such an object for coverage as the Chechen war, but otherwise the similarity is
quite accurate.
It is impossible not to pay tribute to the Chechen homegrown (or still mercenaries from
"
public relations specialists: they did a brilliant job. Feeding
prisoners in front of TV cameras is much more useful than shooting them. Reports of
Dudayevites giving some of their living mothers and burying the corpses of Russian
soldiers prevailed over stories of severed noses, ears, and genitals,
which served as excellent propaganda material in Afghanistan but failed to find
proper use in Chechnya."
The second observation is from the Gulf War:
"We worked with the mass media based on mutual understanding.
The military realized that if the journalist is not given, he will take it himself, because
he gets money for it. But the press also kept within the bounds of decency, since th
the main object of interest and the main source of information about themselves. But
the aces of aces came to Dhahran: in addition to the author of these lines, there wer
hundred more. Almost any journalist can be lured and even taught to take from
the hand with the help of affection and "exclusive" information. For him, "exclusive" is li
for your pussy, Comrade General!"
And one last thing:
"Defencists need two things that the West has, but we don't have yet:
smart, I emphasize, smart propaganda apparatus and a professional army. Our
generals were defeated by the Chechens in the field of "public relations": it is easier to
the camera lens with a claw than to think. It's time to understand that in a democrat
society, the journaland it is even more terrible than an atomic war that one film crew
is equivalent to a tank division. After all, there is the experience of Americans, Bosnian
study it!" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1995, February 3).
Working on improving your position in the press involves, from the point of view of
J. R. R. Tolkien, White and L. Mazur, answers to the following questions:
- WHY should we improve our positions?
- WHAT do these positions express?
- WHO is responsible for relations with the mass media?
- HOW exactly does she / he deal with them now?
- WHAT kind of outside help is needed?
- HOW much can we spend on adjusting these positions?
- HOW will we evaluate the program? -
WHAT will this amount to in terms of time? (White J., Mazur L. Strategic communications
management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 57).
The campaign itself can develop according to different models. So, researchers
from Yale University proposed a campaign consisting of five consecutive
stages: identification, legitimization, participation, penetration, dissemination ( by
Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. Belmont etc., 1995, pp. 284-29
At the stage of identifications the task is to make the object recognizable. For
example, slogans can help you do this. For example, in the novel Ch. Ludlam's "Trivai
campaign slogan becomes " Andy Trivain. Rating: excellent." Each airline
strives to clearly identify itself, spending large amounts on corporate advertising.
The candidate must reach the level of legitimacy at the second stage, while he
can try to dispel the legitimacy of his opponents to smithereens, as, for example,
the Yeltsin team did when it associated G. Zyuganov with both the thirty-third
year and the seventeenth. Legitimization - this is the recognition of a candidate
as worthy through the primary elections in the United States, through the official
registration in the Central Election Commission in sluche of Russia. At the stage of participation rates
campaign should involve those who were outside the campaign yesterday. People are starting to
wear candidate badges. In Russia, for example, the campaign "Vote or lose" was held with the
participation of pop stars to attract young people. At the stage of penetrations the product is already
entering the market, whether it is a product or a candidate for deputy or president. It starts, for
example. appear in the first places in the ratings of political figures. At
the last stage - distributions - the campaign is successful and
institutionalized. The winner of the presidential race must now be held accountable for
their promises.
The 1996 presidential election in Russia brought new experience to the practice of such
campaigns in the CIS. On the one hand, there was clearly a reliance on Western
experience. A. Lebed's image-maker, Yulia Rusova, also explains the success of her team by
saying that "we refused to invent the bicycle": we used pre-election technologies tested in the West
" (Moskovskiye Novosti, 1996, No. 25). By the way, Y. Rusova in 1998 worked in the
parliamentary elections on the side of the main opponent of the government P. Lazarenko
("Kievskiye Vedomosti", 1998, April 18). Izvestia (1996, July 9) also published a list of
team that worked for President Boris Yeltsin from the Washington Post and Time magazine
. Moreover, the persons mentioned
there are rather weak in nature. This is a former organizer of the election
campaign of the governor of California, a public relations specialist from
Washington, an expert of the Republican Party, etc., brought together by a former
emigrant from Belarus who works in the field of advising American
businessmen on investments in the economy of the CIS countries. This group was headed
by Yeltsin's daughter. All this led Russian presidential aide Georgy Satarov to issue
a rebuttal. When asked what the newspaper did not like, he said (Izvestia,
1996, July 13): "The publication "And they forged our victory?" (No. 124), dedicated
to American image makers, thanks to whom Boris Yeltsin allegedly won
the election. It is not appropriate for a respected newspaper like Izvestia to
reprint material from the foreign press without any critical consideration, even if it is
a respectable publication like the Washington Post. It is clear that these people want to advertise
in their homeland, but it is not clear why Russian journalists should be involved in this campaign
. You probably should have contacted those who worked in
the presidential election headquarters and found out what really happened."
At the same time, the opening of this campaign was the figure of Alexander Lebed. Before
the election, the list of its pros and cons was as follows (Nezavisimaya
Gazeta, 1996, March 22 and 26):
1) acts as a "third force";
2) fights communists and communism;
3) will reform the armed forces;
4) will punish all those who participated in the robbery of the country, the people;
5) is clean from the compromising past;
6) fights the negative influence of the West.
The following shortcomings were identified by analysts:
1) has a penchant for authoritarianism;
2) is a nationalist;
3) has no international support;
4) is inexperienced in politics;
5) has no experience in public administration;
6) is inclined to use force; 7) has no
party support; 8) protects the
interests of the military-industrial complex.

However, analysts did not take into account that the pro-presidential circles were
interested in the figure of A. Lebed , who realized that he could delay votes from G.
Zyuganov. A. Lebed's campaign was sponsored by Boris Berezovsky (then Chairman of
the Board of Yandex. Direct).orov ORT and President of Logovaz Group). The group of
image makers was headed by Grigory Kazankov, who conducted campaigns for both
Russian governors and the election campaigns of the presidents of Tajikistan and Belarus.
Even the choice of these two republics, which are most closely connected with Russia, is
noteworthy. Only in March did Lebed's "patrons"appear in the person of B. Berezovsky
and Assistant to the President of Russia V. Ilyushin (Izvestia, 1996, July 11). The main
texts and slogans were written by the famous publicist Leonid Radzikhovsky. Pyotr Lutsik
was involved as a screenwriter. the author of scripts for all ten commercials of the second
part of the "Russian project" ORT ("Moscow News", 1996, No. 25).
The period between the first and second rounds of elections was marked by A. Lebed,
which also led to the departure of Korzhakov and Barsukov. All this dynamic set
of changes could not even emphasize the fundamental point-the disappearance of
Yeltsin himself from the arena before the second round. The presidential team did their
best to emphasize the "natural" nature of this disappearance.: "I
met with the president. The diagnosis I know of is a cold plus
accumulated fatigue from the election campaign. I found Boris Nikolaevich quite
capable of working... "(Trud, July 5, 1996). A dishonest move (if such a definition
works in politics) was the failure to show G. Zyuganov's last pre-election speech on ORT
on July 1, 1996, when Stanislav Govorukhin was supposed to speak again (the test of his
undoubtedly strong speech was published after the fact by the newspaper Pravda on July
6 , 1996). Here is an excerpt from it, since it reflects the real a situation
where ORT clearly played along with Yeltsin throughout the campaign, which is also
confirmed by international observers. Govorukhin ends his speech
with a traceIn other words:
"I appeal to those who are going to vote for Yeltsin. Before you put your ballot in the
ballot box, think carefully: did you make this choice yourself or were you forced to do it? 23
and 50 minutes a day is praising the new Kim Il Sung on all TV channels and spitting
on the opponent. Anyone's brain will go in different directions! Well, remember, remember!
In February of this year, Yeltsin's rating was 6-8 percent. I'm 35 now. The rating is not
bamboo, it does not grow so fast. So he's been pumped full of unscrupulous propaganda.
Like a soap bubble. It will fly away like a soap bubble. I am sure that immediately
after the election, Yeltsin's rating will be the same, or even less - 6-8 percent. For
he will not be able to fulfill any of his promises. He has no money - they all went to the
presidential campaign, there is no team. He turned in the most loyal people! There is no
physical strength either. So make up your mind!"
In general, it should be noted that the election campaign of 1996 was won in
Russia, on the one hand, by television (after all, newspapers are now read by a very
limited stratum), on the other, by a successful drawing of the figure of A. Lebed. However
judging by the text of the latter's speech about the main areas of work
The head of the National Security Council, Alexander Lebed, will undoubtedly come into
conflict with such an influential figure as Viktor Chernomyrdin. Cygnus says quite
"scary" words about raw capital:
"Having received freedom, power. money, international image, having secured
overwhelming influence in many regions, in the Government, presidential entourage
and parliament of the previous convocation (until December 17, 1995), raw capital
felt so independent from the state. that he started to implement his own
policies: budget, monetary, regional, etc. And exactly in the
same style, just as military-industrial capital did in the USSR, and with the same
devastating consequences for Russia. Raw material capital has implemented some
market reforms, but only those and in the form that it needed" (Rossiyskaya
Gazeta, 1996, July 5). This means that
the war of politicians, which is bound to be a war of their image on the surface, will
continue in Russia. The figure of Alexander Lebed was interesting for the presidential
campaign because it brought a strong dynamism that allows us to hope for
improvement. After all, the population was calmly waiting for the result of the reforms
in the period of Mikhail Gorbachev, but the leaders who replaced him no longer
have such a reserve of expectation. It should also emphasize taking into account
national characteristics, and not just relying on working Western technologies.
It is impossible to find a real path to success outside of the peculiarities
of national communication processes. As M. Koshelyuk writes, for example
: "the deeper the understanding of the mentality of voters, the more accurate
the campaign strategy is built. The process of this diagnosis includes traditional
methods of social psychoanalysis for analyzing cultural values (myths, fairy tales,
legends, etc.). But the mindset of voters is most clearly reflected in the actual
campaign process in how voters react to its key points, and this once again confirms
the need for flexible campaign planning. In this sense , it is impossible to build an
image first and then hold meetings with voters, for example. Building a candidate's
image goes on throughout the campaign, and this is a counter process - from
voter to candidate and from candidate to voter. In the course of this oncoming traffic,
the myth that seems to lie hidden in the depths of the collective psyche is played out.
In this sense, the pre-election campaign is pre-emptive.d represents a mythological
plot that has come to life for a while" (Koshelyuk M. Elections - a controlled
conflict / / "Interlocutor". - 1998. - No. 2. - p. 17). So the mythological component
of the campaign, as much as it is repugnant to the rational view of modern
man, is still very important. Moreover,
the national component is also combined with it.

§ 5. PR: organization

The first question that arises is whether you should have such a department or team
in your company , or use the services of consultants. Almost all researchers
agree that it is better to have your own department. This does not repeat
the pattern that is often observed in the case of advertising, when advertising
functions are transferred to an external advertising agency. For example, Frank
Jefkins writes: "The PR specialist does almost everything, he is both a communicator
and an adviser, he also plans a campaign. But if a product or service can be passed
on to an agency for advertising, for a PR specialist, the source of information, as well
as creativity and production, is the company itself. The more he
knows about the organization, the better he will speak on its behalf." (Jefкins F. Public
relations. - L., 1992. - p. 21). But there are other points of view. Moreover, for
example, in the UK there are more than 1000 (Frank Jefkins calls 1200) consulting firms.
At the same time, the largest of them call such amounts of annual income as 23
million 400 thousand pounds sterling (for an organization with a size of 385 people,
which served 452 clients over the year); in the hundredth place in terms of level
revenue agency that received 435 thousand pounds sterling for the year (14 employees,
18 clients for the year). This is data from 1992 (by Green P. S. Winning PR tactics
- p. 152). S. N. Parkinson humorously notes that there are two reasons for applying
to an administrator:rators to consultants: "This happens, first, when they want to be
advised to carry out a reorganization that they have already planned. And secondly,
when they hope that they will be discouraged from carrying out a reorganization that is
not profitable for them" (Parkinson's S. N. Parkinson's Laws, Moscow, 1989, p. 91).
What are the requirements for such a structure (department) and how to build it in
principle? Absolutely everyone agrees on this issue. Such a structure can
function effectively only if its head is the
highest-level manager, directly reporting to the first person of the company or
firm. Peter Green summarizes the controversy as follows: "If the PR
direction is not represented at the highest level internally, then it will not work
externally either. Thus, if you are creating a PR structure, then do not do it lightly
and do not try to solve your problems cheaper " (p. 148).
The Bible of American PR Specialists lists four advantages
of creating your own PR department:
1. Teamwork.
2. Knowledge of the organization.
3. Cost-effectiveness.
4. Accessibility for employees.
Teamwork is understood as a link to management. For example, at the Kodak company,
the day begins with a conversation on PR issues. 60 % of managers in the West
discuss PR issues once a week.
But there are also disadvantages, which include: some loss of objectivity, working
under pressure from superiors, unclear roles and requirements.
What is the name of the department and position of the manager? In 30 % of cases,
area of work is called "public relations", in 20% - "corporate communications"or simply
" communications", in 10% - "public affairs", 10 % - the combined name"advertising/
public relations". Other variants of the names have something in common with the
wording "corporate".public relations", "public information" , etc.
The position of a manager can receive the following designations: PR-manager, PR-
director. The functions of this manager, according to Frank Jefkins,
are as follows:
- maintain the correct image of the organization, its policies, products, services, and
personnel.
- monitor public opinion and bring it to the management;
- offer communication assistance to managers;
- inform the public about policies, activities, products, services, and
personnel in order to maximize the audience's knowledge and understanding of them.
Department structure it is determined by looking up and down the hierarchical ladder. We
understand that the best option for the head of the PR department is to include him
in the senior management team. Peter Green puts it this way: "Regardless of the
size of the organization or the size of the PR department being created, it is necessary
to have a direct link from PR to management - for efficiency, it is necessary to
have a PR manager among the highest management, even if the PR is
only part of his / her responsibilities" (Green P. S. - P. 143). For this
purpose, Frank Jefkins suggests the following hierarchy structure so that the PR
manager, on the one hand, is directly related to the manager, and on
the other hand, can serve all the functional divisions of the company.

Director

PR-Director

Software Manager Software Manager Software Manager Financial

to the staff trudu for marketing purposes director

He sees the structure of the department itself as follows:

PR-manager

Secretary

Deputy PR Manager secretary

Responsible for
Internal Editor
Organizer Press
Photographer publishing
guided tours activities
Service
General secretary
secretary

We see such a large number of secretarial positions in this structure

precisely because there is a lot of purely mechanical work in PR,
which we often forget about. For example, Peter Green sees its
volumes as follows: - drawing up a list of media outlets for
distributing materials; - monitoring the press; - creating and
filling out information files; - selection of a complete reference
library based on interest groups, important contacts, and
information channels; - organization of events, drawing up a list of invitees,
etc.; - preparation for publication and replication of any materials:
from business cards to reports; - establishment of internal
communication channels for determining the goals of PR, for
preparing all promotions and press releases; - control of budget
expenditures in accordance with planned expenditures. The "Bible"
of American PR specialists offers similar organizational images
(Cutlip S. M. a.o. Effective public relations. - Englewood Cliffs, 1994. - P. 68):

Chairman
(board of directors)

President

Vice President
Vice President Vice President Vice President Vice President
(marketing)
(Finance and (Operations) (Legal) (PR) Development)
J. White and L. Mazur see a typical PR department structure as follows::
1) the head is the head of PR, or the director of corporate communications,
who reports directly to the chairman; 2) his department can
deal with a wide range of issues, or a very small department that covers
only the main thing that takes place when the central management
is located in one country, and the departments in another; 3)
product publicity is placed in the hands of specific operating companies;
4) there may also be a head of public relations/relations ((White J., Mazur L.
Strategic communications management. Making public relations work. -
Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 47).
According to American estimates, they have more than two thousand PR
firms and agencies (by the way , the number "more than 20" was mentioned
in our press for Moscow). The range of their specializations is very wide. In
Washington, this includes lobbying, legal issues, and relations with the
government. (For example, there was the Citizens for a Free Kuwait program,
which "pushed" the United States to go to war with Iraq.).. $ 6 million). Other
specializations include the following: agriculture, finance, medicine, high
technologies, sports, tourism. Hence, the level of employment in this field in
the United States (PR specialists): 1950-19,000 1960 - 31,000
1970 - 76,000
1980 - 126,000
1990 - 162,000 2000 - 197,000
(Cutlip S. M. a. o. Effective Public Relations. - Englewood Cliffs, 1994. - Р. 27).
And they are engaged in the following areas:
Corporations
PR firms, advertising agencies 20% 52%

associations, foundations, education 10%

medicine 8%
civil service 5%
charities, religious organizations 5%
(p. 28). Here's what the typical
functions of communications departments in some large corporations look
like (data on White J., Mazur L. Strategic communications management. Making
public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 38-39):
Fiat - 200 people, The Head of External Communications reports to the
Chairman: - Relations with institutions, including governments, the
European Union; - press service, domestic and international;
- corporate advertising and image;
- internal publications;
- Rome office - representation in the capital;
- public relations - mainly protocol duties;
- cultural activities.
Guinness - 13 people, The Director of Public Relations reports to the Chairman
of the Board of [Link] your phone number: - public relations,
including events, sponsorship, publications, photos, publishing support,
and budgets. - Public relations, including government, relations with
Whitehall and Westminster;
- Relations with the European Union (Brussels office);
- relations withthe press.
Henkel - 42 people, the Director of Corporate Communications
reports to the Chief Executive Officer:
- visiting department, - economic department,
- press relations, - corporate image advertising,
- publications/videos. A separate department
is dedicated to investor relations and reports to
the Director of Finance, working closely with corporate
communications. A communications manager
is defined by them as follows:" this is a person
who creates,or directs the creation of, communication
materials ( speeches, reports, articles, and videos
for posting in the mass media) that help make the
company's point of view known" (In the same place. - P. 52).

At the same time, high-class specialists easily find high-paying jobs,

even leaving their previous place of work. So, Dee Dee Myers, the first female
press secretary of the President of the United States, who quit because of a
negative assessment of her work by Clinton, was inundated with offers. Vanity Fair
magazine asked her to become its representative in Washington with a salary of
several hundred thousand dollars a year. CNBC promised her two hundred
thousand dollars and a place as a co-host in the popular program "Early Time". A
Hollywood studio offered a sum approaching one million for the post of press
relations representative (Moskovskie Novosti-Appendix, 1995, No. 1). The retired
press secretary of the President of Ukraine , Mykhailo Doroshenko, easily
returned to his position as editor-in-chief of Ukrainy Molodoy. The press secretary
of the President of Russia after his dismissal sat for some time in the chair of the
ambassador to the Vatican. These people are becoming quite famous in the
world, which brings conflicting ratings. As Sir Tim Bell (image maker M) put
it:Thatcher, who also participated in the Russian presidential election in 1996):
"This is terrible. Both Bernard Ingham (press Secretary to Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher) and I are public figures because we worked for Mrs Thatcher. The
bad thing about this is that, first of all, we can start to take ourselves seriously, which
would be scary. Secondly, this is bad for us, because there are crowds of
journalists who can ridicule any PR person they want, because they depend on
them. People always bite the hand that feeds them. I've spent twenty-five years
getting hit for my advertising work, and advertising is what all television pays for.
Now I've spent five years getting hit for public relations when we filled out their
columns and they hated us." White J., Mazur L. Strategic communications
management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 133).
The level of remuneration in the field of PR (according to three different sources)
is determined by the "Bible" of American PR specialists as follows:
Salary (in US dollars)

type
organizations first second
third source source
source industry 62 303 54 500 57
900,000 PR-firms 53 728 39 600 55

finance 49 602 36 500 42 000

 44 019 35 500 45 000 the medicine 41
civil
34 500 41 000 education 41 008 34

service 550
42 ,000
600 religious/
charitable
organizations organizations 35 545 33 800 32 000
in
average 46 204 40 300 45 500

( In the same place. - P. 32).

At the same time, the op worksThe number of successful

practitioners is estimated at one hundred and two hundred
thousand dollars a year. And since the feminist factor is
important for America, the difference in the pay of men and
women is given, which reaches 12-14 thousand dollars.
One of the largest Russian agencies has the following structure,
consisting of five departments: 1. Financial Institutions
Department, 2. International Programs Department, 3. Crisis
Response Department, 4. Customer Relations Department,
5. Information and Analytical Department. Thus,
we saw the entire scope of PR both from the side of its
organization and from the side of payment.

§ 6. PR: audience

The concept of audience is one of the central ones for PR. Frank Jefkins
emphasizes that PR activities are not aimed at the general public, they are aimed at
"carefully selected groups of people who are components of a large general
public" (Jefкins F. Public relations. - L., 1992. - p. 61). It is important not only to clearly
define your audience, but also to accurately define the ideals and interests of this
public and, accordingly,its communication channels. Thus, the definition of
the public really includes three separate tasks: what part of the general public it is,
what are its ideals and its communication channels. This is also important for advertising.
So, it is estimated that by 2000 there will be 12.5 million people in the UK
in the age group of 50-69 years and only 10.75 million in the group of 15-29 years.
Based on this , the tasks of advertising, propaganda, etc. will be formulated.
It should be emphasized that the PR is oriented both to external information the audience,
and on internal an audience that refers to your own employees. The
latter type of audience is particularly important and most often falls out of the
interests of domestic PRS. We are used to the fact that our people have to work as it
is. OneHowever, any employer should be interested in the effective work of its
employees. Well-known experiments back in the thirties showed that even
a simple display of attention is already enough to improve labor performance.
Now we are gradually regaining our interest in our own employee.
Head of the Department for Work with state Bodies, Public and
Mass Media of the LUKoil oil company A. Vasilenko says: "Our department
also pays great attention to internal PR and its combination with external PR. We try
to do as much as possible for our shareholder and employee, and one of the main
tasks of our service is to create an aura in which a person will
feel normal and work effectively. It was our department that initiated
the creation of the company's trade union" ("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 11. - p. 9).
You can also give such an example of working with an internal audience (from
PR: international practice, Moscow, 1997, pp. 67-73). We are talking about a
French campaign operating in the United States, and therefore certain
inconsistencies were identified in the company's corporate culture. American
employees felt that the management was neglecting their needs. As a result of
the campaign , a number of internal publications of the company were created
or renewed, and the "Lunch with the Director" program was introduced, when
one of the Board members invited employees to lunch, followed by an
informal conversation. The program "France and the French" was launched,
which tells about French culture. All this was aimed at showing that the opposition
"we - they" ("Americans - French") is not welcome in the company.
What theories of the public (audience) exist today? James Groenig
proposed the division into non-public, latentthe public, the conscious public,
and the active public (by default). Cutlip S. M. a. o. Effective Public Relations. -
Englewood Cliffs, 1994. - Р. 360). Non-publication is minimally included in the
situation. Latent - does not notice its connection with other people and
organizations in the situation. The conscious public understands that it
depends on the influence of others in this situation, but does not express it. An
active audience is included in communication and organizational structures to
correct the situation. The "Bible" of American PR specialists offers the
following set of approaches to determining the public: 1.
Geographical address - indicates the place of residence, but does not make
distinctions within this framework. In this plan, information about postal and
telephone codes, city and district boundaries, and so on helps
.2 Demographic profile - determination by gender, age, education, family status,
income. Again, this is only the first cross-section, which often doesn't explain
why people behave in one way or another.
3. Psychographic - psychological types, life types, and ratings that ,
when combined with other characteristics, better help you understand your
audience. 4. Hidden power - identify the behind-the-scenes actors who really
manage the situation.
5. Positions - job roles, not people, often determine behavior.
6. Reputation - this is the definition of opinion leaders in groups that
strongly influence the development of a common solution.
7. Membership - determining whether people belong to certain social groups (for
example, belonging to a political party). Accordingly, members of certain social
formations read the press associated with their organizations (for example,
a member of the Rukh clearly does not read the newspaper "Kommunist").
8. Role in decision - making, this is the definition of the most active participants,
on which it depends which decision is [Link] application will be accepted.
A clear definition of your audience is the key to a successful communication
campaign. It protects you from wasting money. Frank Jefkins predicts
the following negative results if you don't define your audience:
1) the effort and money will be spent in vain to achieve too many
objects;
2) the same message will be offered regardless of its perception by different
groups of people;
3) the goals will become poorly achievable;
4) the client will be disappointed with the lack of results (Jefкins F., op. cit. - P. 64).
If we are talking about a more general public in the case of government PR
programs, then at other levels each organization has its own public.
Depending on the type of audience, the information it needs to
make a decision changes.
What other types of approaches are there to identify your audience?
A new typology of the audience (as opposed to differentiation by age, profession
, or income level) was proposed in the fifties by the American researcher
David Risman. He identified three main types that were then used in
political marketing: traditionally-oriented, internally-
oriented and externally-oriented types. The first type is
influenced by the norms of its own culture. The second type (let's use a metaphor)
has a built-in gyroscope in childhood by "parents" and verifies their actions
using it. The third one has (again, let's turn to the metaphor) a kind of radar. It
is aimed at a wider range of peers. In this regard, the first and third
types are similar, since both of them do not provide for the possibility of performing
independent behavior. "An outwardly oriented person is a cosmopolitan. For him
, the border between near and far is a border that is clearly defined in societies,
depending on traditional orientations, - erased. As the family
absorbs the alien and changes accordingly, the alien becomes
close. While an internally oriented person can be "at
home abroad" due to their relative insensitivity to others, an externally
oriented person acts in this sense everywhere and nowhere, capable of
rapid intimacy with everyone, responding to everyone" (Riesman D. a. o. The Lonely Crowd. -
N.Y., 1955).
How are such mechanisms formed to respond to the other, to
embed the other in its own context? David Risman states the following:
"The traditional-oriented person receives his signals from others, but
they are perceived as cultural monotony; he does not need complex
tools to pick them up. An externally oriented person should be
able to perceive signals both from afar and near; there are many sources,
and changes are fast. What it needs, therefore, is not rules of conduct, but
sophisticated tools that allow it to pay attention to such messages and
sometimes take part in their dissemination." (In the same place). The main achievement
of David Risman was that he saw this change in the system of Western civilization,
when the focus shifted not to the leaders of production, as it was before, but to
the leaders of consumption, leisure professionals, and not labor. In some ways,
this turned out to be due to the fact that uncertainty in the world has sharply increased,
and it has become more difficult for people to focus on long-term goals. They
have to be not internally-oriented, but externally-oriented. What is important for
us is that these models of the world of consumption have been transferred to
politics: "By imitating consumer stereotypes, politics has become a place of, where the manner a
of doing things is just as important as what exactly is being done" (In the same place). Thi
the greater influence on the externally oriented person of the way of doing, and not
the result. It is as if it is outside the result, and inside the process itself. Three
conclusions follow from this. The first is that politics and political information have
become consumer goods. The second is that in mass communication , the main
thing is not the content, but the sincerity of the presentation. Therefore, the level
of competence is not as important as modeling "work from the heart": "It's not fair
to be too critical of the person who opened up to you and extended a hand
The third conclusion is that mass communication, although it raises the prestige
of politics, generally supports tolerance and passivity of external orientation
more than activity and protest of internal orientation. This radical change in the
system of civilization is taking place in many areas of our life. David Risman
traces it in an interesting way on the material of comparing comics and fairy
tales. In a fairy tale, the hero is often a loser. This is the ugly duckling, this is the
youngest son, this is the little man. The villain is a king, a giant, a stepmother, a
figure who clearly has authority and power. And the comic book hero always has
some kind of invulnerability toolkit, like, for example, Batman. Robin Hood is the
exception for fairy tales, while Batman is the rule for comics. "...Changing the model is
not a 'mistake' of the comic. This corresponds to a change in the perception style
that is appropriate for peer scanning. In fact, if an externally
oriented child reads or listens to stories that are not comics, they
will understand them as comics. He will try to emphasize who won,
and skip insidethe extreme difficulties of the story or the moral of it" (In the same placeThe winner
and enemy in a comic are always clearly distinguishable. Let's recall the Soviet
films of the thirties, in which the enemy of the people must have a corresponding
negative appearance. This is probably the general tendency of the worst
examples of social realism to be newspaper-like, shallow characters without
any claim to artistic depth. David Risman wrote: "An outwardly oriented child
is trained to be sensitive to interpersonal relationships, and he often
understands them with a depth that few adults in the era of inner
orientation possessed. At the same time, he can be surprisingly insensitive to
the characters represented by his favorite storytellers; he tends
to run through the story to the end, or sometimes reads the end first, skipping just
those personal development issues that are not the keys to the ending." (In the
same place). There was a significant change of interests. The
emphasis on interpersonal relationships indicates internal orientation, while the
dynamics of the situation indicates external orientation. Exaggeratedly speaking,
we can say that if the hero of the fairy tale was "Ivanushka the fool", then
the hero of the comic book was "Ivanushka with a motor". On the table, the ratio
of these two types of heroics can be imagined as follows::

hero The anti-hero

Silenus
hero is weak (Ivanushka the fool) fairy tale (the Evil Queen)
comics hero is strong (Ivanushka with a motor) strong

Perhaps this should be explained by a different threshold of perception: if earlier it

was one, then today's person requires a stronger stimulus (where does the "motor"
come from) in order to pass into his consciousness. Increasing the threshold
affects the change of heroics. We mentioned above that the focus of public
attention is shifting from production leaders to consumption leaders, with a corresponding
shift in those characteristics that are now recognized as more important (sincerity,
likability, ability to please, ability to talk, etc.). However, in reality, consumption
leaders are not real leaders, they are only intended to adorn the movement,
and not to speak out as managers. "Today, individuals from the world of leisure, no matter
how much they are loved, do not have the strength and opportunity to lead. When
today's movie star tries to express a political message in or out
of a film, she is addicted to outside pressure. Catholics, Methodists, organized
undertakers, the state Department, Southerners, Jews, doctors-all put pressure on
the process of creating a message that has been prepared for mass consumption"
(ibid.). This leads to a conclusion about the essential role that veto groups
play in political life. Those who can appease groups that have the moral
power of veto and become leaders in the United States. In our case, let us recall,for
example, the rather active role of farmers in the Supreme Council
of Ukraine. Or work with regional elites, which is now becoming the main
occupation for the President of Ukraine. "Basically, veto groups exist as defense groups,
not as leadership groups. If it is true that they have power, then they have
it because of the need for mutual tolerance. More and more they repeat each
other in the style of political action, including their interest in public relations and their
emphasis on the inner harmony of feelings." (In the same placeAn externally-oriented perso
acts as a member of a veto group in politics, voting, exerting pressure on
the call of such a grouppy. If for an internally oriented person his opinion
was a weighty, determining factor, then for an externally oriented person
his own opinion does not play any role. In principle, the shift of
attention to the leaders of consumption is very successful for the average
person. This is an area in which he can quite imagine himself as the
main character, at the same time "he can't imagine himself as the president
of the United States or the head of a big company.". Let's add one more touch
to this picture, which is strongly characteristic of our entire post-totalitarian
space. We are talking about complete inattention to words. Any
incriminating articles in newspapers have no force today, which was never
the case under the previous system. This is probably also an element of
the leisure sphere, when the words of the play are separated from life.
Sergey Kapitsa in the program" Obvious- improbable " said the following:
"Then words were an act. Today, words are no longer an act..." (ORT, 1995, 16
Apr.). Going back
to the beginning of our paragraph, PR solves the following problems in
relation to human behavior:
1. Makes people do something.
2. Makes them not do something. 3. Gets
people to agree with the organization's actions in order to avoid criticism in
the middle of this movement (Center A. H. a. o. Public Relations practices. -
Englewood Cliffs, 1990. - p. 3).
On the other hand, you can imagine future actions in relation to the public
as follows:
1. Motivating new behavior.
2. Support existing positive behaviors.
3. Modification of negative behavior. For example,
if we take transport in Kiev, then the possible tasks for these three
approaches can be as follows:
1. For example, encourage people to use magnetic cards in the subway. 2.
For example, the suggestionlive benefits for those who buy travel tickets.
3. Start fighting stowaways (for example, on some bus routes
, informal requests from transport workers regarding fare payment were
distributed ).
At the same time, the audience must have its own structure. So, in the event of an
incident at a nuclear power plant (In the same place. - P. 11), we have different audience
involvement. People who work and live in this area will be the first to react.
Then-managers of various ranks associated with nuclear power plants. Then the
inspection organizations responsible for its safety. There are two other types
of audience that are close to each other, but different from the rest. These are
representatives of the same organization and the same area of residence. They share the
interests of their organization and their neighborhood, so they require their own type
of communication. The axiom of behavior in the Western world,which we should adopt,
is as follows:: "People want to know, understand and, if possible, be proud
of what is happening in their area" (Green P. S. Winning PR tactics. - L., 1994. - Р. 123). We
should definitely give people the opportunity to be optimistic, because
they will find reasons for pessimism on their own and in a fair amount.
The study showed which audience
top officials consider to be central in the case of the United States and Europe
(quoted from White J., Mazur L. Strategic
communications management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 7):

USA (80 Europe (113

Rank respondents) respondents)

1
Shareholders - 53% Shareholders - 48%
2
Securities analysts - 51% Employees-35%

3
Employees - 49% Securities analysts - 29%

Government officials -
4
Mass Media Business-21%
23%

Government
5 Mass Media Business - 18% officials - 19% Sellers
6 Sellers / Suppliers-11% / suppliers-11%
7
General Media - 6% General Media - 7%
8
General public - 6% General public - 6%
9
Activist groups-3% Activist groups-0%

The audience is the central element of any PR program. You can only talk
effectively to someone if you know as much about them as possible.
For this reason, in order to reach its customers most effectively, the PR operates
not with the audience at all, but only with audience segments. This is clearly
shown by the political processes. For example, V. Zhirinovsky "justifies" his visit to
a gay club in St. Petersburg in the following way: "I did it involuntarily, because these
are all voters. According to world statistics, ten percent of men and women are
supporters of same-sex love. And this is a big number. I can't throw them out of the
way. Do you know how many alcoholics there are? Twenty percent! What, I don't
have to talk to them either? All people are somehow flawed, and these ten percent
who are lesbians and homosexuals are a significant mass of the electorate.
Then, they have a big plus - they are fanatics. If they know that I, the party
leader, am tolerant of them, they will not only vote themselves, but will bring at
least two of them with them. And that's millions of votes, millions!" ("Facts and
Comments", 1998, May 6). As you can see, there are two audience parameters
involved:on the one hand, its percentage composition in relation to the population,
on the other hand, the degree of politicaloops of activity for this segment. At the
same time,counting the audience's knowledge and attitude to the program allows
you to adjust the PR campaign in time, making it even more effective.
 § 7. Communication models relevant to PR

PR can also be interpreted as a theory of communicative impact, so

it is the communicative mechanisms that are very important for it. We
will look at some of the most well-known models that can be used in
the PR framework. The
most well-known communication model today was proposed by Roman Yakobson
(Jacobson R. Linguistics and poetics / / Structuralism: "for" and "against". - Moscow, 1975).
He identified the six most significant components of the communication process:

Context

Message

Addressee------------------------------------------- Addressee

Contact Information

Code

Each of these elements influences the choice of a particular variant of communication

development. In accordance with these six components, R. Jacobson identified
six communicative functions, which can be represented in the following form: :

Reference page

Poeticheskaya Street

Emotional----------------------------------Conative form

Phatic

Metalinguistic system

As you can see, there is a purely contact communication (also called phatic),
when it is important not to transmit information, but to maintain contact. This
includes, for example, conversations about the weather, conversations at a
birthday party - all of them are highly ritualistic, predictable in nature. For such a
ritual as, for example, the Congress of the CPSU , it was also important not the
novelty of information, but its repeatability, strong predictability. Perhaps rituals are
significant precisely because of this massive introduction of a unified interpretation
of the surrounding reality. Recognizing it, obeying it, a person becomes a member
of this collective. When, for example, dissidents come outWhen they went to Red
Square to protest against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, they
violated the unity of interpretation of this event. When everyone made reports
about the "genius" of L. Brezhnev's works "Virgin Land" and others, they demonstrated
their entry into this team. PR separately examines the role of the addressee,
factors that increase its credibility for the addressee. All PR specialists are fighting
for trust in the leader. Studies have identified at least three groups of factors
influencing this: safety, skill, and dynamism. High security ratings are given to
leaders rated as kind, friendly, honest, forgiving, calm, and patient.
High marks on qualifications are given to those who have the following
characteristics: trained, experienced, informed, authoritative.
The dynamism factor includes aggressiveness,
speed, energy, and sincerity.

Larry Barker (Barker L. Englewood Cliffs, 1984) adds

another factor to the communication model - barriers. The source of information may not be clear.
You may encounter inaccurate message decoding. You may need
to match the destination and destination codes.
On the other hand, Yuri Lotman I considered the presence of mismatched
codes as a necessary condition for the appearance of a new one (Lotman Yu. M. Culture as
collective intelligence and problems of artificial intelligence, Moscow, 1977). It makes no sense
for people to talk if they completely repeat each other: "The inadequacy
of communication agents turns this very fact from passive transmission into a conflict game,
during which each side seeks to reconstruct the semiotic world
of the opposite side in its own image and at the same time is interested in preserving
the identity of its counterparty" (In the same place. - With. 13). Yuri Lotman also criticized Roman
Yakobson for replacing the concept of "language "with the concept of"code". The code has no
history, so it allows you to represent the addressee and addressee such that they have identical
codes, and therefore do not have individual memory. Yuri Lotman himself believed that
a language is "code plus its history" (Lotman Yu. M. Culture and Explosion, Moscow, 1992, p. 13).
And the dialog is interesting because it allows you to say something that is not in the matching
codes.
Israeli Semiotic Itamar Even-Zohar Within the framework of his literary theory
, he transformed R. Jacobson's scheme into the following variant (Even-Zohar I. Polysystem Studies
/ / Poetics Today. - 1990. - Vol. 11. - N 1):

institute [context]

repertoire [code]

manufacturer [addressee]---------------------------- [addressee] consumer

market [contact/channel]

product [message]

The fundamental difference is that if R. Jacobson's scheme is based on

the production of a single statement, then the scheme of And. Even-Zohara describes
the production of a whole set of texts. Accordingly, the consumer becomes not just
a consumer of texts, i.e., the final product, but a consumer of the entire socio-
cultural function of this activity. "Institutes" include publishing houses.
critics, educational structures, writers ' associations, all types of mass media, etc
. By "market" is meant the sum of all factors related to the sale and
purchase of a literary product, the processes of "promotion". The" code " of Jacobson
is replaced by the term "repertoire", which includes the rules for the production and
use of a literary product. The code applies only to rules, so the repertoire
also includes "material": not only the "grammar", but also the "lexicon" of this type of
language. Understanding of the "product" also becomes significant for PR-issues, which
includes not only the text, but also variants of the sign [Link] in general.
Marshal McLuhan it introduces an overestimation of the role of the transmission
medium by its ideas about communication. His well-known maxim states "a channel is a message",
that is, certain properties of a communication channel determine what will be
said on it. For PR, this is very significant, since, as shown, for example, by D. Risman,
it was the television channel (more precisely, its predominant character for
the current state of civilization) that predetermined the change in the "hero"
type: the leader of production gave way to the leader of consumption,
which accordingly affected the behavior model of the politician, who was
pushed into the actor's behavior. If for the press the main thing was the
idea, then for television the main thing is the form, the manner of presentation.
M. McLuhan sees the following set of differences between print
and electronic communication (according to Berger A. A. Essentials of
mass communication theory. - Thousand Oaks etc., 1995. - P. 57):

print communication electronic communication

visual information auditory
linear nonlinear
logical emotional
sequential simultaneous
rational mystical
the book radio
individual public
alienation inclusion
department connectivity
classification of facts model recognition

M. McLuhan is also known for distinguishing between "cold" and " hot "
types of communication. Cold tools require a lot of involvement from the
audience to supplement the information provided. Hot funds-require little
participation, they seem to fill the existing channel as much as possible. Examples
of both types of communication include the following (Ibid. - 59):

hot means of communication cold means of communication

large filling capacity small filling in little
lots of information information
maloe enabledie large inclusion
exclude them include
radio telephone
cinema tv
photography cartoon
print
speech
phonetic alphabet
lecture hieroglyph workshop
developed countries lagging countries
city scoundrel rural resident
waltz the twist
nylon stockings stockings "twisted mesh"
Roosevelt Coolidge
symphony broadcast symphony rehearsal
The division into cold / hot means by M. McLuhan is based
on the degree of involvement of the viewer, associated with
the degree of clarity: with minimal clarity , we have to "work" to
restore the image to the maximum possible completeness.

Channel Source of information Clarity and Channel type

Television Illuminated points Low High Cold
Letters High Low Hot
Books Cartoons
Dots on paper Low High Cold
Photos Image on film High Low Hot
Telephone Sound wave Low High Cold
Motion Picture Moving Image on film High Low Hot
Telegraph Sound dots and dashes Low High Cold

(table from Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. Belmont etc.,
1995, p. 353). Many advertising messages
are designed so that the viewer complements them to the full picture. Cold
communication requires the maximum participation of the viewer, and the
volume of these channels in the history of mankind is constantly increasing.
Television, for example, has pushed aside books as the main source of
information. The same message sent through different channels can become
"hot" or "cold" as a [Link] the way, M. McLuhan
gives his own explanation of the danger of using television in politics. He
writes: "Television is more suitable for transmitting what is happening directly
than for pre-arranged events.", messages that are unambiguous in meaning
. This explains the major inconveniences associated with its use in
politics" (McLuhan, M. Television. The timid Giant // Television yesterday, today,
tomorrow. - Issue 7. - Moscow, 1987. - p. 168). The" unfinished " nature of
television explains the popularity of process-based programs such as "Guess
the Melody" or "Field of Miracles". Or, in the words of M. McLuhan: "A cool
medium of communication, be it oral speech, a manuscript, or television,
involves much more active participation than hot media that provide clearly
detailed information. That's probably why lovers don't speak clearly. Since the
weak definiteness of the TV image ensures active participation of the
audience, the most effective programs are those that show situations that
need to be completed" (p. 175). Television is "to blame" for many changes in
modern society, including our perestroika. It was the invasion of visual
messages that was able to defeat the Soviet ideology, which probably was. it was
stronger in the printed word variant. And although perestroika was not yet in the
time of M. McLuhan you can see the mechanism of its impact in the following
words: "The political point of view has been replaced by enticing political
gestures. Instead of the final result, the audience turned their attention to the
processes that characterize political action. During periods of rapid growth of the new,
the clarity of what is happening is blurred. And blurred contours are just typical of
the television image, which in itself maximally stimulates growth and
the search for new completeness. This can be shown by the example of the
consumer culture, which has long been influenced by the values typical of the
undivided domination of visual media.восприятия perceptions" (p. 176).
For PR, it is important to distinguish between this active / passive audience
participation in communication. All modern types of holding party congresses and
conferences. they are based on the maximum connection of viewers to the action.
At the same time, a variety of technical techniques are designed to overcome this
detachment of the thousandth audience from communication, to involve it in
action. Harold Lasswell he proposed in 1948 his own model of communication, which
is still used today, especially when describing various kinds
of propaganda effects. It appears as answers to the following series of questions:
- Who?
- What says?
- By which channel?
- To whom?
- With which one by an effect?
This model, like many others, does not take into account the role of feedback,
a central concept for PR. It is monologuously constructed (as, by the way, most
ideas about propaganda work are). John Fiske rightly calls this model
a verbalization of the Shannon-Weaver scheme (Fiske J. Introduction to communication
studies. - London etc., 1990. - P. 30). But, on the other hand, the emphasis
on the effect is significant for PR, since the usual humanitarian view of communication
goes into philosophical distances, forgetting about the utilitarian component.
Basil Bernstein suggested distinguishing between complicated and simplified codes
(Bernstein B. Elaborated and restricted codes: their social origins and some consequences //
Communication and culture. Readings in the codes of human interaction. Ed. by A.G.
Smith. - New York etc., 1966). A sophisticated code makes it easier to express a pers
unique human experience and personal intentions. Unlike the
simplified code, it is characterized by a higher level of preparation and
planning of a verbal event. B. Bernstein finds simplified code as a code of high
predictability in the army, in prison, between groups of peers,
between married couples. A complicated code becomes a code of weak structural
predictability. Unlike the simplified code, where nonverbal
channels play a role that help understanding, in this case only
the verbal channel is given priority.
Earlier in the USSR, Bernstein was criticized for linking these verbal
characteristics to social classes. So, he believed that middle-class children
have two codes, while working-class children tend to have a simplified code.
This distinction between the two codes is important for PR, since working with a mass
audience just requires expressing certain messages not only
verbally, but also using other codes.
Communication built within the extended code framework is poorly
predictable, while limited code,due to the lack of a large number of alternatives,
provides easy prediction. Its vocabulary and syntactic capabilities
are limited. Accordingly, the content of such speech is concrete, descriptive, and not
abstract or analytical. Basil Bernstein concludes his discussion by
drawing parallels between social class and two coding systems:
"Normative systems associated with the middle class and related strata are more
likely to develop an extended code mode, while those associated with
working-class sections are more likely to lead individuals to use a limited
code" (p. 440).
Continuing this distinction, John Fiske proposed two codes that correspond
to the type of audience: wide and narrow (Fiske J. Introduction to communication studies. -
L. etc., 1990). Broad - they are related to a mass audience (for example, a pop sing
performance), they are simple, require an immediate response, and do not require a
high level of education to understand them. Narrow ones are designed for a special
audience (for example, opera lovers). They are aimed at an audience that has studied
these codes. They are focused on the individual, not society. This type of communication
involves changing and enriching the audience. In the case of broad codes,
the audience's knowledge is simply confirmed. Narrow codes emphasize the difference
between "us" (users of these codes) and "them" (those who do not know these
characters). Broad codes, on the contrary, emphasize the closeness between all "us".
John Fiske he proposed his own model of communication for the case of mass culture
(Fiske J. Understanding popular culture. - London etc., 1989). In the communicative aspect,
he interprets the most diverse manifestations of mass culture, ranging from jeans
to Madonna. What is interesting for PR is his interpretation of Madonna as
an incomplete communication process: nothing can express Madonna
definitively, as is the case in classical culture, not an album, not a cover, not
a music video. The Madonna as a text is incomplete until it is placed in the context
of social circulation. He sees the Madonna not as a text or a person, but as
values in the process. In popular
culture, the author also fades into the background, which is not the case in classical
culture, and the performer comes to the fore. This is probably explained precisely
by the process character of mass culture. The author as an element of a complete
culture is not interesting for mass culture. The process character captures large masses
of people in the form of fans. This is an element of the proletarian culture of
"rapprochement", since bourgeois culture, on the contrary, is built on distance from the
cultural object. J. Fiske also finds an explanation for the fact that the army of fans is
made up of women and girls, considering them a subordinate group of modern society,
which has limited access to other cultural resources.
The PR in its desire to perform a "communication audit" of any process should
be maximally interested in the various communication options
that exist in modern society. Including mythological models, since
the construction of modern myths becomes an integral part of PR work in any long-term
task. It can be the myth of the president, the myth of the boss-boss, the myth of the
party, the myth of the organization. The president is modeled as all - knowing and
all-seeing, able to punish any negligent boss; the boss is like a native father, without
whom any structure disappears; the party becomes the only savior
of humanity; the organization is the most modern, most innovative of all
available at the moment.
We will focus on some of the approaches to mythological communication
presented in the most well-known concepts today.
Claude Levy-Strauss he interpreted the myth as removing contradictory models
of reality. Probably, in this context, we can understand today's slogan
"reforms are good" and the general deterioration of life. The way out of these two
contradictory ideas is the slogan " reforms will bring prosperity in the future, we
just need to be patient." The structure
of myth appears in Claude Levi-Strauss as a structure similar to that of language. "Myth
is a language, but this language works at the highest level, at which meaning succeeds,
so to speak, split off from the language base on which it was formed"
(Levi-Strauss K. Structural Anthropology, Moscow, 1985, p. 187). Similarly to morphemes,
phonemes, and subsets, Levi-Strauss distinguishes mythemes. This is how he
analyzes the Oedipus myth. Analyzing the myths of the American Indians, K.
Levi-Strauss comes to the conclusion about snI see the opposites in them with the
help of a mediator, in this case, a coyote or raven acts as a trickster (cheat, deceiver).
In the system of these myths, the two extreme terms of opposites are replaced
by two others, which allow for the presence of a third, transitional between them.
After that, one of the extreme terms and the mediator are replaced by a new triad.
In general, the structure of these "substitutions" appears as follows (p. 201):

INITIAL PAIR OF MEMBERS FIRST TRIAD THE SECOND TRIAD

Life
Agriculture
Herbivores
Carrion Eaters (raven, coyote)
Hunting
Carnivores
War
Death

K. Levi-Strauss explains the doubling, tripling or quadrupling of a

myth by saying that it reveals the structure of a myth: "every myth
has a layered structure, which on the surface, so to speak, is
revealed in the very technique of repetition and thanks to it" (p.206).

Mircea Eliade considers a primitive myth as a story about the creation of certain
objects and behaviors. At the same time, the myth has a special communicative status,
as if it is not a story about, but a passage through a secondary recreation of the situation:
the "myth "is lived" by an audience that is captured by the sacred and inspiring
power of events recreated in memory and reactualized" (Eliade M. Structure of the Myth
, Moscow, 1995, p. 29). An echo of this mythological perception of reality
can be considered, for example, the May Day or November demonstration in the former
USSR, which, as a rule. in certain periods, they included recreating
distant events that were significant for a given society. Perhaps
historical films, such as Lenin in October, can also be interpreted in a similar
mythological way . It was they, and not the works of historians, who set
the situation of the past for the mass consciousness.
M. Eliade also considers examples of modern myths, knowledge of which
is undoubtedly important for a PR specialist. Comic book characters appear to him as a
modern version of miological heroes. The myth of Superman is the dream of a modern
person who feels powerless and destitute and wants to become a superman.
Avant-garde versions of the arts live off the fact that the viewer has a reference to the
primitive rite of "initiation", initiation into something that is incomprehensible to everyone
else. M. Eliade writes: nonfiction prose and, in particular, the novel in modern
societies have taken the place of mythological stories and fairy tales in primitive
societies. Moreover, it is legitimate to talk about the "mythical" structure of some modern
novels, and it can be argued that many significant mythological themes and
characters will receive a new life in a literary guise (this is especially true of
the theme of initiation, the theme
of the redeemer hero's trials, his battles with monsters, the mythological theme of
women and riches)" (P. 189).
Roland Barthes I also analyzed a cross-section of modern mythology (Bart R.
Mythology, Moscow, 1996). He believed that the language of action, the language of the
producer, is non-mythical. R. Barth examines the myth, highlighting the following tools
that form the myth of the modern bourgeoisie: vaccination, removal from history,
identity, tautology, ninism, quantification of quality, statement. In the case
vaccinations (immunization) the introduced minizlo is designed to hide the main evil
associated with a particular object. History it disappears from the myth, because there is a
subordination to existing tasks today, for example, primitive peoples learned their dances
specifically for exotic lovers. Identity interprets the processing of new content
that comes into view: it is either ignored,
R. Barth examines how the assimilation of such
objects as "Negro" or "Russian" occurs. "In this case, there is a spare figure - exoticism.
The other is turned into a pure object, a spectacle, a puppet; thrown to the periphery
of humanity, it no longer encroaches on the tranquility of our home" (p.279).
Tautology how the definition of an object through itself is used when we
lack explanations - "saving loss of the gift of speech". A made-up word "ninism"
R. Barth describes a situation where two opposites are weighed, but then both
of them are still discarded. Quantification of quality - this is an attempt to translate any
quality to quantity. For example, R. Barth argues as follows: "
[B]the bourgeois drama is based on a pure quantification of effects - there are a number
of arithmetically calculable conventions, thanks to which the cost of a ticket is
quantitatively equated to the tears of the actor or the luxury of the scenery; in particular,
the so-called "naturalness" of the actor is primarily a certain number of visual
effects " (p. 281). Statement - this is the attraction of a myth to a proverb.
For By Carl Jung mythology is a manifestation of the collective unconscious. For
a PR specialist, especially in the field of political PR, his ideas about heroism are
important. He writes: "The hero always represents the highest and most powerful aspiration,
or at least what this aspiration should be, and therefore what one would like to
achieve in the first place. Therefore, it is always important which of the fantasies is filled
with the hero's motive. In the American fantasy of the hero, the main role is played by
the Indian character. The attitude of Americans to sports is completely incomparable with
the European comfort. Only Native American initiations can compete with each [Link]
can fight with the ruthlessness and brutality of a harsh American training program. (...)
[A]Merican presents us with a bizarre picture: a European with the manners of a Negro
and the soul of an Indian" (Jung K. G. Problems of the soul of our time, Moscow, 1994, pp.
155-156). C. Jung emphasized that people love in God their ideas, which they project
into him. Attention to the unconscious is important because the consciousness sends
there what it rejects, it tries to forget what is unpleasant to it.
The presented models (simple communication, mass culture, mythological
communication) are important for the PR specialist as a data bank in his search for the
right PR campaign strategy and tactics. This is a reference to global strategies
that can be used to achieve the desired results more effectively. These global
communication strategies have been tested over the centuries, and not just by a single
practice, which is why they are of particular interest. For more information on some
approaches to the myth, see Chapter 6.

§ 8. PR: goals and means

Public relations is part of completely new disciplines for us, which still have
more of a future than a present. But this future is created by ourselves.
Therefore, the possible skill, professional skills of PR specialists will help
create a market for PR services faster and more efficiently. Today we often
play a game without rules, tomorrow's market will force everyone to be professional
players, and not today's amateurs.
PR in the West is a fairly actively developing region, which is in a state of
constant growth. While we have "eaten" advertising quite rapidly, it will be followed by PR
and other sciences of the communication cycle. The future of PR is gradually moving
into the hands of professionals. And professionals, if you start from the phrase
of Alexander Dovzhenko, you must be able to see the stars.
PR has developed sufficient tools in its history, which in some
situations allows you to perform error-free actions. The target orientation of PR is a
change in public opinion. which may introduce certain behavioral changes. Therefore,
special" honor " in PR is enjoyed by objects of increased attention for the mass
consciousness. These are, for example, "stars" who are actively involved in creating
positive contexts. Failure to take this phenomenon into account, inability to work
with it, leads to failures. So, for example, in the election campaign A. A. Delon, who
is quite well-known, was involved in the construction of the Swan Lake in Krasnoyarsk
. An example of the same inability was the reaction of Lebed's opponent, Governor V.
Zubov, who said about Delaunay: "Who is he? This is a pensioner." This caused
the displeasure of both young people and women in general.
Russia knew the need for a good performance a long time ago, remember the
futurists and the yellow jacket of V. Mayakovsky. In order to be heard, you must first
stand out, separate yourself from others. You need to drive in a nail before you start
hanging the picture. Thus highlighting in terms of detuning from others, it becomes
an important element of PR. So, in the program " Mirror "(RTR, 1998, May 3) , the
reception of A. Lebed's performance in Krasnoyarsk was mentioned, when the
presenter first comes out with a squeaky voice, after which the general appears with a
bass amplified by a microphone. This is a reception contrast ratio. which in this case is
deliberately constructed. He reminds the audience of the necessary details, because
in the perception of the mass consciousness ,the "loud" voice immediately becomes
"commanding", making a reference to the army (which has not yet lost the necessary
level of public confidence) and to the election posters of A. Lebed, ask it as a
specialist in crisis situations. By the way, Mikhail Gorbachev explained the rejection of
Alexander Lebed by the Communists in the same spirit (Itogi, May 3, 1998).: "Lebed
will take votes from communists. People will give their votes to the one who can make
a big difference." You should pay attention to the key word "cool" in this context, which
also falls on the image of A. The swan. However,
speaking about the importance of public relations for the modern world, experts deny
the presentation aspect that has developed among the public as the main element.
J. White and L. Mazur write: "Among other things, companies should not
justify their actions today only in the eyes of shareholders, but also in front of their
employees, customers, the general public, and governments." (White J., Mazur L.
Strategic communications management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham
etc., 1995. - p. 5). If not in this way, then what exactly
do responsible employees of Western firms now see the future of public relations? A
study of this kind, conducted in 1993, tried to see the future of public relations by
2000. 45% of respondents were convinced that public relations would become:
- strategic,
- international in scope,
- dealing with relations with investors, governments, mass media,
- cooperating with other divisions within their companies (In the same place).

Selection (detuning from competitors) can be seen in the context of the process
positioning options which is central to both PR and advertising. The task
of positioning is to rotate the object under consideration in such a way that, as a
result, it is possible to form motivation for choosing it by the audience.
This implies a fundamental difference in the point of view typical of our
past, when the object was presented from the point of view of the interests of the
speaker. Payment systemthe Andes in the past was strongly oriented towards the
"speaker" (or the Secretary General. or ideology in general), paying less attention to
the interests of the"listener" (the population of the country). PR is designed to change
these accents. The previous emphasis on the speaker should change to the emphasis
on the listener. This leads to an important problem of knowing your audience, which
means that it is impossible to work with the audience at all, since it is difficult to find its
general parameters, and in principle only with the various segments of this audience
themselves. The goal of PR is the consumer, and in this model, which is especially
typical for government PRS, even the journalist begins to see it as a certain
filter or interfering factor that can introduce "noise" into the original message.
Therefore, for example, within the framework of the US government PR
, methods are being developed to "bypass" journalists in order to directly talk to the
right person. Positioning also sets the selection for the message of positive contexts.
This is done both at the level of an individual organization, leader, and at the level of
an entire country. Let us recall the active generation of positive contexts in the former
USSR, where there was a series of anniversaries with greetings from "all progressive
humanity". The only question is the extent of this "self-praise", and also that the real
deterioration is not accompanied by texts of praise. In the case of a negative image
outside the window, PR, for example, from the screen can only save the situation for a
limited time. Especially today, when a single point of view on current events,
controlled from one point, has disappeared.
Generating positive contexts as one of the goals of PR can take a wide
variety of forms. Let us recall the films of the Soviet era, which are now
actively broadcast on TV, a characteristic feature of which was the existence of the
hero always only together with others. If at the end of the film "Bright Path" the hero
and heroine moved away from everyone, but only to complete the show as if
transforming themselves into the images of a worker and a collective farm girl, a
famous sculpture of Stalin's time. The positivity of the context was also created by the
fundamental song of the films of that time. The song style itself is a unifying construct.
By the way, Mircea Eliade also wrote about the song character of the shaman's
language. The positive contexts of the modern world are described on different pages
of this book. As a result of these processes, organizations appear as innovative,
leaders as strong and confident, and countries as the most important champions and
defenders of freedom and democracy.
We have described message selection block, which defines what exactly we will
report. It is followed by communication block where the main media is now becoming
the media, in some cases, the specifics of media channels dictate certain
modifications of our message . For this
reason, in the past, PR specialists were recruited mainly from journalists. In the West,
this trend has almost passed, but in our country it still persists, which indirectly shows
the importance of the sphere of communication with the press for PR. But Peter Green
cautions: "Media relations are a means to an end, but not the end itself.
The pursuit of press coverage for its own sake and outside the strategic context
can be more devastating than useful, despite the external impression
of successful activities to promote the organization" (Green P. Winning PR tactics. -
London, 1994. - Р. 42). Sir Bernhard Ingham, former Thatcher's press secretary,
speaks about the difficulties of working as a press secretary in the German film
"Palace Secrets": on the one hand, he should help the press, but on the other
hand, he should satisfy his employer. He considers M. Thatcher a good "master",
which he would not like to say about the English royal court. By the way, the entire
film "Palace Secrets" is devoted to how the interference of the press in the personal
life of the royal family leads to divorce. Sergei Medvedev,who left the post of Boris
Yeltsin's press secretary (Moskovskiye Novosti, 1996, No. 33), recalls: "Politicians
who hold high positions,as well as politicians number one - the president, turn out
to be the same people as everyone else with their own preferences, habits,
weaknesses. Of course, it is naive to believe that this was a discovery, no. But this
was seen at close range and not by the spectator, but by the same player playing
in the same team. The player was trusted, however, not immediately, gradually
looking closer, but they trusted a lot. Otherwise, it would be impossible and
impossible to keep him as a full-fledged partner. Information plus trust - this was my
condition when entering the service, of course, was not fully fulfilled."
This section is usually about writing a press release or holding a
press conference or briefing. We have written about this in our other works. Here
we will only give the requirements for the press conference expressed by Fraser
Seitel (Seitel F.P. The practice of public relations. - New York etc., 1992):
1. Do not focus on favorites, invite representatives of the main media;
2. Inform about the conference in advance by mail and then repeat the invitation by
phone the day before the event;
3. Schedule a press conference as early as possible during the day;
4. Hold the press conference in the hall, not in the office; 5.
The duration of the press conference should be announced at the very beginning,
so that no one will complain later; 6.
Keep the speaker away from journalists until the press conference beginsferences;
7. Prepare materials to complement the speaker's presentation; 8.
Let reporters know that the press conference has come to an end, announcing that
the next question will be the last.
Now we will mention the less traditional topics of press relations that we
have just begun to encounter. This is, for example, an interview with an aggressive
reporter. D. Willcox and L. Nolte, following Professor Matera, suggest
the following rules for such a case:
- Do not go to an offensive interview alone, it is necessary that you have a lawyer
who understands the media with you.
- Study the interviewer's background before appearing in front of the camera. Know
his or her interview methods; - Do
not accept any documents in front of the camera. The sudden appearance of such
documents is aimed at bringing down a person, presenting them in a stupid way;
- Get a commitment that you will be able to respond to the
accusations made by others as part of this speech. -
If you are cornered, counterattack. Blame the reporter for unprofessional behavior,
incompetence, or lack of understanding of the subject (Wilcox D.L., Nolte L.W. Public
Relations writing and media techniques. - New York, 1995. - P. 232).
Of course, it's easy to formulate rules while sitting at your desk. It is much more
difficult to perform them, especially in a situation that is close to stressful. But these are
the rules of the game. And only self-control can save you, because it is managing
yourself as a result that can help you manage others. By the way, there is another
interesting argument in favor of "calm" behavior. "No matter what provocative questions
you may be asked, remain calm and never attack back. The interviewer is familiar
with the audience. You're an outsider there, and you can easily become one of them.
by an opponent If you show hostilityloyalty" (M. Spillane. Create your image. - Moscow,
1996. - p. 134). And in general, the behavior of a strong person is different, he is not
afraid of attacks, he is, as it were, above them.
Lillian Brown, for her part, writes:
"Each of us has had the opportunity to observe how candidates for deputies, actors or
other public figures lost their composure when they were directly asked about
family members, about their personal lives, about unseemly actions in their youth,
about financial scandals or other events of the past. It doesn't matter if you think
such questions are shameless interference in your personal life - reporters
always ask them and will always ask them, and the person who is asked should be
ready to answer or parry the question, without showing any excessive anger, surprise,
or resentment." (Brown L. Image is the path to success. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 188).
It should be recognized as one of the most important communication tasks - to learn
how to talk to an aggressive reporter. The same Lillian Brown gives the following
advice: "If you are asked an unpleasant or provocative question, before answering,
take a short pause to give yourself a chance to choose your words carefully.
If necessary, you can buy a few seconds by repeating the question and
commenting on it, for example: "Oh, this is a serious problem." "or something like that
. Well, then give a well-thought-out answer that you would like to see in
the headlines of tomorrow's newspapers." (Brown L. Image is the path to success. St.
Petersburg, 1996, p. 188). This is good advice, but it doesn't offer the technology to do
it. Her only advice is to record the necessary information in a special
notebook: "On the first page, put the most dangerous questions that
reporters can ask you. List difficult, important, and slippery questions
such as, questions that you are afraid of, and the wrong answer to which can have
terrible consequences. Also include questions that require knowledge of specific
technical data or extensive factual material to answer. If
necessary, make an alphabetical index of the book" (In the same place. - P. 190).
At the same time, this is a problem for the leader's entourage, which prepares him for
an interview or a press conference. Let us recall how successfully Thatcher beat
several of our recognized international journalists in television interviews. How did
Press Secretary B. Ingham prepare her for such an interview? Let's listen to Brendan
Bruce on this issue:
"Having untied all the questions that have arisen on other issues and agreed on some
defense moves on less significant issues, the meeting ended at 11.30.
Later, Ingham sat down with the Prime Minister to go over the main issues again
and check the preparation for recording. The Prime Minister's speech was nervous
(as always) at first, but she warmed up well. All the questions we expected
were asked, and she answered them as agreed, quickly and energetically, without
straying too far from the intended line. A large part of preparing for an interview
is to increase the interviewee's confidence, as the fear of surprises also
makes them nervous. The more predictable the process, the less stress there is.
as the interview progresses, the interviewee realizes that he is in charge
of the situation and his self-confidence is blossoming. Mrs Thatcher was once
very nervous before appearing on one of the programmes, but her tension
completely disappeared when, to her surprise, she saw all the questions being
asked on the " idiot board" set up behind the cameras" (Bruce B., op. cit., p. 166).
At the same time, one of the tasks of the training, Brendan Bruce calls the
technique of hiding his excitement. For example, the following methods are
offered in the field of "working with the gaze": - interviewees are taught to look
sincere by looking at the bridge of their nose, which to the journalist seems to
be looking directly into their eyes; - the speaker's audience should be
considered as a set of individuals, for which it is necessary to slowly circle it
from time to time, making eye contact with everyone;
- announcers are taught from time to time to look away from the autosufler
and relieve tension from constant eye contact with the viewer.
In the "status demonstration" area, the following techniques are offered:
- a completed schedule that can't be accessed.
- crowded reception area;
- recruitment of secretaries, security guards, drivers.
To work effectively with the press, American experts offer the following
settings (Wilcox D.L., Nolte L.W. Public Relations writing and media techniques. - New York,
1995. - p. 232-233).
1. Know your mass media, publications, and the audience.
2. Reduce your distribution (multiple press releases are expensive and inefficient.)
3. Enter local specifics (research shows that the most effective
materials are necessarily related to local specifics.)
4. Send news information (do not send out anything that is not of interest due to the
lack of news).
5. Write well (news should be presented in a high-quality and concise manner).
6. Avoid tricks (do not send gifts to attract the attention
of journalists.)
7. Think about the environment (large volumes of paper materials won't save our
trees.)
8. Be accessible (It's your job to be accessible to journalists if you 're
in charge of press relations, even in the middle of the night. Main journalistic
figures you should know both your work and home phone number).
9. Get back to your problems (if you tell reporters that you will provide
additional information because you don't have it right now, make sure
to do so, which should be your rule.)
10. Answer your calls (reporters don't like electronic answering machines.)
11. Be sincere (give us the full information, even if it is not entirely pleasant
for your organization). 12.
Answer your questions (There are three types of accepted responses: "Here it is", "I
do not know, but I will call you back in an hour" and "I know, but I can't tell you
right now because ..." The answer" No comments " is not included in this set).
13. Keep it exclusive (If you gave some information to a reporter, don't
give it to anyone else.)
14. Be fair (Competing media deserve equal
opportunities for all.)
15. Help photographers (Make their work easier by gathering people and providing
them with accurate names and job titles.)
16. Please explain (Give reporters materials to understand your organization
,how and why certain decisions are made.)
17. Keep deadlines in mind (The information must be received in advance so that the
journalist has time to write his article).
18. Praise your good work (If a journalist has written a good article, send them
a thank-you note.)
19. Correct your mistakes politely (Small errors are not worth paying attention to,
but significant factual errors require a conversation with the journalist who wrote
this article.)
Indeed, the mass media play a crucial role in what Western
researchers have emphasized, as it largely determines the "agenda", that is
, what public opinion will focus on. For example, the press conference
of the presidential administration must be shown on the screen and printed. And
if it is done well, it can become one of the main news items. Neither
human memory nor the mass media itself is unlimited. In reality, everything
"revolves" around a limited number of events, which
PR specialists try to manage when they succeed. Therefore, Lillian Brown
emphasizes: "In our time, a candidate for public figures has to spend
an unusually long time communicating with his assistants, who get
additional information , in order to fend off sudden attacks by the press. After
all, a lot depends on your relationship with the press, including the frequency
of appearances on television... [P] rezhdeh, an unknown, almost impossible
-to-win daredevil, if he starts using the press effectively, can become
as famous as a well-known official, and moreover, can even
defeat him in the election. Before becoming presidential candidates, both Jimmy
Carter and Michael Dukakis were relatively unknown - both were state
governors. Many voters heard about them for the first time only thanks to press
reports" (Brown L. Image - the path to success.... - p. 196). To an even greater extent
, this applies to our situation, when skillfully and professionally the mass media
are practically not used to raise a particular public figure. A special
role is played by the leader's press secretary. The press conference is highly
organized not only in the United States, but also in Russia. Vyacheslav Kostikov,
former press secretary of Boris Yeltsin, says in an interview: "Every press
secretary always has a circle of trusted journalists, which he attracts to work. This
does not mean that I gave out tickets that say: ask so-and-so. This means that
I asked so-and-so to ask a question, realizing that they might ask a very sharp
question, but that this question would be correct, tactful and take into account
the character of the president. The task of the press secretary, among other
things, is to protect the president from tactlessness, which may be due to the
fact that many young people have come to journalism now, unshaven, who know
how to work only for themselves. A press conference is organized not to hold
a show, but to convey a certain amount of ideas to society and journalists. And of
course, I was interested in the president being asked those questions, answering
which he would state the things that he considers necessary "(Kommersant-Daily,
1995, March 23). This is one point of view. However , the comment
of the Kommersant columnist is more harsh: "Yeltsin's rare but massive press
conferences also follow the usual pattern. The press service calls journalists
and either offers their questions or accepts applications. The application may
or may not be accepted. A trusted journalist who violates the gentlemen's
agreement and asks the "wrong" question can again go to the following list:
You can also be considered a pariah and lose not only the right to free foreign travel,
but sometimes even access to the Kremlin altogether. A good half of the questions
are given to the foreign press - as a rule, they relate to foreign policy topics and
therefore are less painful for the president" (In the same place).
Marlene Fitzwater, a spokesperson for two US presidents, Reagan and Bush,
highlights the following aspects of the press secretary's work in an interview: (Seitel F.P.
The practice of public relations. - New York etc., 1992. - p. 23-24). Rabo's goals
Marlene Fitzwater, a spokeswoman for the White House, says it's important
to explain solutions and problems to the American people on behalf of the
President and the administration. He describes the two presidents as follows:
President Reagan gave excellent speeches, participated well in formal press
conferences. President Bush was a master of informal press conferences and
personal relationships with the press. Whereas Reagan gave only 47 press
conferences in eight years, Bush gave 122 press conferences in just two years.
Among the most difficult questions M. Fitzwater considers "a daily explanation of
our policy in the Persian Gulf. This required daily analysis and understanding of
our conflict situation over a period of several months. The daily briefings were a
key element in building public support for the growing involvement of the United
States in the implementation of the UN resolution against Iraq (Ibid., p. 24). And
he gives the following advice to future PR specialists:: "Don't forget the basics. We
are in the middle of a technological explosion in terms of information dissemination, but
the basic principles of information collection remain the same. Don't lose your sense
of honesty, accuracy, and sensitivity as you master new
technologies."
Another Reagan press secretary, Larry Speeks, who preceded Fitzwater,
when asked about the most difficult issues for a press secretary, in turn
says: "One of the main frustrations in the work was the fact that most journalists
automatically believe that the government is lying. This was a consequence
of Watergate, but it was also applied incorrectly and dishonestly to the Reagan
administration." (Ibid., p. 118). Speeks recalls the meetings between Gorbachev and
Reagan that Gorbachev easily communicated with each [Link] same can't be said
for Reagan. At the same time, after the publication of Spix's book, a scandal began,
because he cited some of Reagan's statements that passed as quotes, while Reagan
did not actually say them. This was also Reagan's famous phrase
about the meeting with Gorbachev: "There are many things that divide us, but the
world breathes easier because we talk to each other." M. Fitzwater described the
release of such information as an " outrageous act." Valery Bebik,
an employee of the Press Service of the two Ukrainian presidents, considers the post
of press secretary also quite dangerous, since it is located at the intersection of
the power and information fields of the president, his staff and journalists. "On the one
hand, it can cause dissatisfaction with the president's "too free interpretation"
of his position, on the other hand, it can trigger the envy of fellow officials,
who may not visit the president so often and, accordingly, have
less opportunities to influence him. These purely internal relations within
the apparatus multiply many times, taking into account the daily duel with journalists
who need "fried" facts (V. M. Bebik Політичний маркетинг і менеджмент. -
Київ, 1996. - С. 97).
Sergey Medvedev, who after working as a press secretary for Boris Yeltsin, first
became first Deputy General Director of ORT,and then moved to RAO UES,
called silence the main difficulty of the press secretary's work: "how, it turns out,
it's excruciatingly difficult to sit on the other side of the table, know a lot, a lot more
than you're being asked, and not talk about it. A figure of silence, I understood, a
figure from aerobatics, which I had to master one of the first... "(Moskovskiye
Novosti, 1996, No. 33). He called himself a player of the same team, which revealed
the addictions, habits, and weaknesses of the first person. "The player was
trusted, however, not immediately, gradually looking closely, but they trusted a lot.
Otherwise, it would be impossible and impossible to keep him as a full-fledged
partner. Information plus trust - this was my condition when entering the service,
and it,first of all, was certainly not fully fulfilled" (In the same place). Since television
is becoming the main channel of influence in our country, here are eleven rules
of effective behavior in front of a TV camera, which are suggested to be followed
in the West (Seitel F.P. The practice of public relations. - New York etc., 1992. - p. 352):
1. Get ready. A successful appearance on television is associated with good
preparation. You should rehearse answers to possible questions from journalists.
2. Be yourself. Do not be tense. Anything that gives
it away should be avoided.
3. Be open and honest. TV exaggerates, so the lie will be immediately
visible. You should immediately gain confidence in yourself.
4. Be brief. No one has time to look for "mouth-watering" bits in your
text.
5. Keep it simple, be careful with humor. The urge to make jokes about anything
can make a fool of you.
6. Dress according to the context. The colors should be muted.
A man's socks should cover his leg so that they completely cover
the unprotected space between his socks and trousers. 7.
Don't assume that the interviewer is against you. The hostility is immediately
visible on the screen. All questions should be answered quite calmly.
8. Don't assume that everything you say will go on the air. Therefore, you
should be able to put all the most important things in thirty seconds.
9. Don't let the interviewer guide you. The interview is possiblebut control
by varying the length and content of responses. If the question is unclear, please
ask for clarification.
10. Don't say "No comment". If you can't answer, try
to explain exactly why you are doing this, and you will always be understood.
11. Stop now. Often, the camera continues recording even after the response,
which can then be used against you.
Fraser Seitel also puts forward a number of rules to media kit - a set of several
communication messages, usually including graphic elements, for
subsequent use by newspapers and magazines (p. 223):
1. The proposed information should be carefully prepared and able
to answer the main questions of journalists.
2. It is necessary to provide sufficient information so that the editor can
find the necessary angle of illumination of this problem.
3. Do not write texts too much in your favor, be more objective, because this is not
an advertising message.
4. It is better to express ratings and opinions through quoting
trustworthy sources.
5. You should never lie, it will destroy the relationship with the editor.
6. Visually appealing graphics will make it easier to get your message to print.
We started this article by saying that the PR is trying to increase the number of
controlled parameters, and the press conference is quite a vivid example in this
regard. Being an improvisational event in form, it is actually implemented according
to a rigid scheme of pre-known questions and prepared answers to them. When
Henry Kissinger appeared at his first briefing as Secretary of State, he began with
the following words:: "Anyone with any questions ... to my answers?", which is a very accurate
illustration of the problem we are considering. The Americans also advise not
to answeranswers to hypothetical questions (such as what would happen if ...) to avoid
getting caught out.
One of the American experts warns that you should not throw
too much material at the press, in this case you will be like a boy who shouted
"wolf", but who as a result did not believe. And in accordance with the American
style, he emphasizes the "selling" moment in this communicative action, no matter
how beautifully you call yourself: once you should sell your story to journalists,
the other-to your audience (Yale D.R. The publicity handbook: how to maximize
publicity for products, services and organizations. - Chicago, 1991. - p. 5).
Answering the question " Why should someone listen to me?", he quotes the
words of one of the managers: "You have to give people a reason: as a result, they
will feel better, it will make them happier. If you don't include this piece in your
message, you'd better not send it at all" (p.7). From the point of view of
work technology, Americans consider it reasonable to divide functions: one person
is responsible for newspapers, another for radio, and a third for television, which
will allow each of them to work out the necessary personal contacts with the press.
The task of the PR specialist is to "create" such news that is interesting
for the press. In your press release, you should answer a standard set of
questions: Who did what and for what? When, where and why did they do it? How did they do
What are they results? At the same time,it is important to emphasize the neutral nature
of the press release, the need to write it in the third person. "A biased press
release can do more damage to your reputation than a real news report,
as many journalists may think you have something to hide" (Yale D.R. The
publicity handbook: how to maximize publicity for products, services and
organizations. - Р. 70). The most
important part of the press release is the "peg". This is an unusual point of view, a
view, a new idea, an explanation of how it will affect the audience. The list of
standard equipment also includes anniversaries, which, according to the author,
are very much loved by Americans (we will add from ourselves, and not only). You
should link your story to an anniversary, or to a specific time date. Another way is
localization, linking your event to local conditions. You can tell
consumers how to use your product. You can link it to receiving
a bonus.
Fraser Seitel formulates the following ten rules that reflect the philosophy of
relations with the mass media (Seitel F.P. The practice of public relations. - New York etc.,
1992. - p. 376, 378-379): 1.
Flexibility is very important - having a plan for working with the mass media, you should
remain as flexible as possible ;
2. Speak to the media with one voice journalists are interested in many people, but
-
it is more profitable for an organization
have one person; to
3. Don't push out the first person to communicate - journalists always demand this, but
it is better to provide them with an experienced press secretary;
4. Don't always follow the advice of lawyers - although lawyers protect the organization,
but when making a decision, you should also consider the advice of a PR
specialist; 5. Don't wait until you get all the facts - you can wait until the
public finds you guilty;
6. Don't answer all the questions - just because you have received a question, it does not
mean that you have to answer it; you should answer the questions that you
are prepared for;
7. Correct it if you've been misrepresented - you should make sure that your
words are correctly conveyed in print, otherwise the wrong fact will start to
wander around newspapers and magazines as real;
8. Don't turn awaya message from journalists - cooperation with a journalist is
in the best interest of the organization;
9. Share information with your allies - provide information
to employees, clients, and shareholders who will become your allies in
relations with the media and the public;
10. You can lose the battle with the media, but win the long-term war for trust -
once you've done something wrong, it's always best to admit it. The informational
nature of the modern world forces us to take a different view of our relations
with the press and television, since they serve as the thread connecting
the organization with the public. Not only can they not be ignored, but a fairly
large amount of time must be devoted to press relations. This is the only way
to achieve the right place in the modern economic or political hierarchy, because
at a certain level this cannot be done without taking into account the role
of public opinion. Let's remember what else Mark Twain wrote: "In today
's society, the press is a colossal force. It can both create and ruin the reputation
of any person. Nothing prevents her from calling the best citizen a fraud and
a thief and ruining him forever." (Twain M. Unrestrained printing // Twain, M. The
American Pretender, Moscow, 1984, pp. 138-139). The impact of print has
increased even more due to the increase in print runs, but television has gained
the most importance in this regard . The importance of a journalist
in" that world " is indirectly confirmed by the manner of preparing for an interview
with a big businessman in the TV series "Dallas". The PR specialist prepares his
millionaire for an interview... a story about the journalist himself: where does his
son study, to praise his university in the interview process; because the
journalist is fond of sailing, mention yachts and pod. In other words, a dossier
about a journalist is just as important an element of future conversation as a
dossier about the millionaire himself on the part of the journalist. All this reflects
the more independent nature of journalism, which we will eventually come to.
Thus, we considered two essential blocks of PR work: the message selection
block, where the audience was the main element, and the message
transmission block, where the journalist was the main element.

§ 9. PR: literature

We will focus on the main publications published in Russian, and then we will continue
to talk about new books that were not included in the "Bookshelf" section of
our previous book (Pocheptsov G. G. Public Relations, or how to successfully manage
public opinion, Moscow, 1998).
The first books that "educated" all generations of PR specialists in the CIS
were published in 1990-1993.:
* Black S. Public Relations. What is it? Moscow: Novosti Publ., 1990, 240 p . * Nevzlin L
B. "Public Relations". Who needs it? Moscow: Ekonomika Publ., 1993, 224 p. (in Russian)

It was Sam Black who became the "founding father" of this new direction, about which little
was known at the time. Therefore, often in the questionnaire of the magazine "Adviser"
today's PR- specialists call the book of S. Black as the main information
adviser. And this becomes clear if you look even only at the circulation of books: L.
Nevzlin - 5 thousand, but S. Black-65 thousand. At the same time, there were clearly
unaccounted for"pirate" reprints. S. Black's book was also distinguished by its broad
coverage of many PR issues, reprint of official PR codes and charters, and, what is very
important in the territory of the former USSR and today, by its fundamentally foreign
character. A translated book always pleases our domestic readers. No
one knew that Sam Black actually had the surname S. Black and had come to England from
Keyeva together with her parents in 1911 (personal message from S. Black to the author
of this book).
And before that, there were attempts to describe this area, for example, the following book -
Zyablyuk N. G. Industry of managed information ("Public relations" - a system
of propaganda of big business in the USA). - Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 1971. - 140 p.
circulation of this book was also large - 3 thousand, but it passes unnoticed. Apparently,only
later, already in the nineties, the interests of a wide audience, specialists and new
living conditions in the country coincided, which created the necessary context not only for
the appearance, but also for the development of PR now not in the USSR, but in the CIS.
1995-1996 gave rise to a whole series of books that seemed to touch we tried to outlin
this new area for us. At the same time, the implementation of this activity was carried out not
only in society as a whole, but also in university classrooms. Among the books of this time
are the following: E. A. Blazhnov. Public relations. Invitation to the world
of civilized market and Social relations, Moscow, 1994; Vikentiev I. L.
Advertising techniques and public [Link]., 1995; T. E. Greenberg. Political advertising:
-
portrait of a leader , Moscow, 1995; Zverintsev A. B. Communication management.
The PR manager's workbook. - St. Petersburg, 1996; Lebedeva T. A. The art of seduction. Public
relations in French. Concepts. Praktika, Moscow, 1996; Lebedeva T. A. The path to power.
France: Presidential Elections, Moscow, 1995; Matvienko V. Ya. Sociological analysis in
politics. - Kiev, 1995; Pocheptsov G. G. Image maker. Public relations for politicians and
businessmen. - Kiev, 1995; Pocheptsov G. G. Public relations. - Kiev, 1996; Sokolov I. How
to become president. Popularity Technology / Laptenok A. The art of information.
Elections: working with the public. - Minsk, 1995; Tulchinsky G. L. Public Relations.
Reputation, influence, press and public relations, sponsorship. - St. Petersburg, 1994.
Yakovlev And. Public relations in organizations. - SPb., 1995.
A new period of professionalization begins in 1997. The books published at this time
are distinguished by a completely different view, more serious approaches. And we
will focus on those of them in more detail that were not reflected in our
previous book on PR. Previously, for the sake of "clarity of the picture", we will also name
several of our own books in this area: Symbols in political ads
(Kiev, 1997), Image: from pharaohs to presidents (Kiev, 1997), Image and elections (Kiev,
1997), Profession: Image maker (Kiev, 1998), Public Relations, or how to successfully manage
public opinion (Moscow, 1998), Theory and practice of communication (Moscow, 1998).
Now let's move on to some other publications that were not described in our
previous book on PR:
I. Aleshina. Public relations for Managers and marketers, Moscow: Gnom-press, 1997, 256
p.
This is the first fairly complete Russian textbook on PR, which covers all
the questions. This is an educational publication that covers almost the entire range
of issues. Learning orientation has its pros and
cons. Plus in universality, but also a minus in it. I. Alyoshina describes everything and everyt
in too much detail at the level of an encyclopedia. As a result, it "eats up" attention,
leading away from the specific problems of PR. For example. Instead of talking more
about lobbying, the author devotes the pages of his manual to a story about the genres
of journalism that the reader can learn from a journalism textbook in extreme cases.
A common drawback for all our books, and the author did not avoid it, is the all-consuming
orientation to foreign experience. Although Russia already has quite serious
experience, which undoubtedly requires a new approach to the development of the
Russian economy. about the lighting system.
This is why the section of the book "PR in a multicultural environment"is a rare exception.
Barchero Cabrero, H. D. Public relations in the world of Finance, translated from Spanish,
Moscow: Delo Publ., 1996, 80 p.
This is a small brochure that covers, among other things, issues such as Creating
a financial image of the company, public relations in crisis situations.
It is undoubtedly necessary in our lack of literature, but in fact we
translate secondary texts that are themselves based on other texts.
The UK lags behind the US by five years, trying to adopt many
methods from there. For example, the victory of Tony Blair's party in the parliamentary
elections demonstrates just this process. Therefore, the translation of Spanish texts
is secondary from the very beginning. But not useless, as long as there are no others. Thi
is practically the second translated book after S. Black's. Such a slow movement with
transfers is due to the fact that, as one of Moscow's successful PR specialists said:
if I translate this book, then why would I be needed? Unfortunately, apparently, this
personal parameter also forms today's book market.
Dmitriev A.V., Latynov V. V., Khlop'ev A. T. Neformalnaya politicheskaya kommunikatsiya
[Informal political communication], Moscow: Rosspen, 1997, 200 p.
This is the first version of a book on this topic, where, for example, rumors become
the object of serious study. Such objects are quite complex for scientific
description, since they are indistinct and often completely unformed
. But this does not mean that they cannot be studied. They can also be
quite serious applications. For example, the Japanese have found that
advertising for medicines and doctors is more successful when transmitted just through
the oral channel. We believe the same patient more than a glossy beautiful advertisement.
Show up todayThere were publications revealing that the Soviet army in Afghanistan
actively used rumors in order, for example, to prevent the advance
of Mujahideen regiments to help their own.
Rumors are an important object of PR. S. Black's book deals with the rumor
that pork fat is used in the production of Colgate pasta, which led to
a significant drop in sales in the Islamic world.
The book has three chapters: Political communication as a process, Rumors: concept and
classification, Rumors: empirical research experience. And an app with a very
"delicious" name: An essay on political rumors in the history of Russia.
Dunkel J., Parnham E. Oratorical art - the path to success. - St. Petersburg: Piter. 1997. - 18
p.
This is again a popular book published by the publishing house "Peter", which has been
working in this field for a long time. It is enough to mention such publications as Brown L
to success (1996) and J. Spiegel Flirting is the Path to Success (1996). But unlike the abov
this case, the popular style does not serve as a hindrance. These are really specific and
important tips, especially for those who are going to appear on the TV screen,
speak in front of an audience.
Here are the names of some sections: What they are, your audience, Impromptu speech
under pressure, You and the media, Listening skills, How to cope with
a particularly difficult situation when speaking.
The advice given by the authors is quite detailed, and it is clearly felt that they
grew out of real soil, and are not the fruit of purely office thoughts.
The art of seduction. Public relations in French. Concepts.
Praktika, Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 1996, 136 p.
This is an attempt to present a completely different layer of experience-European public
relations. They also trace their origins back to their own origins, the French
social scientists of the 19th century. The axiomatics of the French experience includes the
following distinction between advertising and PR: if advertising is based on the strategy of
desire, then PR is based on the strategy of trust. The desire strategy generates purchase
motivation, and the trust strategy generates engagement.
The paper reveals the mythological tools of public relations, which
strongly corresponds to the broader horizons of French humanitarian
thought, within which communication problems in principle occupy a very
serious position.
Although the book is written in an essayist manner, you can learn a lot of useful
details from it: how to create the image of a patron in a French enterprise, how
the French create the image of their banks, lobbying and sponsorship in French.
Path to power. France: Presidential Elections, Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 1995, 124
p.
The book is devoted to the analysis of a specific political campaign -
the 1995 French presidential election, when Jacques Chirac, the mayor of Paris, won. The
is rich in concrete material, although it is written in the manner of a number of essays on
election topics. Special attention should be paid to the chapters that look at polls from the
of view of manipulation and the art of creating an event.
PR: international practice. Ed. Sam Black, Moscow: Dovgan Publ., 1997, 172 p.
The book is of particular interest because of its purely practical focus.
It contains 40 campaigns conducted in different countries under one cover. Each
such campaign is presented according to a single scheme, which includes the following
sections: background, evaluation, research, planning, implementation, and results of the PR
campaign. This is primarily a serious data bank. And since PR is often
considered as a set whenHowever, such a book becomes a significant
help-a hint for developing your own set of tools. You probably can
it is clear that a smart person learns not only from other people's mistakes, but also from
other people's achievements. Forty variants of such achievements are presented in this book.
Zverintsev A. B. Kommunikatsionnyi menedzhment [Communication management]. The PR
manager's workbook. - St. Petersburg.: Soyuz, 1997. - 288 p. (first ed. - 1996. -
This is the second edition of this book, which means that St. Petersburg
advertisers and PR specialists deserve our serious attention. The book
is distinguished by its attention to the work of the press secretary, which is also an area
is still very little represented in our literature. The chapter on PR also sounds very proud
- "Public relations-communication aerobatics". A separate chapter of the book
is devoted to the strategy and tactics of the election campaign, which makes it very
necessary in any corner of the CIS.
Program of special courses and special seminars in the framework of specialization in
advertising and public relations ("public relations"). - Moscow, MSU, 1997. - 38 p.
This is a small edition (300 copies), but we would like to draw your attention to
courses related to PR. Let's just list some of the names:
Image program producers, Corporate identity, Forming the image of a leader in an election
campaign, Social advertising, Methods of psychosemantics in advertising, Corporate identity in
political and commercial advertising, Organization of the press services of state institutions,
Information technologies in the activities of advertising agencies and public
relations services, Advertising and public opinion. Such a variety should not only
please, but also inspire you to read your own special courses.
Davis F. Your absolute image. A book for politicians and businessmen, men and
women. - Moscow: Vneshsigma, 1997. - 320 p.
The book is a kind of popular guide to
image issues. For this reason, chapter titles are quite familiar: First Impression,
Body language, Your appearance, Your voice and speech, Public Speaking, Your image at
work, Your work environment. Without excessive theorizing, the author reveals
some features that are necessary for a public politician and businessman. For this
reason, the book often resembles a self-help guide, which is also necessary.
Borisov B. L. Advertising and public relations. The alchemy of power. - Riga, 1997. - 15
It's nice to see a book on native topics published in Riga. This is an introductory text for
this field, written from the standpoint of semiotics and communication theory.
The Baltic accent can be heard in the titles of such chapters as" Sex in advertising and
relations "or"What is the current image in fashion?". Cinematic past
of the author in the title of the chapter "Editing resources".
Arnold N. The thirteenth knife in the back of Russian advertising and public relations, Moscow:
Top- Media, 1997, 224 p.
The book makes a rare attempt to enter the book market with its own
experience. At the same time, the author probably should not have stated that the list
of references he gives is only to show how not to write. It is better
to convince with your own positive experience, rather than criticizing other attempts. The
book contains paragraphs and chapters devoted to political PR, business PR, PR in show
business. Its main feature is the emphasis on the features of the
Russian PR client.
Grinberg T. E. Politicheskaya reklama: portret lidera [Political Advertising: Portrait of a Leader], Moscow: MSU Publishing House,

The book consists of two sections: "Political advertising: yesterday and today",
which includes the subsection "Genres of political advertising", and "Shaping the image
of political advertising".ica", which includes the subsections "Election Marketing", "Politics on
screen" , etc. Most interesting are references to the peculiarities of Russian
political culture.
Krylov I. V. Marketing. Sotsiologiya marketicheskikh kommunikatsiya [Sociology of Marketing
Communications], Moscow: Tsentr Publ., 1998 , 192 p.
The book consists of three large sections: "Marketing communications as
a social institution", "Social aspects of marketing technology", "Development
of the theory of mass communication". The book's strong point is its strong
focus on the Russian experience, which has even led to such
subsections as "PR in Russian". For this reason, the book covers the natural attraction
of readers to their own problems, to the peculiarities of solving problems in a given
territory.
Krylov I. V. Teoriya i praktika reklamki v Rossii [Theory and practice of advertising in Russia].
Moscow: Tsentr Publ., 1996, 184 p. The book's greatest strength is its focus on the Russian
experience. At the same time, separate chapters of the book are devoted to such topical issues as"
Press Release"," Fundamentals of media Planning"," Market Segmentation and product
positioning"," Advertising market of Russia","Political Advertising in Russia". The book is completed
by the course program "Theory and practice of Advertising" and a Terminology dictionary.
Belanovskiy S. A. Metod fokus-gruppov [The focus group method], Moscow: Magister Publ., 1996, 272 p.
The book describes in detail the theory and practice of the focus group method, which is
currently the most fruitful "high-quality" survey method. Focus groups
are considered in the context of the group interview method. The book concludes with methods
for analyzing the results obtained in interviews.
Rozhkov I. Ya. Reklama: plank dlya "profi" [Advertising: a bar for "pros"], Moscow: Yurayt, 1997, 208 p.
A book on advertising that is based on serious scientific grounds, which is quite
rare. The author draws attention to the role of myth, calling it "the basis and on the basis
ofdstroyka" of advertising creativity. The book is completed with very interesting applications,
including the concept of a specific advertising campaign.
Yakovlev I. Public relations in organizations. St. Petersburg: Petropolis Publ., 1995, 148 p. (in Russian)
An introductory course that covers the main issues with an emphasis on creating PR departments
in different organizations. Separate consideration is given to ways of forming
public opinion. The author presents the results of his research on
the formation of the PR sector in Russia. Thus, according to data for 1994, a quarter of the
organizations surveyed already had departments or individual PR specialists. There is a very high
need for professional development of those who are engaged in PR today.
Matvienko V. Ya. Sotsiologicheskiy analiz v politike [Sociological analysis in politics]. Kiev: Vischa
shkola Publ., 1995, 160 p. (in Russian) The book has three sections: "On Politics, politicians and
political participation", "Sociological Analysis: theory and methodology", "Technology of the election
campaign". Since the author was one of the leaders of L. Kravchuk's election campaign in
1994, the third section is of particular interest to readers.
James J. Effective self-marketing. The art of creating a positive
image, Moscow: Filin Publ., 1998, 126 p.
A typical Western book written in popular language with intriguing
chapter titles, such as: Confidence and a Positive Point of View,Body Language
and Posture; What to Wear to Impress; Wrong Behavior. A guide to modern
business etiquette and management.
Tulchinsky G. L. Public relations. Reputation, influence, press and
public relations, sponsorship. - SPb., 1994. - 80 p.
Although this book is small, it covers all the most important aspects of PR
work. The book is completed with Control tasks and an approximate
sponsorship agreement . As you can see, there was a sharp leap forward, supported
also by the dvWe have magazines in the following categories: in Moscow
- the magazine "Adviser "(editor - in-chief-G. Arievich) , in Kiev-the magazine
"Advertising & Public Relations Digest" (editor - in-chief-A. Yashchenko). Russia
also has the experience of holding such events as "PR Week" with the
presentation of national PR awards, which undoubtedly attracts the attention of
the general public to these problems, making the so-called "PR for PR".

§ 10. PR as a profession

The status of this new profession is also indirectly conveyed by the fact that Boris
Yeltsin's daughter, Tatyana Dyachenko, has become engaged in this field at the level of
the President of Russia, and, as it turned out (Itogi, NTV, 1998, May 3), the
granddaughter of the first President of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev, is also going to
enter the specialty"public relations". For the first time, Russia began to train students of a
new specialty at MGIMO, and Ukraine- not yet a specialty, but a specialization at the
Institute of International Relations of Kiev University. Today, public relations courses are
taught in dozens of universities in the CIS countries, and we are taking leaps and bounds,
trying to catch up with the long-term experience of Western countries. Our only advantage
was that we did not repeat the mistake of the United States (which was constantly
opposed by one of the founding fathers of the PR, E. Bernays) and did not put these students
in the journalism department. In the United States, 75% of specializations are located in
these faculties. E. Bernays emphasized that this is not a philological specialty, it should
primarily belong to the social sciences.
E. Bernays fought against another trend that also flourished
in our country: today, anyone can call themselves a PR specialist and
start their "fruitful" work. At the same time, a non-builder will not design
the bridge, and we will not trust a non-specialist to treat their teeth. This is a serious
phenomenonthe problem of profanation of the specialty, from which we will suffer for quite
a long time.
Where do most people in the PR specialty work in our country? First of all, these
are Western and joint ventures, in which Western experience dictates the presence of
such a department in the organization's structure. A large number of people work in state
structures such as different levels of state administrations. Press services of this kind, for
example, have 300 employees in Ukraine, but they are new to this field and do not have
the appropriate education or work experience. There are public relations departments
within the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Security Service of Ukraine. Press relations
officers are introduced within the Ministry of Defense. But suffice to say, the Pentagon
it consists of up to 10 thousand people. those involved in this area. But they
have an additional excuse that the army is recruited on a voluntary basis,
so it depends on the image of the army. whether someone will serve there. Our press
services are called that way, and not PR-services, since Western experience also
prohibits naming such structures PR. It is assumed that the taxpayer will be dissatisfied
that his money is spent in this way, since within the framework of the West, PR
is responsible for purely commercial associations. Therefore, in the White House, this
kind of operation is called the Communications Service. But on the other hand, 50-60
people working there "keep in check" the entire US press. Suffice it to say that the
head of this service calls three leading TV channels in an hour and a half to find out
what stories concerning the administration will appear on the screen. If they carry a
negative connotation, the Communications Service tries to remove this story from the
air. When this fails, they seek to give them time to express their point of view. DostIn
fact, any member of the Cabinet could only be interviewed with the approval of this
service. This is due to the fact that the communications service is busy defining the idea
of the day that all federal agencies should work on. Therefore , the Secretary of State
might not be eligible for an interview, because at that time it was necessary to talk about
the economy, and the Secretary of State's favorite topic was anti-communism. In principle,
in the West, any significant action is necessarily accompanied by a PR campaign.
By the way, they also consider Mikhail Gorbachev a specialist in PR. And this
is especially clear to us, since manipulating just two words "glasnost'"and
"perestroika"which in English were even written that way, he managed
to change the image of the Soviet Union. I mean, there were no real changes behind
these words, but there was a positive result. The USSR generally worked in this area
for a very long time. After all, when there was both famine and terror in the country
, many luminaries of European thought came here and admired.
Russia saw very clearly the need for PR work as a result of the Chechen war. "We
have lost the information war, " the Russian Defense Ministry says. The corresponding
development of the Russian government commission is formulated in purely
PR terms. Its meaning is as follows: since the Chechen myth was created, our task is
to create an anti-myth we must move only in this field, since the mass
consciousness does not accept rational arguments. The Pentagon worked very clearly
during the Gulf War: we, like everyone else, received only a CNN image
that showed us the achievements of technical thought in the form of pinpoint strikes,
and we never saw any human casualties. At the same time, the war in Chechnya
shows soldiers in strange clothes, for whom you can only feel a sense
of pity, but not pride in the fact that they act as defenders. Accordingly,
to process the civilian population, it was estimated that ten percent of Arab opinion
leaders would shut down the entire Arabic-speaking world. As you can see, a more
precise definition of your audience has also been achieved here. The Americans say:
we are better off processing one journalist, not ten housewives, we work not with
people, but with channels. As cynical as this rule sounds, it
is professionally correct. By the way, the Gulf War forced all its participants
to take up PR work. Saudi Arabia has released a book for members of Congress
with a story about its sheikh. Kuwait attracted a well-known PR firm so that the
Americans would generally know what Kuwait is. And this was necessary to justify the
introduction of troops in the eyes of public opinion. Americans have wrestled with their
own public opinion through White House press conferences.
By the way, one of the vice-presidents of an American PR firm, speaking to our
students, mentioned changing the image as his biggest order
the Colombian government in the eyes of Americans. The fact is that the US
government stopped providing them with assistance because of drug links. I asked if it was
possible to do this. The Vice President said yes. Imagine how much money we can
talk about if the goal was to change the image in the eyes of all Americans.
All these examples allow us to formulate the definition of PR as effective
strategy in the field of public opinion management. By the way, these
were the first books on PR. The book by E. Bernays was called "Crystallization
of public opinion" (1923). In general, the number of PR definitions has exceeded 500,
therefore, there is no point in inventing another one. But I would like
to outline the subject field of defining PR here, in the field of public opinion management.
In what context does PR arise? These contexts are different here and in the West. In
America , this is the end of the last century, the beginning of the present century. Quite
strong monopolies are emerging. Everything is going well for them, but there is one
element that does not always do the right thing. This is you and me. The person behind the
fence of the enterprise is less manageable than inside, when he is a subordinate
employee. Monopolies wanted to increase the number of these controlled parameters. By
and large, the task in any organization is the same - to reduce the number of accidents. A
striking example in the United States is railroads. This was a new phenomenon, people began
to be afraid of accidents, they refused to drive. And so all this arose as the first major task for
PR. By the way, it was then that the rule was formulated, which is implemented by all
companies during accidents with human casualties. She should be the first to
inform the family of the deceased about this before the mass media. The same important
task was the struggle between alternating and direct current. Between their manufacturers.
In the history of PR , there are names of famous millionaires like Rockefeller, from which
they made the image of their boyfriend. Rockefeller, in order to remove the miners ' strikes,
came to the mining village, even danced with the wives of miners. A number
of US presidents also understood the role of this sphere. By the way, the first and Second
World Wars gave a very strong influx of people to this specialty . They specialized in
propaganda and counter-propaganda. I would call their professionalization-soft but
aggressive communication. They broadcast to the enemy, set aggressive goals for
themselves, but they tried to solve them with due respect for their listeners. And these
people after the war found their use in PR. This applies to the United States after the First
World War and Great Britain after the second, when there was no need for advertising,
because there was a shortage of goods. By the way, in the UK, the biggest pre-war
campaign was to attract interest in overseas fruits. It was worth a million pounds back then
. As you can see, once it was necessary to attract attention to bananas. We are ready
to buy them today without any tricks.
Our context for the occurrence of PR other. We lived in a hierarchical society, where
the correctness of thought was determined by the level of the chair where a given person
sits. In this situation, PR is not necessary, since everything is built on the subordination
of the lower to the higher. Today, when different social groups were granted
the right to autonomous behavior, the authorities were at a loss. She doesn't know how
to work with an independent person. It is easier for her to shoot down the parliament, as it
was in Russia, than to try to negotiate with it. It is easier for Russia to send troops to
Chechnya than to reach a compromise. Nobel Prize winner George Galbraith said that
it is easy for rulers to keep the rural population in line. It is engaged in heavy
physical labor, not being able to raise its head. When the population
shifts to the cities, they have a new need - to BE HEARD. PR
is called to work with this new person, with a person who
has his head held high. By the way, no society can withstand too much diversity
of behavior. The difference between a PR and an order is that the order is external
compulsion, and PR - internal. I sort of decide what to do. This approach to
managing society is, of course, much more effective.
In the West, the most rapidly developing areas of PR are:
government agencies, financial services and crisis situations. If you look closely at them
, it is clear that these are the areas where money is least spared. But they are also particularly
significant for any society. The United Kingdom, for example, faced with the crises
of its financial structures, invested sufficient funds in PR. The task there is
a dynamic property. The fact is that a thousand or one and a half shareholders, suddenly
dropping shares, can "sink" the company. Therefore, they are actively studying their
shareholders, their means of communication, and what other shares are available to them.
You need to know all this so that, if necessary, you can reach out to your
depositors in one evening, without letting them destroy the company by randomly dumping shares.
The practice of the CIS countries added to this list and political issues PR. After all, it is here
that the largest funds are currently concentrated, as shown by the latest election
campaign in Russia. B. Yeltsin becomes president purely due to PR work.
The same presidential campaign awaits Ukraine. At the same time, an important conclusion is drawn
today from the gubernatorial elections in Russia. It turns out that control over the ether does not
become the most important thing. The governor of the Leningrad region could appear on three
channels at the same time, but he lost to the candidate from the Communist Party. The conclusion
that is made is as follows: not only control is important, but also skill, professionals
are needed everywhere. By the way, the last presidential election also gave us an example
of control over TV and independent loss of L. Kravchuk. And this is an important condition
for a new game and a new type of professionalization. which we will need in the very
near future. The time of "poke" ends, the time of sophisticated "engineering"
solutions comes. I even want to borrow Comrade Stalin's definition
of a PR specialist as engineer of human souls. By the way, look at how well
the pre-war films were made. Today, their propaganda aspect has been removed, but they have not
disappeared. It turns out that there are very strong artistic constructions.
We did not have time to focus on such an important component of PR as good knowledge
of your audience. Without this, PR as a science is generally impossible. PR also requires
an excellent knowledge of all the associated sciences of the communication cycle. This and
communication theory, and conflictology, and theory of negotiations, and propaganda and
counter-propaganda (the latter are important if only because the Soviet Union lost
the Cold War as a symbolic war), and various psychological methods,
including the one called "cold War".psychoanalysis at a distanceIt
consists in drawing conclusions about
the non-verbal characteristics of political leaders based on verbal material. For example, a high level
of power motivation suggests that this leader can start a war and fight.
Science and practice of PR came to the CIS. Our task now is to provide
more or less comfortable conditions for the development of PR. The Association
of PRS of Russia and the Association of PRS of Ukraine put assistance to this among their priorit
tasks. At the same time, almost all types of PR are already being developed in our country. We
a fairly active lobbying their professional interests (such as the agrarian lobby in
parliament). We use negative press campaigns such as the unfolding newspaper
wars (banking wars, etc.), when the usual designation of the "war of compromising materials"type
became common. Used and rumors. For example, the parliaments of the CIS countries often go along
with the rumorq. In Ukraine, this was on the occasion of the adoption/non-adoption of the constitution,
when the rumor was actively spread that a decree on dissolution was ready if the constitution
was not adopted. Another time-the adoption of the government's program-again , the rumor
was spread that the president was against this program, which made it possible to unite around it
acceptance of both left and right. Almost automatic passage of many people to
People's deputies also indicates serious work political parties. And also do not
count the numbers of various kinds presentations. So even today, the CIS countries
are actively working with the entire range of PR tools. Moreover, we can
even circumvent the West in some ways. On the one hand, we have serious
experience, even in the totalitarian era, in processing mass consciousness.
On the other hand, our population is more susceptible to various social myths.
Our PRS will still suffer from growth disorders in the first period. But diseases
pass, and the child grows up. What should he look up to? Harold Berson,
the head of the American PR firm Berson-Marsteller, speaks about his
ideas about the perfect specialist in the field of PR (interview in Seitel F.P. The
practice of public relations. New York etc., 1992, pp. 78-79):
"Public Relations today covers such a wide area of activity that it is difficult
to establish a set of features at once for all people who have put on the mantle
of PR. In general, I feel that there are four primary qualities that apply to every
successful PR professional I know.
1. They are resourceful. They are capable, intelligent people who learn quickly.
They ask the right questions. They have a unique ability to inspire confidence
almost immediately .
2. They know how to deal with people. They work very well with their
superiors, with their peers, with theirand subordinates. They work
well with customers, as well as with the press or suppliers. They are emotionally
unfazed-even (and especially) under pressure. Most often they use
the pronoun we, than I.
3. They are always striving forward, and find creative solutions along the way.
They don't need to be told what to do next; they know it instinctively. They are
not afraid to start with a clean sheet of paper - for them, it simply means new
opportunities.
4. They can write; they can articulate their thoughts in a convincing way."
These correct words should appear before every PR specialist as an
ideal that will help them move forward even faster. Valery Bebik
conducted an analysis of public PR specialists in Ukraine - in our measurement,
these are press service employees in public administration bodies. As of
February 1, 1996, 300 people worked in such positions (V. M. Bebik Політичний
маркетинг і менеджмент у демократичному суспільстві. - Київ, 1996 /
Автореф. дис. ... д- ра політичних наук). Among them, a third (32.6%)
worked in this position for less than a year, from 1 to 3 years - 27%, from 3 to
years - 23.7%, more than 5 years - 16.7%. 33% of them are people aged 3
Professional training - 40.9% of journalists, political, psychological or
sociological education-5.6%. As you can see, this is a rather diverse set of
specialists who often do not have the appropriate professional training.
A survey of leading HR professionals working for American and
European corporations showed the following priority changes that are expected
in this area by 2000: PRS should become strategic, international, working
in the areas of communication with investors, government and mass media,
working with other groups within the company (White J., Mazur L. Strategic
communications management. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 5).

Journal of the Russian Association for Public Relations "Adviser "(1996, No. 1) He
also cited data from a survey conducted by the international committee of PR agency
associations in 77 countries. We will give the data we are interested in from there. The
largest PR firms were found in the United States - on average, about 127 employees,
in other countries there are nineteen per firm. In 1995, the average revenue of a PR
agency was 1.8 million US dollars; in the US itself, this figure reached 10 million. In the
case of expenses, 60% is labor remuneration, 15% is payment for premises, and 25%
is other expenses. 80% of the clientele of PR agencies is in the private sector, while
only 13% is in the public sector. The most important areas are: media relations - 35%
of revenues, corporate communications-28%. Each of these figures is of particular interest
to us because of the first steps in the formation of this profession in Ukraine. Igor
Krylov provides interesting figures for the ratio of specialists in a number of similar
profiles, demonstrating the rapid growth of the PR industry (Krylov I. V. Teoriya i praktika
reklamki v Rossii [Theory and practice of advertising in Russia]: 200 thousand
advertisers, 130 thousand journalists and 150 thousand PR consultants work in the
USA today. This cross-section,as it seems to us, represents the communicative
spheres of modern society in a completely different way, and inevitably we will also
gradually drift towards such correspondences.
 Chapter two. Basic approaches to Public Relations
§1 . Factors that lead to the occurrence of PR

Public Relations, along with such sciences as Conflictology, Negotiation

theory, Communication theory, Mass Communication theory, Political advertising, is
a completely new social science for us. ProshThere was no
particular need for sciences that would help the processes of social
management by methods other than coercion in the previous period of our society.
Democracy is a transition from monologue to dialogue, from monologue of the
Authorities to dialogue with the People. We are only taking the first steps on this
path. Therefore, this set of sciences requires our special attention. One of the
founders of PR constantly emphasized the social rather than journalistic nature of
this science. And this is understandable, since PR works with public opinion, and
texts become only one of the means of influence. Hence , PR should pay attention
to such sciences as Sociology, Psychology, and Social Psychology, since they
determine the possibility of analyzing certain variants of social behavior.
The CIS countries are at the initial stage of PR development. The PR world has its
own leaders and outsiders. So, at the last YPRES Congress (Budapest, 1996), one
of the reports said that the UK's lag behind the US is measured in
five years. It is clear that in our case this gap is much more serious. But it is
important that the CIS countries have already started on this path, and now
everything depends primarily on them .
At the same time, we also face personal goals: by the way, they are the same
for both political and pop stars. This is the problem of fame. " It's
not nice to be famous," wrote Boris Pasternak. But this maxim applies to a different
time. Today, in order for your message to overcome the colossal
information noise that surrounds it, you need to be famous. Therefore
, PR as a science teaches this aspect of today's communicative existence.
PR is defined differently. Sam Black, for example, speaks in his definition of
" achieving harmony through mutual understanding.", based on the truth and
full awareness" (Black S. Public relations. What is it? Moscow, 1990, p. 17).
We believe that the word "harmonious "is still somewhat evaluative and not
neutral, since it has a fundamentally positive connotation,although the
term"harmonization" is also present in the definition of the American PR society.
When S. Black says that PR specialists only tell the truth, we again fall into the trap of
beautiful words. After all, it is known that you can tell the truth in different ways. When
Gorky published his own copy of the newspaper Pravda, where reports of arrests
were replaced by stories about crab fishing, both reports were true.
This is a common problem selecting information Questioner : out of a million events
that take place, only hundreds can get on the pages of newspapers or TV screens.
Selection itself produces a distortion of the information space. As a result, the
event becomes a kind of reference, it no longer tells so much about itself as it
signifies certain patterns of the world around us. And if the PR specialist
gets paid for his work, then he will naturally produce
information that will be both truthful and favorable for his client.
In principle, the information field fills a number of symbolic machines that generate
information. These are "mass media machines", which are also symbolic, like
and any others. These are the" machines " of artistic culture that generate symbols
according to their original definition. This is an advertisement. This is public Relations.
Interestingly, the number of people working in the fields of advertising, public relations,
and journalism is arranged in descending order from advertising to journalism. In other
words, what we understand to be the closest to reality is actually smaller
.interests the society. Professionals are rather concentrated in the field of generating
a purely symbolic reality.
E. Bernays, one of the first American specialists in the field of PR, defended this
new specialty in two areas. First, he believed that society
should not allow everyone to act as an expert after he
calls himself an expert on PR. After all, you do not allow this to be done in the case of a
doctor, he wrote, requiring licensing of this specialty like any other.
Secondly, he objected to the recognition of PR as a journalistic discipline. He
believed that it was a social science rather than a philological one.
We will try to illustrate the last objection as follows. On the one
hand, journalism in its traditional print form only works
with the power of the word. PR, in contrast, uses all possible types of influence, all
communication channels. On the other hand, if journalism is based on the analogy
of the transition from REALITY to the WORD, then PR often appears in reverse
order, where the WORD can form reality. This is
supported by various events designed specifically for communication purposes in PR
,including sponsorship.
The status of this new profession is well illustrated by the very fate of E. Bernays. He
begins as an impresario for the famous Italian singer E. Caruso. Then he publishes
books on public opinion research that have received a wide response. It is
known, for example, that his book was lying on Goebbels ' desk. In the pre-war period, he
was called to his service by both Hitler and Franco, but he refused because of his political
beliefs. He has worked with many American politicians and businessmen.
Lived a long life, jumping over a hundred years. By the way, when this happened, he
immediately started writing a book called "My second hundred years".
The time of the emergence of this new profession is the end of the nineteenth and
beginning of the twentieth century. At this point, large monopolies have reached their level
of perfection within their production facilities. But when their product went beyond the
fence of their enterprise, they were deprived of the same effective methods of influence
that were working inside the enterprise. If "order" worked there, then now
we should move on to "persuasion". So, with all kinds of resources, they naturally
decided to manage the life behind the fence of their enterprise as well. The first such
extensive campaign for the United States was working with the railways that emerged
at that time. People were afraid of them when they first encountered them. Campaigns
suffered losses. In response, they launched a struggle for their own interests. if the
main motive against it was fear of an accident, people were convinced that the number of
victims per kilometer of railways is much safer than urban ones, where many more people
die. It is then that the belief arises and is formed that any major action- government
or business-requires appropriate large -scale information support. For example, the choice
in the United States between two current options- direct or alternating-was also decided
by relying on PR. In the UK, the first major pre-war campaign, which cost a million
pounds, was to promote overseas fruit. We must recognize that the USSR should also be
regarded as a pioneer of crisis situations, when the death of Chelyuskin (an obvious result
of the Soviet Union's collapse) was a major factor in the development of the Soviet Union.
crisis) as a result turned into a victory. The whole country lived with a single goal, at
the same time the first Heroes of the Soviet Union appeared.
It should also be noted the role of wars, the first and second, in the formation
ofovaniya of this profession. American professionals left the so-called Krill
Committee, which during the First World War, spread information across the United
States through four-minute speeches. Telegrams were sent to US cities with news
from the front, and people of the committee spoke in the most crowded places
(churches, schools, libraries) with stories about these events. Thus, an effective
network of oral communications was created, which covered the entire country. After the end of
the war, these specialists moved into the field of PR. The same situation with the
transition was repeated in the UK, but after the Second World War. People who were
engaged in propaganda and counter-propaganda at that time could not return to the
field of advertising, because after the war, due to a lack of products, advertising did
not receive the necessary development. They also joined the ranks of PR specialists.
By the way, the level of development of this specialty is also demonstrated by
calculations of sources of messages in central Western publications. Both before and
after the war, up to three-quarters of reports are not based on a free search for a
reporter. This is always information organized by someone . The American sociologist
W. Gamson uses the concept of"sponsor"in this context. The information may have a
sponsor, which contributes to its promotion.
In some cases, this leads to the appearance of the so-called PR "in black":
the placement of material in the media of journalists for cash. The magazine "Expert"
(1997, No. 5) , as a result of a survey of journalists, even built the following table of
prices in dollars:

Segodnya Square Format Rate

Magazine 1/16 A2 300-1000

"Economy and life" 1 /8 A3 1500

"Komsomolskaya Pravda" 1 /8 A3 1500-3000

Vechernyaya Moskva 1/16 A2 1200

Izvestia Newspaper 1/16 A2 2000

Izvestiya-Ekspertiza Finansovye 1/16 A2 1500

Izvestiya 1/16 A2 1200

Finansovaya Gazeta 1 /8 A3 800

1/16 A2
Trud 1500

1/16 A2
Moskovsky Komsomolets 1200-1500

1 ,5 min.
Moscow TV Channel 750

At the same time, the heads of information structures are trying to fight the
"black" PR. Here are just two statements. Editor-in-chief of the Izvestia newspaper
I. Golembiovsky: "If a journalist is caught, he will be dismissed without explanation.
We had such a case." D. Voskoboynikov, First Vice-President of the Interfax
news Agency: "If you find custom-made materials , the correspondent will be
dismissed the very next day. If there are suspicions , an internal investigation is
conducted." As you can see, the difficulties of domestic PR lie both in the continued
closeness of our government and business structures, for which reaching
out to the public is not always a priority occupation, and in the fact that in the
event of a positive decision, we try to find workarounds to reach our audience.
 § 2. Areas of application of PR

For Western countries, the most developing areas of PR are

governmental, crisis and financial. In the case of the CIS
, political PR comes first (although some researchers fundamentally separate
PR and political consulting in different directions). According to unofficial estimates
of Russian analysts, orders for political projects account for up to sixty
percent of all orders. But all our organizations have such challenges.
A symptomatic headline was issued by Komsomolskaya Pravda (1998, May 6) for
readers 'direct line with the Russian Interior Minister S. Stepashin:
"I promise-the police" keep the police " will be replaced by Uncle Stepa.""Uncle
Stepand" in this regard, it is not just an image characteristic, but a fundamentally
positive image that has been in everyone's head since childhood, that is, it was formed
in advance. Unfortunately, then, when it comes into contact with reality, this image is
dismissed as not corresponding to the realities of our life.
There is also a significant area of PR that involves further development and
research due to a certain novelty of this specialty. For example, a survey
was conducted among British practitioners and teachers to identify
priority areas ( White J., Blamphin J. What we need to know / / Journal. The
Institute of Public Relations. - 1995. - Vol. 13. - N 8). The survey resulted
in the following list of priority areas that require in-depth study:
1. Measurement and evaluation,
2. Definition of PR,
3. The need to combine PR with other communication functions;
4. Strategic planning;
5. Relations with the top management of companies;
6. Professional skills;
7. The impact of information technologies on the practice of PR;
8. The image of PR;
9. Expectations of customers of PR services to determine their success criteria;
10. The role of PR in organizational changes;
11. The quality of PR services;
12. International issues;
13. Ethics;
14. The impact of mass media content;
15. Gender issues (the role of women in PR);
16. The profile of the PR services market.
Standard ideas about what constitutes a PR campaign are largely
similar among different researchers. Peter Green suggests starting with "communication
audit"including conversations with all relevant groups of people
to determine what they know, what they don't know, and what they should know (Green P.S.
Winning PR tactics. - London, 1994)..
The well-known PR firm Ketchum offers the following 8 points for developing a PR plan for
a client: 1.
Problem Definition - a good understanding of the problem, its essence from the point of view
of PR helps to formulate the goals of the program;
2. Setting goals - goals should be achievable and offer a solution
to the problem;
3. Defining your audience - if it is necessary to identify several target audiences
to solve the problem, they should be listed for the client, taking into account
the degree of importance of each of these groups for solving the problem;
4. Developing a strategy - the strategy tells you how, in the most general terms, the
goal can be achieved;
5. Specifying tactics - here, the types of activities
to achieve each of the goals are formulated sequentially;
6. Developing a calendar - it is necessary to have a clear time schedule so
that brochures, invitations and podcasts appear at the right time;
7. Calculating the budget - 10 percent is added to the calculated expenses in case
of any unexpected events;
8. Specification of evaluation procedures - the success of the program should be
evaluated according to pre-defined criteria.
Kommersant-Daily gave the distribution of working hours by type of activity
for PR agencies:
41% - media relations;
28% - corporate relations;
10% - services for government agencies;
9% - crisis management;
4% - environmental services;
3% - sponsorship events;
3% - employee relations;
2% - other services.
In turn, PR-services, distributed by industry, took the following form:
21% - pharmaceutical companies and medical institutions;
15% - financial structures;
11% - everyday goods;
5% - durable goods;
5% - energy companies;
3% - travel agencies;
2% - transport companies;
36.6% - other. How do agencies ensure their payment? With Western
agencies on an hourly basis, with otecheonly on the basis of pre-payment
and a pre -determined budget, because otherwise domestic businessmen
can throw up their hands. Regular customers have a subscription form of
service with a monthly payment equal to the cost of ten presentations or 40 hours of agency
work. There are a variety of different types of work per project: communication
with the press, processing materials, and a press conference. For
example, in one of the agencies, the time distribution is as follows: the head
of the agency (the rate of $ 110 per hour) spends 0.5 hours communicating
with the press, the project director ($75 per hour) - 3-5 hours,
the assistant - ($60) - 0.5-1 hour. The average
English rates in 1992/1993 were 24,585 pounds a year, Burson-Marsteller
paid the most-50 thousand pounds. Among the various PR-specializations
, financial consultants received the most (Journal. The Institute of Public
Relations. - 1995. - Vol. 13. - N 8).
The prices for political battles were as follows. Election campaign
in the electoral district - 200-300 thousand dollars. and does not depend on
voting results. The price list of political services of the Indem Center
includes (Izvestia, October 22, 1995):
1. Sociological research of the electoral district, drawing up an electoral
portrait - $ 20,500. 2.
Development of the concept of campaign work, drawing up slogans, texts
of leaflets, election programs, declarations - $ 1,500.
3. Development of the concept of counter-propaganda - $ 700. 4.
Asset training in the mode of business games, psychological trainings on
the following topics: - conducting a door-to-door election campaign;
- street campaigning and leaflet expansion;
- campaigning in a small group (audience); - interaction
of the candidate and his support group during public debates with
opponents. (Study duration: 3 days x 3 teachersx $ 200
for an audience of 12-25 people). 5. Individual psychological consultations
of candidates for deputies. (Installation session - $ 120). At the same
time, we note that they probably could have changed in the direction of
increasing prices, but the"menu" should undoubtedly remain unchanged.
The fee of the manager-organizer is from 500 to 5 thousand dollars
per month. The cost of the services of his team of three to seven people
will be from five to twenty thousand dollars. Psychological consultants
charge $ 40-50 an hour, while high-class specialists charge up to two
hundred dollars an hour (Izvestia, October 14, 1995). What is the internal
PR structure of the company? Thus, the Russian firm "Imidzhland Public
Relations", which has up to 30 employees, has the following structure:
1. Department of Mass Media Relations;
2. Department of development of PR-programs and special PR-events;
3. Department of creative PR-materials;
4. Research and Marketing Department;
5. Analytical Service;
8. Financial PR Department. Its head
Veronika Moiseeva sees among the tasks of PR: creating a corporate
image and a high reputation of the company, resolving problem and crisis
situations, and influencing key audiences. By the way, we can also
note this difference between the Western and domestic approaches. If
the Western approach is rather aimed at planning If you want to create
a positive image in advance, so that the appearance of negative articles
can no longer affect it, then domestic orientations are like "fire"
in nature: they are aimed at correcting what has already been formed.

§ 3. Elementary PR operations

At its core, PR relies on a number of elementary operations inherent

in human information processing. One of these operations is joining us. Personthe vector identifies
two objects that are located next to each other. By the way, this was the basis for the discovery of the
concept of editing in cinema, when two frames standing next to each other from the film were created.
completely different contexts were connected by the viewer in a single logical
chain. This is also actively used in the framework of PR. Here are the following
examples. Analysis the influence of pop and television stars on Boris Yeltsin's electoral
support was expressed in the following figures:" If young people find out that Alla
Pugacheva is voting for Yeltsin, 4.4 percent of young voters will have a stronger
desire to vote for the president "(Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, May 17). Mashina
Vremya gives a plus of 5.7%, Kirkorov-4%, Yuri Nikulin-6 %, Nikita Mikhalkov-5.6%,
Leonid Yarmolnik-4%, Leonid Yakubovich-4 %. That is, in this case, Boris Yeltsin
joins the positive symbol, intercepting a part of the rays of his glory.
In France, there is also a shift in the love of the French towards artists and
football players from politicians (Trud, 1996, March 22). In second place in
popularity is Jacques-Yves Cousteau, 12-Catherine Deneuve, 15-Patricia Kaas.
Politicians go much further: at 27 - Jacques Delors, who refused to participate in the
race for the presidency, Mitterrand-at 31, current president Jacques Chirac-at 32 (a
year ago-at 46). The same behavior is typical for Bill Clinton, who uses
the Olympic Games to raise his popularity. According to one
Republican critic, "the president literally wrapped himself in the Olympic flag and
hung the Olympic rings on himself as ornaments" (Izvestia, 1996, May 30). Clinton's
wife and daughter visited Greece to light the Olympic torch. And presidential
speechwriters were instructed to include Olympic themes in presidential
speeches. See also the commentary of the Vremya program (ORT, 1997, March 20)
on arrival in Helsinki after the Russian President's illness: "A new
and energetic Boris Yeltsin has arrived on a new plane..."
Joining is the basis of one or another modeling of the leader's behavior.
The electorate wants to join a strong, confident politician, so
Western experts teach leaders not to betray their excitement. Or compare the
following statement about the new Turkish prime Minister: "The mysterious face of
49-year-old M. Yilmaz never remains without a smile. Perhaps it is an incalculable
attribute of his image, a sign that not everything is so bad. as it appears to our
opponents "(Chas- Vremya, 1996, May 17).
On the contrary, politicians should fight hard against joining negative objects
. So, in England, a scandal arose when it became known that the Conservative
Party received money in the amount of 150,000 pounds from businessmen
associated with the Bosnian Serb leader R. Karadzic in 1994 (Izvestia, 1996,
May 23). Or such an example as the last "dark spot" in the biography of B. Clinton
and his wife associated with the Whitewater land project, when
the McDougal couple and Clinton's successor as governor of Arkansas, who were
closely connected with them, were convicted . The following process is also being
prepared, related to fraud with government money received in gratitude for
donations to the campaign fund of B. Clinton, who in 1990 became governor with
their help (Izvestia, 1996, May 30).
Hence the problem distancing services B. Clinton , in his videotaped
testimony, stated:: "This is simply not true. There was nothing." However,
the American press emphasizes that " 12 Arkansas jurors are like a reduced
model of the electorate: three workers, two nurses, a teacher, a telephone operator,
a car salesman, a telephone company employee, a civil servant, a pensioner,
a hospital worker" (Trud, 1996, May 31). And they refused to find innocent
people with close ties to the president. Or when did the criticism about President
Kuchma's foreign trips pass (one of the most important events in Ukraine)?
The President's press secretary, Dmitry Markov, issued a corresponding explanation to
the deputies, who venomously called him a "tourist president". : "Over the past six
months, I have taken part in all the President's trips and I don't remember a day or even
2-3 hours of normal rest. The President always starts the working day at 6 a.m. and ends
it well after midnight. That is, there is no question of rest even in the aspect of time. This
is extremely hard and strenuous work" (Chas-Vremya, 1996, May 17). Or such
an example: Izvestia (1996, May 21) had only to accuse A.
Lyubimov of bribery for appearing in the program "One on One". The article
said that presidential candidate Vladimir Bryntsalov paid 15 thousand
dollars for appearing in this program. And immediately the reaction: "Yesterday, the VID
TV company held an urgent press conference. The topic is the scandal that broke out
around Lyubimov's latest program "One on One" - the one where Bryntsalov and
Zhirinovsky met. ... Lyubimov and Ernst began the press conference with an
announcement that the VIEW was also being used. both ORT filed a lawsuit against
Izvestia - both of them filed a claim for 15 billion rubles. After that, a unique document
was shown - the receipts of Bryntsalov and Zhirinovsky (received before the ill-fated
broadcast!) - "in the fact that none of the VIDA employees demanded or received"
money from them for participating in the program. As it turned out, WEED introduced
this practice since the last election - in order to avoid trouble. ... " (Komsomolskaya
Pravda, 1996, May 24). It would hardly have helped Mikhail Gorbachev to publish such a
fact: "Can the future "great reformer", who was at that time the first secretary of the
regional party committee and a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, sit in the
sauna waiting room while the guest of honor gets drunk? Who! Brezhnev's cheerful
daughter Galina. And all in order to bring Galina a glass after leaving the steam room and
say nice words" (Pravda Rossii, 1997, April 15). This may have been the norm of behavior
at that time, but it begins to be judged from the norms adopted at the moment.
Distancing oneself from potential negativity is widespread
within Western PRS. So, to remove the image of the "iron lady", M. Thatcher tried
to capture, for example, walking with a dog on a deserted beach.
They tried to remove the detachment of the English Prime Minister Edward Heath from
the population by such methods as teaching him to speak in a less formal tone,
removing the image of a bachelor by showing a film about his yacht trip, where there
were shots of a young woman.
PR sets the task of supporting the desired behavior and combating negative
behavior. Therefore, a change in attitude becomes an important aspect of PR. These
relationships are characterized within the following four functions (Schiffman L. G.,
Kanuk L. L. Consumer behavior. - Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1983): utilitarian function, ego-
protective function, evaluative function, cognitive function. Utility function
it justifies the consumer's commitment to a particular brand precisely because in
the past this brand has brought them positive results. Ego-protective
function explain the use of cosmetic and hygiene products by a person,
which help him to protect his "I", to raise it higher. Evaluation function
provides an explanation for the pursuit of expensive goods, when a person adheres to a
high assessment of this lifestyle. Cognitive function it is used to tell a person
about the advantages of a particular product. At the same time, according to Schiffman
and Kanyuk, the same product is motivated differently by different people. So, a tennis
racket can be perceived by one person as giving more control
(a utilitarian function), or as referring to the male image created
by advertising using celebrities (an ego-protective function). All
Russian presidential candidates, for example, talk about a better future for voters (a
utilitarian function), about restoring the name of Russia and the dignity of Russians (ego-
protective function), they are emphasized new standards of living (evaluation
function) and told in detail about the ways to achieve this future, as well as about
the candidates themselves (cognitive function). The lack of recent information
explains the attention paid to Yeltsin's family and himself, who was dressed in a
version of home-made clothing- a sweater. shown by the audience at the broadcast
of the KVN game, where the President of Russia was in the hall (ORT, 1996, June
2). A change in attitude can therefore occur by referring to a group of social events that
are related (or linked) to each other. For example, B. Clinton modeled his openness
by speaking in fast food restaurants, meeting teenagers on the MTV channel. During
the presidential elections in Russia, newspapers publish messages under the
heading " The President's helpline is working". By the way, all the commercials
of Boris Yeltsin's presidential campaign are based on the use of a video series with
ordinary people, and not the president himself. PR
is also designed to model success, therefore, it is necessary to bring the leader
closer to the superficial manifestations of success in the form of innovative activities
in the form of opening bridges, factories and monuments. The leader and success
must merge in the viewer's mind into one single [Link] psychoanalyst
Karen Horney wrote: "According to existing ideologies, success reflects inherent
merit, or, in religious terms, is the visible embodiment of God's grace;
in reality, it depends on many factors that are beyond our
control-random circumstances, someone's bad faith, etc.
even a perfectly normal person believes that
his significance is directly related to the success that accompanies him" (Horney
K. Neurotic personality of our time / / Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time.
Samoanaliz, Moscow, 1993, pp. 218-219). Participation in the above-mentioned
rituals directly connects us with the past stages of the development of civilization,
when raising a person to a new level was possible only within the framework
of existing rituals. In other words, we have a historically justified set of actions,
and from this point of view, it is clearly a winning one. Psychologist Otto Rank notes:
"The insertion of individual life into the heroic model of an outstanding personality
begins with a ritual ceremony in which the individual temporarily rises above
his social essence. With Christianity, however, this uplifting experience became
permanent in the psychological personality type. The whole process of creating
a person using traditional models has become conscious, born out of the Gospel
saying that the words of the Prophets are being revived in Christ. The life of Christ
continues in Paul, so the word of Christ becomes alive in Paul, and with the help
of the apostles in humanity" (Rank O. Beyond Psychology. - N.Y., 1958. - p. 165).
Marketing strategies also offer various options for changing
attitudes. Among them: changing the relative rating of attributes, changing the idea
of brands, adding attributes, changing the brand rating. If the relative assessment
of attributes changes, we are talking about the same market, where one type of
product is bought because of one set of qualities, and another-because of another.
Therefore, there is an opportunity to transfer other people's consumers to your side
. This can be done by overestimating the attributes attributed to
your product, and underestimating the characteristics from someone else's set. If the
brand image changes, you should not make it too fast and strong, because
the consumer will probably reject such a significant change in their ideas.
Adding an attribute allows you to include a new feature that was not previously
included in the review. Schiffman and Kanyuk, however, believe that this is difficult,
since all the attributes are already used in the case of a well-known product. More
the right way is suggested by a strategy in which a new attribute appears
as a result of technological improvement of the product.

With the entire set of data problems, the PR is faced in the situation of competing
objects, for example, banks. This also includes selective technologies.
Let us recall how Vremya constantly underestimated the qualities of Yeltsin's
competitors during the presidential elections in Russia , emphasizing the differences
in Zyuganov's camp, Fyodorov's profession, and Lebedev's simplicity.

§4 . Marketing strategies in PR

The PR borrowed techniques developed in the sciences such as advertising

and marketing for its own purposes, which allowed Americans to say
that they were selling their [Link] just like any other product. Here is a
concrete example. Nash Dom Rossiya, having lost the role of prime minister to
its head, requires a new marketing strategy. As Deputy V. Ryzhkov says, they
should react differently, they should start talking about other topics, as
Zyuganov or Yavlinsky say: "about society, about its problems, about the
values that we carry with us" (TV-Center, 1998.26 Apr.). As new
characteristics, he believes that "Our Home is Russia" can now carry with it an emphasis on
such messages as political stability, reforms, and reliance on the regions.
What are the typical ways to find such solutions? The first task becomes
audience segmentation. Quite a long time ago, the West (unlike us) shifted
its main efforts from production to the sales process in order to produce
what will be bought. It was only at the beginning of these processes that Ford
could claim that it produced its cars in any color, as long as that color was
black. Three criteria are proposed in the development of this direction
(Schiffman L. G., Kanuk L. L. Consumer behavior. - Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,
1983): 1) the market should be divided into significant subgroups; 2) these
subgroups can be identified; 3) they can be achieved using specialized mass
media. These characteristics that help identify a particular audience segment
include: geographical characteristics, demographic characteristics (age,
gender, income level, profession, education), psychographic characteristics,
and socio- cultural characteristics. Let's look at them using examples.
Geographical characteristics include regions. For Ukraine, there is a fairly
clear division into western and eastern (and southern) regions, which resulted
in the following contrasts in the presidential elections of ' 94:results assigned to
each other (emphasis added):
region % " for "L. Kravchuk %" for " L. Kuchma
Crimea 8.88 89.70
Vinnytsia 54.32 42.32
Dnipropetrovsk 29.72 67.81
Donetsk 18.49 79.00
Zhytomyr 55.64 41.56
Zakarpattia 70.52 25.21
Ivano-Frankivsk 94.46 3.86
Kiev 58.31 38.38
Kirovohrad 45.71 49.72
Luhansk 10.11 88.00
Lviv 93.77 3.90
Mykolaiv 44.66 52.80
Odessa 29,23 66,80

Poltava 37,44 59,16

Rivne 87,25 59,16

Sumy 28,92 67,75

Ternopil 94,80 3,75

25,95 71,01
Kharkiv Kherson
32,08 64,64
Khmelnitsky 57,23 39,27
Cherkasy 50,78 45,72
Chernivetskaya 61,84 35,27

Chernihiv
25,07 72,33
city Kiev
59,74 35,58
citySevastopol
6,54 91,88
AS A WHOLE 45,06 52,15

(Вибори в Україні 1994 року. - Київ, 1995. - С. 180)

Accordingly, Russia is characterized by a contrast in voting between Moscow and St. Petersburg,
which give more than 10% of the vote, and the province, which decides everything
with its own votes. Thus, Izvestia (1996, May 30) gives the results of a survey of residents of
villages and villages of Bashkirstan: 39.2% of voters supported Zyuganov, 17.5 % supported
Yeltsin, and 22.6% did not decide. Estimates of the personal situation of rural residents and the
general population also look different according to another study (Izvestia, 1996, June 6).:

All Village
population
Everything is not so 11 10

bad and you

can live hard to 45 55

live, but you can

endure To endure ... 36 30

it's already impossible

They couldn't answer 8 5

Rural people have their own preference systems that differ from
urban ones. "Rural residents show noticeably more conservative socio-political
positions compared to urban ones. If 39 percent of the total population of Russia prefers
the Soviet system , then 58 percent of the rural population prefers the current
political system, 10 percent (6 in rural areas), and 29 percent (16 in Western
democracy)" (ibid.). This is importantThis is a cross-section of reality, since
26 percent of the population lives in rural areas of Russia. Эта географическая
среда также обладает определенной замкнутостью, выражающейся
в предпочтении только "своих" местных органов информации, это 77%
опрошенных во Львове, 43% и 48% в Донецке и Симферополе (Макеєв С.
Регіональні відмінності в оцінці економічної та соціально-політичної ситуації
// Політичний портрет України. - Вип. 15. - Київ, 1996. - С. 74).
Segmentation by age It is also very important, because certain age categories
have different sets of ideals, different communication channels, and different
ways to go to the polls. For example, Coca-Cola is gaining not only the youth
generation, but also produces diet Cokes. As part of the presidential election
campaign in Russia, there is a car rally "Vote or lose"specifically for young people.
For example: "On June 11, a concert version is scheduled to be shown on ORT
"Old songs about the main thing". The goal is to convince young people that free music is
possible only in a democratic environment" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, May 24).
Segmentation by gender gives a different answer to the preferences of voters. For example, both
L. Kravchuk and B. Clinton were very popular among women
voters. Although at the same time there is a tendency to erase the "edges". As
Komsomolskaya Pravda writes (1996, May 31): "Recently, young guys and
girls try to look the same. They wear the same clothes-T-shirts.
jeans and huge boots - they cut their hair the same way,read the same magazines, and
use CK One perfume (by Calvin Klein). It has become fashionable to smoke unfiltered
cigarettes , listen to a walkman, and talk in languid drawling voices. It is difficult to say
when this rebirth of a man into a woman began and vice versa, but it led
to the appearance of "unisex" stores and the release of new perfume by Paco Rabanne -
"for people"
Psychological segmentation It helps you find a connection in marketing
strategies, for example, between the "aggressive type" of a man and his use
of aftershave. Coco Chanel defended women's right to freedom of movement
by introducing loose dresses with a scarf around the hip. "She invented the pajamas. Then
there were trousers - they will be worn by women with shaved heads who smoked
cigarettes" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, May 17). Psychographics means the study
of life stereotypes (as well as DIM research - activities, interests, opinions).
Demographic data, as Schiffman and Kanyuk point out, can provide information about
the type of key audience, but it can't help us know what needs to be said or shown.
what psychological characteristics describe our consumer?
Psychographic studies provide objective results with the indication
of certain quantitative indicators. Thus, a set of five main
segments of the female population is proposed, from which we will take only some
characteristic features (cited by Schiffman L. G., Kanuk L. L. Consumer behavior. -
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1983. - p. 116):
Thelma, a traditionalist with old tastes (25%). She has lived a good life in
the traditional values of a devoted wife. Even now, with her children separated. her
life revolves around the kitchen. She doesn't have a college degree, so she
likes art and cultural entertainment less. Her free time is spent watching TV,
which is her main source of entertainment and information.
Mildred, active mom (20%). Mildred married early and had children before that.
how ready she was to run the house. She's not happy right now. It's hard for her
make ends meet on her ownmy husband's. She finds the opportunity to escape
from her unhappy world into soap operas and movies. Television gives her the
perfect vehicle to live out her fantasies. She watches TV all day and late into the
evening. Candice, fashionable suburban resident (20%). This is a city woman. She has a
good education. She is the first in her circle, active in the club's affairs, involved in
community projects. Socialization is an important part of her life. She
is interested in sports, politics, and current affairs. There's no magazine
she doesn't read. Television is meaningless to her.
Katie, a satisfied housewife (18%). She is married to a worker and lives with
several young children in a small town. She devoted herself to her family and
faithfully acts for them as a mother, housewife, cook. She doesn't like
TV news programs, she likes the family entertainment
provided by Walt Disney and others.
Eleanor, elegant lady (7%). Eleanor is a woman with style. She likes to live in
a big city, takes care of fashionable clothes. she likes [Link] is
financially secure, and when shopping, she focuses on quality and style, not
price. She has traveled abroad or is about to do so. Accordingly, for
each of the five female types, there are tables of the use of certain cosmetics
and adherence to certain channels and programs. Psychographic analysis
allows you to: 1) segment the market. 2) position and reposition products,
3) develop product promotion campaigns. An example of repositioning is
the" secondary launch " of B. Clinton during the 1992 election campaign,when
it was established by working with focus groups that the population
is poorly aware of the existence of his wife and daughter. Mass media also
has its own psychographic characteristics of readers. this allows advertisers
to address ads for their products specifically to them. So, comparing
readers of " Playboy "and" Reader's Digest " gave the following results::

Percentage of readers who agree with the statement of readers of "Playboy" Readers
dig."

My greatest achievement is yet 26

to come 50 I attend church 40

regularly 18 Movies should be censored 14 40

Most men will cheat on their

wives if given the opportunity 27 12

(cited in Schiffman L. G., Kanuk L. L. Consumer behavior. - Englewood Cliffs,

N. J., 1983. - p . 130). In general,
the demographic approach helps to localize the consumer, and the
psychographic approach helps to show their inner world (interests, opinions,
and preferred behaviors).
Socio-cultural segmentation. For example, Nestle coffee is sold separately in the
US market and in the Italian market. These studies, for example, have shown
a future shift in alcohol consumption from colored varieties (whiskey) to
"white" (vodka and gin). This was based on the fact that young people are
interested in novelty and do not really want "standard" actions (and
developing a taste for whiskey takes time). This or that segmentation may not
be significant. For example, Russian sociologists tested the influence of the
problem of defrauded depositors on the preferences of the electorate. On
May 24, 1996, 1,500 people were interviewed. Question: If the presidential
election were held next Sunday, who would you most likely vote for?
(Izvestia, 1996, May 30): Last name Non-depositors Defrauded
candidates % depositors, %
________________________________________________Yeltsin
21.4

Zyuganov 20.4 20.7 25,3

Zhirinovsky 8.7 10.5

Yavlinsky 7 .8 9.1

Lebed 5.5 6.4

The rest 11.6 13.5

Would not participate 9.9 5.3

I find it difficult to answer 10,8 13,1

_________________________________________________
Answer: the differences of 1 -2 % are not significant.

Let's give a concrete example of the Moscow Duma elections held

by a specific candidate. The solution development path was as follows:
"The situation was difficult, but predictable. We managed to predict it based on
the results of a sociological study and correctly identify the active
part of "our" electorate. The election campaign was focused
primarily on the elderly, and it was they who eventually took part in
the elections, while middle-aged people, politically savvy intellectuals
actually ignored them." (Kashirina I. The formula for success. - "Interlocutor". - 1998. - No.
2. - pp. 13-14). Defining your audience segment naturally
entails selecting appropriate communication channels and relying on
the ideals and values that are close to the audience. The item is positioned in such a
way that it becomes not only its own,but also the only correct one in this situation for
this audience.
Positioning It is one of the most important marketing strategies.
"Marketing specialists try to "position" their brands so that they
are perceived by a specific market segment as meeting certain
needs or having certain attributes. Product positioning
is particularly important in relation to other brands within the same product category"
(Schiffman L. G., Kanuk L. L. Consumer behavior. - Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1983.
- p . 155). Therefore, toothpaste becomes not just a toothpaste, but an oral freshener,
if the consumer is waiting for it at the moment. A leader can focus on certain
aspects of their education. And not just the leader. "Chanel came up with a "noble"
legend and with perseverancepto told it to friends and journalists alike. Meanwhile ,
she was born in an almshouse. His father is a fairground merchant, and his mother is
a cook and ironer. the family has four children" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, May
17). During the Clinton campaign in 1992, it was discovered that the population
was poorly aware of the existence of his wife and daughter. And Clinton had to
be"launched" again in order to position him in the right direction. Instead
of her usual role as a feminist, Hillary had to play the role of a housewife, taking
to the stage with her own baked sweets. In the
plan positioning options psychologists also argue when they say: "the election will be won
by the one who behaves most psychoanalytically. To build a proper
campaign strategy, you need to understand the prevailing relationship between
parents and children in a given country and at a given time. Children's expectations
are subconsciously transferred to the authorities in power, and they want what
they get or don't get from their parents" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, May 31).
A reasonable option positioning options we can also recognize the motive of the hero's
coming to rule in another country, being a stranger in it, noted by Otto Rank (Rank O.
Beyond psychology. - N.Y., 1958). The outsider is positioned very well in this regard,
since it is fundamentally different. Probably. in the same way, we can interpret
the origin of the Egyptian pharaohs directly from the gods, so that mortals
could not even step on the shadow of the Pharaoh.
Positioning The party programs of the CPSU times were expressed in the slogans "Every
family has a separate apartment by 2000" and under. The leaders were positioned as "
loyal followers of Lenin's cause." Today, any deputy appears before his own deputies.
voters only as a Democrat. Therefore
, it becomes quite difficult to position yourself in this environment.
Joan Ryan and George Lemmon try to distinguish positioning from
image building: "Positioning is very different from
image building, because it involves placing a product or service in a competitive
context. This means finding the strongest possible "states" for the product. Building
an image can be done outside of this context - it is often done. You can improve
your reputation or create an image without necessarily thinking about whether
this will lead to more sales in the market. Positioning, on the other hand,
is very vulnerable on this side - you do everything right or the product fails"
(Ryan J.A., Lemmond G.H. Thinking like a brand manager // Public Relations Journal. - 1989
August). They also offer the following options: rules for successful positioning:
- be specific - you can't reach everyone and be specific, good
positioning is the opposite of being good for everyone; as a political
example, they cite Ronald Reagan, whose messages were always
specific, he never sought to reach everyone;
- pass on an important advantage - people should be told why your product
is important to them; they should identify what the audience wants and give it to
them. - start with strength - emphasize the strengths of your product.
- be truthful - you can not deceive consumers for a long time with untrue
messages,
- simplify it - the best positioning option is a single idea
that is easy to understand.
We can think of positioning as translating a message into a different
value system. Values are a more basic representation.
British experts believe that there are [Link] changes, values remain. R.
Reagan, for example, in his election campaign conducted by R. Verslin,
relied on deeper values (family, work, neighbors, etc.) than those that
divided Democrats and Republicans, so both could vote for him
. In general, this is possible because we are dealing with a multidimensional
communication space. In the linear representation that we usually
operate with, we can only embed one set of characteristics.
Here are familiar examples of situations that can be considered as explicit
use of positioning. Wolf
positions it act like Little Red Riding Hood. trying to get in to Grandma's. For him, this
is the only possible strategy for getting inside, since Grandma (as
a kind of mechanism) reacts only to the" password " Red Riding Hood. An intruder
entering a modern apartment, positions it like a postman
with a telegram, an electrician. checking counters and sub-tags.
Any pop star is a must positions it She wants to show herself sexually, thinking that
this way she will be able to get the greatest number of fans. Hence
self-designations like "pop symbols of the country".
Minister of Health, positioning the introduction of paid services suggests that
this is done so that people can see "just what they have to pay for now"
(that is, the problem is actually presented as if in an inverted form).
Perestroika originally positioned as a "return to Lenin's roots". By the way, this
technique has been used from time to time in Soviet history, especially in the past.
it was actively used in the literature (A.V. Voznesensky, M. Shatrov and others). And this simultaneous
corresponded to the general trend, when the Secretary General positioned as a follower
of the Lenin (Stalin) cause. Compare Mayakovsky: "I clean myself under Lenin." At the same time,
not taking into account the "audience language" can lead to sad consequences. Peter the Great
, positioning during his perestroika, he shaved his beards and dressed his subjects in German clothes
But at the same time, the devils on the icons were depicted without beards and in a German dr
To save their minds from such blasphemies, the population did the opposite: they began
to position the tsar as someone who had been replaced abroad, and now it is
no longer the tsar, but the anti-Christ.
In general, marketing strategies were sufficiently justified when selling
products, so it was quite justified to transfer them to a new type of object. At
the same time, J. Ryan and J. R. R. Tolkien Lemmon sees the following set of differences betwee
marketing and traditional media: (Ibid.):
- marketing is characterized by action and immediate reaction, PR is more
focused on long-term communication;
- marketing relies on proven techniques and measurable results, PR-on
the sum of techniques, the result of which is often difficult to quantify;
- marketing is aimed at dividing the audience using demographic and
psychographic procedures, which is aimed at multiple audiences with
special interests;
- marketing uses paid messages, but relies on less controlled
communications.
- marketing works in the area of a strictly defined market, where the task is
to increase sales, PR operates in a broader plane of public opinion.
From here it appears as a new direction marketing public relations (MPR).
Thomas Harris ( Harris T.L. Why your company needs Marketing Public Relations / / Public
Relations Journal. - 1991. - Sept.) distinguishes MPR from general PR in that the latter
are occupied by the entire audience, which can be related to the company, not just its
customers. It also differentiates them from corporate clients who work with
an audience consisting of non-customers. Even in the company's structure, they function
at different levels: MPRA professionals report to the head of the marketing department,
and corporate PR professionals report to the top officials. This new
direction emerged in 1990, when a number of companies combined the functions of marketing an
PR in their structures. So did General Motors, Procter & Gamble, McDonald' s, IBM.
"The starting point was that if an organization failed to successfully
market its products and services, it would not survive, and therefore its relationships with
a diverse audience would inevitably become intertwined with marketing," writes T.
Harris.
If initially MPRS were engaged in product publicity, then they shifted to
creating markets for existing products, increasing trust in the company
and product through sponsorship and aml. The most successful marketing strategies
were related to new objects. For example, McDonald's did not sell
hamburgers, but franchises. Publicity was aimed at creating an image of McDonald's as
an attractive object for investment, trying to interest those who want
to start their own business.
All this allowed one of the leaders of Ketchum PR, Paul Alvarez
, to exclaim: "Marketing and public relations have the ability
to integrate perfectly ... work synenergetically.. become a "wedding made in
heaven" (Alvarez P.H. Public relations and marketing: a marriage made in heaven // "IABC
Communication world", 1988, Febr.). It offers ten rules
allowing the PR specialist to get closer to the marketing specialist:

- speak their language - communicate with them as they speak to each

otherm, using marketing terms to explain their ideas.
- create a strategy that matches your marketing goals - your
ideas can't contradict the marketing program.
- call it marketing public relations - such positioning
will undoubtedly support you.
- avoid mystery - you should offer something that is well understood
and corresponds to existing business approaches.
- give them great ideas - good ideas have an emotional impact.
- simplify it - if your idea is difficult to understand, it is
fundamentally wrong. - show that your offer works at all levels - your program
should work well with all the features that support the sale.
- show them the flexibility of the program - your program should
be consistent with any stage of your marketing strategies.
- set the rating structure - since marketing managers rely on
evaluation systems, you should also offer objective strategies.
- help them sell the program to the boss - the previous nine stages will make
it easier for your superiors to complete the program.

§ 5. Working with the image in PR

The twentieth century comes with a serious focus on technology, while

at the same time random actions that do not carry a system load go to the side.
Why exactly is the image becoming a real means of influencing mass consciousness?
The fact is that we can work with the mass consciousness in general
only with the help of a communicative unit, which is the image. In the communication
of one person with another, it is possible to use physical units. Conditional example:
an axe, not a word , can convince a person. This is no longer possible for the
mass consciousness, you should focus on your communication skills.

physical object individual consciousness

communication object mass consciousness

But at the same time, working with the mass consciousness differs in that we cannot
convey, for example, politics as a message in full, we must transform it in accordance
with the requirements of the transmission channel (for TV - these are some
opportunities, for radio - others, for newspapers - others). The entire volume of
characteristics cannot be transmitted. For this reason, we have to limit ourselves to only a
small part of them. For this reason, the choice of characteristics for transmission
becomes so important . It is this selection from an almost infinite volume of characteristics
to a very limited one that forms the image. But the impact of already selected
characteristics occurs in a fairly intensive mode. After all, they are selected
in such a way as to accurately overcome the "thresholds" of audience perception.
Only those characteristics that are "doomed to success" in advance are taken. In
this case, the coincidence (harmonization) of characteristics with the requirements of the
transmission channel becomes significant. In this regard, the ideal policy is one whose
natural characteristics coincide with the norms of the channel. Since today television has
become the main means of influence, a harmonious combination with this channel is the
key to the success of a politician. Here is the opinion of E. Kiselyov, author and presenter
"Totogi", about the appearance of politicians on the TV screen: "The trouble with our
politicians is that they are very afraid of television, few of them willingly go to
different TV programs to give interviews. (There are, of course, exceptions). But it
must be taken into account. that there are politicians and there are officials. We often
confuse these two concepts. A politician is a person who has made the struggle for
power and life a [Link] at the mercy of your profession, your career, and the way
you make money. It deliberately sells itself to voters and taxpayers as a hired labor
force. This is the philosophy in the West. It 's a little different here. For example,
Yavlinsky is a politician, and Lebed is a politician. Although Cygnus is not easily
called in for an interview, he has some inner fear of being put in an awkward situation, the
fear that some tough, uncomfortable questions will be put in front of him that he will
not be able to answer. That's why politicians don't line up for interviews, but they
usually do. accept " ("Figures and Faces", Supplement to Nezavisimaya Gazeta,
1998, No. 6). We can also consider the image from the point of view of processing a
complex object by mass consciousness. It is likely that a certain
crystallization of the characteristics occurs. Almost every object of attention around
us has its own image structure, whether it's a TV star or
an airline. Non-essential characteristics are relegated to the background.
For example, B. Yeltsin's hand injury does not work for the general image, so it
is practically not mentioned anywhere, with the exception of A. Korzhakov's book.
Politicians try to consciously manage image processes, even when
they seem impulsive to us. For example, Galina Starovoitova says about
Zhirinovsky :" His emotions and tantrums are well calculated" (the program "Third
Extra", RenTV, 1998, July 23). At the same time, it is very dangerous to get into
a space that is not controlled by a politician, where all sorts of surprises can lie in
wait for him. The same Starovoitova says: "Even with a clean biography, a politician
should be very careful."
Image characteristics can be roughly divided into biological resources (
aggressive typeti or force), communication skills (as a channel-dependent type
of telegenicity), social networks (modeling purely human characteristics
that are considered positive by the population), mythological (being
a "summation" of the object to the existing stereotypical ideas) and
professional services (reflecting the requirements of the mass audience for external - and
partly internal-ideas about this type of profession). However, not only
the latter type of characteristics refers to system representations, from
which the true meaning of the characteristic is derived. You should also add contextual
a type that sets the dependency on your opponent. The example of Reagan as a
strong president succeeding Carter as a weak president. All
the characteristics try to resonate with the system of representations recorded in
the mind of the average citizen. The task of specialists is to search for realizations of
these characteristics in the verbal, visual and event spheres. In sum, we
can represent this set in the following form::

example
type what does it resonate with implementation example
of a feature
commanding voice,
with primitive
biological animal reactions strong, confident speech, a cutting
aggressive wave of the hand and
origin with special under.
communicative features nice smile,
 communication channel ability to make people laugh and
under.
kindness, meeting people,
with family attention to attentive listening to
social
views to others, someone else's information
openness speech and pod.
with stereotypical
ideas of quite deals with
mythological "knight"
a long time ago "enemies"
character
competence level,
can speak,
with the audience's ideas success on answer difficult questions
professional
about the profession the previous one
questions
the field of
with characteristics "strong" against the background
contextual of "weak" lack of compromising material
your opponent

At the same time, some characteristics of the "honesty" type can "travel" across a
number of types. "Honest" as a contextual characteristic will help you distinguish
yourself from your opponent. "Honesty" as a professional trait can successfully
characterize a government official and a pod. The presence of such a set of
characteristics in one "object" acts as a kind of "menu", from which each consumer can
draw what he likes best. As a result, such multilayering creates a constant
impact, sets a certain pulsating character that does not leave a person
out of control. A conditional example: even the most powerful dictators - Hitler and
Stalin- liked to be photographed with their children, thereby making it possible to see
themselves not only as a formidable dictator, but also as a loving father.
These types of characteristics add up to complement each other as
a specific resource. At the same time, the lack of one of them can be compensated
by a large introduction of another type of resource. Let's now look at the real options
for implementing these parameters, taking for a conditional example the types of R.
Reagan and M. Gorbachev. According to the biological parameter, Reagan was initially
perceived as a strong leader in contrast to the then-current President Carter. And,
probably, not so much Reagan himself was like that, as the population was dissatisfied with
Carter and was looking for a replacement for him in the "strong - weak"field. According
to the parameter of communication skills, Reagan could have previously had
winning positions. being a professional actor. According to the social parameter of the
ReigAna had a flaw: the population assessed him as having no human warmth,
especially for women. According to the mythological parameter, Reagan went with the
slogan "Make America great again", which strengthens the mythological confrontation "
we " / "they". According to the professional parameter, Reagan's governorship in
California was used in favor of Reagan . As for Mikhail Gorbachev, the
biological characteristics of the manifestations of power and subordination to power fit
into it in advance by the very fact of the existence of the post of general secretary in a
country with a conditional democracy. In terms of communication , Gorbachev was the
first secretary general to constantly model openness through meetings with the public.
An interesting episode is this: at one of the first meetings on the street, which took
place two months after his election in Leningrad, in response to his question, what do
you think, he heard: to be closer to the people. Gorbachev immediately retorted-much
closer than he drew laughter from those around him. In terms of the social
dimension, Gorbachev also revealed himself in an unusual way with the appearance of
a wife to whom none of the Soviet leaders seemed to be in the public field.
This immediately made his appearance more multidimensional, for example, women
could look at how Raisa Maksimovna was dressed. According to mythological ideas,
Gorbachev played the role of a certain liberator, he opened up new
models of behavior with his permission ([Link] well - known appeal - "you criticize, and we
will support you"). According to the professional parameter, Gorbachev was able to speak
well, even mesmerizing with texts of almost infinite volume. Today
(especially after the election of Boris Yeltsin), the society has developed as a maximum
of positive attitude towards image makers, both expectations from them, in some
cases, of exorbitant results, and complete denial. As an example
of the latter, we can cite the opinion of A. Volsky, Chairman of the Russian Union
of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, who stated:: "I don't believe in
image-making firms" (AST channel, 1998, May 3). However, it should be recognized that
the mass consciousness works exclusively with image characteristics,
since it is simply physically unable to delve into a particular problem
due to their huge number. And A. Volsky himself uses the same
characteristics when evaluating a particular political figure or
a particular situation. So, in the same program, he called as a positive feature of the new
Prime Minister S. Kiriyenko his " learning ability "(adding that S. Kiriyenko was offended
by him for this word). But this feature is only one of the possible ways to describe
the image of the new prime minister. When S. Kiriyenko was put forward for voting, a number
of image "legends" were developed for him, designed to set off the necessary characteristics.
These texts, as implied, should have been introduced into the mass consciousness,
both by the candidate himself and by the" subordinate " media. For example,
the school legend: "I was sitting at the first desk. Although the school does not like
excellent students, they did not reproach me with this. I remember being kicked out of class
more than once for letting my classmates cheat and prompting them" (Komsomolskaya
Pravda, 1998, April 17). The focus of this particular legend is clear (and there
are seven of them in total): set off the obvious image of an "excellent student" who is
not very popular with the mass audience, with some lively and understandable features.
The promotion staff also worked out other options: "There are also recommendations
on what to say and where to say it. When Kiriyenko went to congratulate
Chernomyrdinand with the anniversary, the "staff officers" warned: the expediency
of a joint approach to TV cameras is doubtful" (In the same place).
Image characteristics are one of the main ones for PR. For example, the first
question of a journalist's question to Catherine Deneuve begins with this concept: "Do you
follow your image? In real life, are you the same as in the movies?" ("All-Ukrainian
Vedomosti", 1996, June 6). Sergei Shakhray, for example, has this in mind when he says
about authority: "Gennady Zyuganov or General Rutskoi may personally dislike Boris
Yeltsin, but even they must protect the authority of the presidency
as a state institution. .. The surnames of the presidents will be different, but the authority
of the president, the authority of the state should always remain at its best. Similarly, it is
necessary to protect the authority of the parliament, and not to exchange it for the antics
of the ridiculous Marychev or ugly fights on the air " (Trud, 1996, December 15). This is
also understood in marketing when they say. that everyone has
an image of themselves. "Products and other objects have symbolic
value for individuals who evaluate them in terms of their congruence
with personal images of themselves. Some products seem
consistent with individual self-image, others seem completely alien" (Schiffman
L. G., Kanuk L. L. Consumer behavior. - Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1983. - p . 154).
Marketing provides another clue for PR. The consumer goes to the general assessment
a product based on its physical characteristics. It can be size,
color, taste, or smell. So, the assessment of the taste of ice cream, the softness
of detergent or the quality of a shirt can go by color, it was found that such
internal characteristics, which the consumer follows, often have no relation to
real life.m product characteristics.
Mass consciousness is not able to work with many parameters. Therefore,
there is a tendency to reduce a complex object to two or three essential
characteristics. Therefore, we can treat the image as an option collapsed
text. Based on its suggestions, we can expand the image into a large Text.
For example, Lyubov Orlova in the film" Spring " appears in two roles: a scientist
and an actress. One of the signs of the image of a scientist in the film are
glasses, which the actress does not have. Glasses in advertising a medical
product emphasize the authority of the speaker, to emphasize this detail, they
are also corrected in the frame. The image of a true artist was associated with
certain material hardships: the artist must be hungry... Although the Moscow
sculptor Salavat Shcherbakov refutes this opinion in an interview with
Komsomolskaya Pravda (1997, March 26): "Phidias was hardly hungry. And Michelangelo,
too. The thesis about the "hungry artist" originated in Soviet times,
when intellectuals disliked Vuchetich and Nalbandian, courtiers and well-fed
people. It's silly to think that if you are hungry, you will immediately become a
good artist." But still, a single point of view cannot refute the mass view.
Donald Levine (Levin D.M. Publicizing the "impossible" / / Public Relations Journal. -
1989. - Febr.) offers the following set of techniques to help promote even
the "impossible":
- think visually-even in the case of printing - you need to build your story around
photos, tables, diagrams, etc.;
- expand the outputs - you should work with all means of communication, striving for
maximum coverage;
- create unique events - they can include a sports event,
performance, anniversary, one - on-one meeting;
- diversify your approach - look for new communication strategies.
- create milestones - you don't have to wait for your "millionth user"
to appear to remind the audience about yourself.
- legitimize your ads - often the journalist replies, this is interesting, why don
't you buy advertising space for this message, so that this does not happen,
you should refocus your ideas on society, government, problems, causes,
and education. culture.
- do your own work as a journalist - you should think about your event from the point of
view of a journalist, from what can interest the audience in it, and not your own
superiors. Image strategies
also become important for the organization, for creating the so -called corporate
image. Here are two examples. The first is Gazprom. Here is the opinion of the
deputy.A. Kotov, Head of Gazprom's Public Relations Department: "Previously,
there was no need to shape the image of certain organizations. Why in a
planned economy to praise the car factory, when we have already bought all the
cars? There was a queue for cars! Now it's the buyer's turn. We are the" sellers
" of the image. This may sound vulgar, but public relations services are the
"sellers" of their companies. We are the " sellers "of Gazprom's image. And how
well we present our "product" will depend on the positive or negative
perception of the company in society" ("Adviser". - 1998. - No. 1. - p. 11).
The second example is the change in the image of British Airways, for which more
than 60 million pounds have been allocated. These are repainting of aircraft, a new
style in the uniform of employees, uniform registration of ticket forms, envelopes, and
ground vehicles. Since three out of five passengers are foreigners, British Airways
repaints its planes, putting the country's image on [Link]
planes will feature Japanese paintings, Dutch faience, symbols of Native
American tribes, mythology of the bushmen of Australia, and others.
The last example allows you to more clearly present two important components
of working with the image, since the corporate image is more difficult to influence.
First, it should be about neutralizations differences that are broken.
An ideal example in this case is the army, which dresses and cuts everyone "under
one comb". Unnecessary information is always dangerous from a professional's
point of view. And this is understandable. because it creates an uncontrolled
flow of information. In the case of the airline's corporate image, as we have seen. we
are talking about a strict unification of everything that has its symbol: from the plane
to the ticket, from ground transport to the flight attendant. Everything was subjected
to a certain "compression of diversity" in order to create a single picture. Secondly,
we are talking as the next stage about protruding the necessary differences,
a certain concentrations information. In the case of British Airways, it was even
possible to take a more significant step - to create several variants of aircraft coloring
that correspond to the image of the destination country. For Russia, such a sign was
the Khokhloma painting. In total, 50 images corresponding to different
regions were proposed, and 120 aircraft were decorated with them.
Image characteristics help both at the organization level. and the
individual, because they bring the mass consciousness under the already existing
types with a proven reaction to them. For example, at a meeting with the writer A.
Marinina (the program "Pros and Cons", RenTV, 1998, May 6), an interesting phrase
was heard by the presenter about her retirement as a police lieutenant colonel, which
is probably for image advertisingBut she should have remained a man with shoulder
straps. As we can see, the mass consciousness is cautiously pushed not to new
information, but to rely on the already formed knowledge that is already in the minds
of consumers is more interesting . And this is understandable, since they will no
longer be checked for truth. By the way, the above example with British Airways also
illustrates this principle of repetition. After all, this is not only a sign of respect, but
also an opportunity for the consumer to see something familiar, but in a completely
new context. Political choice, like the choice of an unfamiliar product, is based
on a certain risk, and in order to reduce the level of this risk, the consumer (and in
politics, the voter) begins to look for additional information. And here
, the rules of consumer behavior can also be interpreted on the behavior
of the electorate. Consumers retain their trust in the brand - in our case, this
is the continuing love of the older generation, for example, for the Communist Party.
This is a clear strategy aimed at reducing risk, because the choice of a new batch
will always involve a certain risk. Consumers react to the brand
image - with an" unknown " product, the consumer trusts a well-known brand. For this
reason, the voter will treat representatives of well-known parties better than
those of unknown ones. Consumers are based on the store's image - in the absence of the
necessary information, the consumer believes the product from a particular store. This
is also a clear strategy for reducing risk, since such a store has a better selection
of products, and there are certain procedures for replacing goods if they turn out to
be of poor quality. In both politics and commerce, the consumer begins to believe the
surrounding team's recruitment by counting. what's wrongthis command can't be used
being a bad leader. Here is an example of Boris Yeltsin's election strategy:
before the elections, he plans to solemnly reburial the royal family, killed in
1918. Consumers buy the most expensive models - in case of uncertainty
, consumers link price and quality. assuming that the more expensive the product is. the
better it is. This is actively used in the PR by banks and other financial structures,
creating a certain level of trust in themselves as symbols of wealth. In reality
, certain image transfer operations are constantly taking place in front of us, which
are aimed at reducing the risk of making a wrong choice.
The main conclusion that we can draw from the above is the need
for electoral technologies to rely on the image that voters associate
with the authorities. This is the universal Father of the nation (and his wife, respectively,
is the mother of the nation, only Barbara Bush passed as the "grandmother of the
nation"). This is the image of this "product". Or, as the psychologist Vladimir Levy notes: "If
in America the president is a successful older brother or a kind of young father, an actor of
power, then in our country the power is very strongly psychologically connected with the
paternal and even grandfatherly beginning. The strong paternal stereotype of the current
presidential contenders probably corresponds most to Zyuganov"
(Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, May 31). On the specific content of this stereotype
(Yeltsin or Zyuganov?) you can argue, but it clearly exists, since even V. Bryntsalov
in Nevzorovsky "Days" (ORT, 1996, June 1) used such a word as TSAR to describe this po
must love the father of the nation intensely, because we have a very hierarchical structure,
not allowing the appearance of a second figure equal to him in strength. England has
a queen and a prime minister. We are constantly fighting with persons No. 2 and 3. Let's recal
the relationship between Yeltsin and Khasbulatov or Yeltsin and Rutskoi. In Ukraine, this
is a "war" between L. Kuchma and A. Moroz. V. Levy, by the way, also speaks not about
the choice of a general secretary or president, but about the choice of a "general tsar". He
describes this figure of the father of the nation, who must necessarily
be feared: "The father is always a dual figure for the filial consciousness. You can both fear
him and love him at the same time, as it was with Stalin. Often those hostile feelings that are
addressed to the father, but are inhibited by fear and pushed back into the subconscious,
are directed to the immediate environment. For example, if the boss is good, then
for some reason he has a bad deputy or terrible assistants. They're probably just
ordinary, but they're bad in people's minds." (In the same placeV. Levy
explains the negative image of Raisa Maksimovna inside the country by the same transfer.
A true leader carries within himself charisma, an imprint of greatness/difference from others
that defies rational explanation. A charismatic leader is forgiven for everything, as
was the case for Americans in the case of John F. Kennedy. But Lyndon Johnson, who did
not have the necessary charisma, was responsible for everything. The same thing
happened to Richard Nixon, who was unable to establish the necessary relations with the
press and as a result "died" because of this. We have few charismatic leaders: either we
are too critical of our leaders, or our system selects leaders without relying
on the opinion of the population. A. Mikhalskaya
tries to define the characteristics of the behavior of a charismatic leader in this way:
"The behavior of a 'charismatic' leader is generally distinguished by two features: 1)
"novelty" - originality, non-banality and 2) clear design,
structuring of this originalitythe presence of pronounced bright details
of appearance, manners, speech, which serve for society as both "identification signals" and
"keys" that outwardly express the most important semantic "blocks" and elements of the
structure of views, personality, behavior" (Mikhalskaya A. K. Russian Socrates. Lectures on
Comparative Historical Rhetoric, Moscow, 1996, p. 113). You can
agree with these arguments with a certain amount of questioning. Hardly one novelty right
it will clearly lead us to a charismatic leader. This is more like a version
of Vladimir Zhirinovsky, which, of course. not enough. Moreover, the novelty in this
regard can be rationalized and modeled. The charismatic leader seems to
be marked from above, he is irrationally stronger, and not at the expense of some
calculated characteristics.
At the same time, a very common scenario for the rise of a leader is the
Cinderella version. For America , this is the path from shoe shine to millionaires, in
Soviet times, the process of coming from the bottom was mandatory. It seems to us
that the main motive for fixing such a scenario is not the attraction
for everyone of the possibility of repeating this role. The element of miraculous
elevation is more important in this case, because it is given to units out of millions.
Interestingly, the psychologist Otto Rank traced an even more irrational scenario
typical of primitive societies. In them, the leader in times of crisis is a foreigner, an
outsider: "as an outsider, he removes this dangerous burden from the shoulders of the
community, as a foreigner, he makes this strange irrational force more acceptable. At
the same time, as was the case with Jesus, Joan of Arc, and other historical
figures, assuming this power illegally, an outsider as a sacred king after the expiration
of his term of reign, prematurely removed from the scene of action" (Rank O. Beyond
psychology. - N.Y., 1958. - pp. 136-137). In another place, O. Rank speaks of a simila
story in the life of many peoples, emphasizing the fact that in his country the hero was
a simple man, in another he becomes a leader. "Since history has recorded
such fateful events in the arrival of Jesus, the Jew who became the founder
of Christianity, or Napoleon, the Corsican who became the master of a foreign
power on the continent, we can recognize that mystical traditions replete
with such 'happy stories' must reflect some truth" (ibid., p. 94). To this list,
you can also add milder options for a foreigner to come to power - this is the Austrian
Hitler and the Georgian Stalin. That is, there are certain cultural stereotypes of the
appearance of the hero, which continue to be used today. If we look at the images of
Yuri Luzhkov and Boris Yeltsin, we can see the following comparative characteristics:
Yuri Luzhkov is always recorded in the midst of different people, Boris Yeltsin only
against the background of a clearly defined set of well-known and recognizable faces.
This comparison makes it possible for the mass consciousness to draw a conclusion
about the openness of Yuri Luzhkov to others and the closeness of Boris Yeltsin, and
this is a very important parameter, since it implies the leader's ability/inability to
understand the aspirations and pains of ordinary people, who make
up the majority of voters.
This was also typical for Boris Yeltsin, but only earlier. Today we see only
rare shots of fairly careful movement on skis, for example. Thus , Yu.
Luzhkov sets a certain potential that you can rely on in the future. This is important,
because the past period of Soviet leaders will be recorded in thethe oval has a certain
"gerontological" slope. And already the " Dolls "(NTV, 1998, April 25) refer to Yeltsin
only as"grandfather". And Yu. Luzhkov,planting trees at the April 1998 subbotnik,
proudly says that he not only planted a tree, but also "gave birth" to four children.
B. Yeltsin also plays a big role in the negative impact of his environment, which
is not the case with Yu. Luzhkov. Yu. Luzhkov is also recorded in various dynamic
reactions to events (Latvia, Crimea, etc.). At the same time, he seems to bring
his activity to action, while in Boris Yeltsin it seems to end
only with words. Boris Yeltsin manages to respond to this or that event as if "one-time",
and his reaction for this reason is lost. Yu. Luzhkov not only has time to speak out on
this or that issue, but also to perform a number of actions that consolidate its position
more clearly in the mass consciousness. Let's recall the information campaigns "Buy
Russian " or "Boycott of Latvia". Even in the" Dolls " Yuri Luzhkov is clearly fixed. Let's
recall the plot of a restaurant in France in the last century on the eve of the revolution,
where Yu. Luzhkov, being a French aristocrat, resented the neighbor's desire to eat
Pozharsky cutlets, and demanded only native Burgundy snails. And about Boris Yeltsin ,
they will rightly write: you should remove a bottle of Coca-Cola from the president's desk
"before recording." you don't have to be a leavened patriot to understand that it's unlikely
that there will be, say, "Baikal" in front of Clinton in the Oval Office (Gurevich M. The firs
persons should keep track of the person // "Adviser". - 1998. - No. 2. - p. 13).
In general, we can see the following symbolic links:
- in the midst of people-open to the troubles of ordinary people,
- physically active - will be able to work, giving his all to work,
- not only speaks, but also acts.
All this creates an image of an active leader, which is able not only to restore
order at its regional level, but is also able to take on more serious
tasks at another level. At the same time, we emphasize that these are image
characteristics that have crystallized in the mass consciousness due to repeated
references to them. They are not one-time events.
Their application can be seen, for example, in the following recommendations
of image makers to Yuri Luzhkov regarding behavior at the cultural program of the World
Youth Games, which is designated in the text as YUML (Kievskiye Vedomosti, 1998,
July 21):
""- after the announcement of the welcome speech, the YUML should run to
the stage, demonstrating its good physical shape and showing itself on a par with
young athletes;
- in its welcome speech, the mayor should use the words "third millennium"
as many times as possible, demonstrating its aspiration to the future; "the end of the
YUML speech should be timed to coincide with the Kremlin Chimes, which symbolically
shows where the mayor is headed." PR creates the
image of specific institutions of society, not just its leaders. There is an image of specific
hospitals, universities, churches, governments, and the army. There is a corresponding
image of the names that are aimed at that. to overestimate your item. This includes
Partnership for Peace and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Coco Chanel
named her most famous perfume Chanel No. 5, because she believed that the number
five sounds almost magical. This is due to the constant change of street and
city names associated with the Soviet and post-Soviet period. Russia
has entered a significant period of creating the image of its products in the fight against
Western goods. PR companies received orders to develop the "Buy Moscow"
or "Buy Russian" campaigns. Since the end of 1993. the campaign "Be Russian
- buy Russian" was launched, which resulted in a radio address by Boris Yeltsin on
this topic, where he said:: "I want our people to give preference to Russian products... Is
Russian chocolate worse than imported? No, it's better. And the bread? Sausage? Dairy
products? And beer? I'm not even talking about vodka." Actor Buldakov advertises, for
example, kvass, emphasizing the approach to traditions. This is how Capital magazine
describes the current state of this problem: "The Made in Russia
program is currently being launched - its budget will be measured in millions of dollars,
" said Sergey Mironenko, General Director of the Made in Russia advertising
and information agency... "We are talking about a large-scale, comprehensive,
a non-standard program that is currently being developed with the participation
of various structures, including state ones, " he says. - Our task is to
support and promote Russian brands not only by lobbying, but by using new,
"non-boring" methods. These will be multi-way combinations: stylish design,
advertising, public relations, promotions, exhibitions, and other events. We want to
put a new ideology into this, make (the consumption of Russian goods)
fashionable" (quoted by Adviser software. - 1998. - No. 1. - p. 39). This emphasis
on the word" fashionable"is interesting here. There is an almost similar problem,
for example. Western producers of classical music CDs have enough to keep them
in the market segment of about twenty percent. To do this, they launch
consumption patterns of classical music, as if the consumption contexts repeat pop
music, a vivid example of which is the Chinese violinist Vanessa Mei, who plays
classical music on the violin even in sea water. Indirectly, the "buy
Russian/Moscow" model relies on a certain rise in the national [Link] self-awareness. A
striking example of this combination of political and economic consciousness was
the campaign to boycott Latvian goods in response to the oppression of the
"Russian-speaking minority". This can also be seen in the results of a survey in
Moscow conducted by VTsIOM in April 1998 ("Day", 1998, 23 Apr.):

How would you react to Russia's introduction of the regime

economic sanctions against Latvia in the following cases:
due to the violation of rights in this country
Russian-speaking population?

Entirely positive 32%

Rather positive 31%

Rather negative 16%

Sharply negative 8%

Couldn't answer yet 13%

The change of the term "Russian-speaking minority" to "Russian-speaking

population"is also characteristic. These figures indicate a certain new trend. Image is
the most economical way to generate and recognize complex social reality. Image
is the result of information processing, so help along this path is voluntarily or
involuntarily supported by each person. Our image as a picture of us in other eyes
in some cases becomes more important than ourselves. let's remember. how Nixon
never managed to overcome the image of a" loser " in the eyes of American voters.
And when the leaders of the former Soviet Union, starting with Brezhnev and,
in some cases, Khrushchev, gained the image of being small-minded, this system
began to disappear. The image creates political movements and countries, and it
also leads them to decline. The Revolution of ' 17 carried such a strong image that
prominent Western leaders continued to applaud it, ignoring the warning voices.
the image of people go to the embrasure. They choose an image, not specific
platforms or specific people at polling stations. The image crystallizes and organizes all information
flows. Image as an idealized pictureand it is subject to management sooner
and more effectively than the candidate himself, which the Americans first clearly
came to in the presidential election of R. Nixon. The voter will never personally
cross paths with the candidate, but they will definitely cross paths with their image,
and they should change their image. not the candidate. As much as this rule looks
cynical, it is also true as a rule of working with the audience. And any patterns
that increase the effectiveness of the impact will always come out as winners.

§6 . Some concepts of communication theory for PR

PR is sometimes also defined as strategic communications, so it is

understandable that PR specialists pay special attention to the results of
communication research, as well as to such sciences as propaganda and
counter-propaganda, which are strongly based on the results of communication theory.
On the main issues of this science, we refer to our book " Theory of Communication
"(Kiev, 1996). And here we note only a number of its provisions. These are opinion
leaders, this is the construction of messages taking into account the opinions "for" and
"against" and this is the selectivity of perception. Opinion Leaders
For the first time, the concept of "opinion leaders" came from studying the impact
of media reports on the audience. To their surprise, the researchers found that the
exposure after two weeks did not drop, but increased. Further research has shown
that the audience necessarily discusses the message with existing opinion
leaders. And it follows that the mass media do not directly affect
people. and through opinion leaders (the so-called two-step theory
of information transmission). This refinement of the key audience greatly facilitates
the impact process, since it is necessary to work with a narrower and more clearly
defined group. Eg, in the event of a Gulf War, the Americans did the math. that
working with opinion leaders who make up 10% of the population closes the entire
population of the Middle East to them. Opinion leaders are different on different
issues. But one thing is fundamental - these are informal, unofficial authorities on a
variety of issues. For example, we use these channels to search for a good dentist,
find out about the best TV antenna, ask for help in choosing a TV, and
so on. In the case of the consumer of goods, their role is just as important, as
Schiffman and Kanyuk point out: they provide information about new products;
they reduce the risk to others by providing first-hand information; they reduce the
search time in identifying a product or brand.
Appropriate methods for identifying opinion leaders have been developed. These
include :
1) self-determination method, when people are asked how often they themselves influence
other people. However, this method strongly depends on. to what extent the
respondent is able to really assess their personal influence;
2) sociometric method, when the group polls everyone, trying to determine
who is most often asked for advice. This is an expensive analysis, which,
moreover, cannot be applied if you work only with a part of some social system;
3) the key informant method, when carefully selected informants
are interviewed to determine the most influential people in the group. The
challenge here is the credibility of these informants themselves;
4) objective method when a researcher places people as opinion leaders
themselves and then measures the results of their impact. This
allows you to evaluate a person's ability to influence another person. An
important characteristic of opinion leaders is that they are much more
interested in the media than ordinary people. They use a much larger
number of sources of information, especially in that area. where
they are recognized as opinion leaders. Opinion leaders belong
to the same socio-economic class as those they influence. Another
feature is the age overlap between those who influence and those
who are affected. So, research has shown. that informal information
about movies in 66% of cases goes in the same age stream. In
general, the portrait of opinion leaders can then be presented in the
following form: general characteristics specific characteristics

by specific area

looking for new information interest

they like to talk knowledge

they have confidence read by special media outlets

to yourself same age

always in public one social status

disclosed to information for

outside the group

Opinion leaders turn out to be quite common, with some studies suggesting
that between a third and half of people can be considered opinion leaders
on various issues. These are friends and relatives with whom they often
meet. Thus , two-step communication theory he says that information first
goes to opinion leaders, and then spreads from them to the rest of the
population. A more accurate study of these processes has led to multi -stage
communication theory, when there is no such clear division into only two classes,
and the impact flows in all directions. In one study, it was proposed to divide
people who participate in communication into the following four types:
socially integrated, socially independent, socially dependent, and socially
isolatedand so on. This classification takes into account both the high/low level in
the field of opinion leaders, and non-leaders, those who are looking for
information. The resulting table looks like this (Schiffman, Buzzard edict op. - p
. 487):

Opinion Search ratings

high prices low prices

_______________________________

Evaluations high prices socially socially

leaderboards integrated independent

opinions low prices socially socially

dependent companies isolated areas

_________________________________

Accounting for this classification allows you to discover certain behavior models
for each of the types. Thus, the "socially integrated" are younger, have a
lower level of education, television is an important source of entertainment for
them, they themselves give advice to others and seek the same support from
others. Let's also cite the data of another study in which the organization Roper
("PR Reporter", 1882, Oct.5), after interviewing 2 thousand Americans, determined
that 10-12 percent of the population are opinion leaders. These are the
ones we ask for advice from. Within the American community, the following
parameters can provide a "hint" that allows you to reach "opinion leaders":
- activities - they have committed three or more of the following actions in the last
year: attended a public meeting, wrote to your deputy, wrote a letter to the
newspaper, helped a party, participated in a political rally, etc.;
- revenue - 30 percent receive more than 50 thousand dollars a year, a third - less
than 30 thousand; - education - three-quarters attended secondary school, 11 percent
studied further; - use of mass media - reading is the main way to get information,
nine out of ten regularly read newspapers, few watch television,
most prefer reading books;
- family status - most are married, the wife also works, and they are raising
their children.
- importance parameters - they are more committed to brands, are looking for ways
to use their time effectively, and a large percentage of them consider it very
important to spend time with their family.
- recreation - they are more likely than the general population to engage in sports on a
regular basis (swimming. bicycle), but are more interested in the arts than sports.
- environment - they are more interested in environmental issues than others.

Building messages based on the pros and cons predisposition

A more detailed analysis of the impact also showed that different types of
audience perceive messages that give reasons for and against the proposed
ideas differently. experiments have shown. that if you do not provide
information about counterarguments, then such an audience will easily be
persuaded by someone who comes up with arguments against it. If you
make the appropriate "vaccination", then it will be very difficult to convince
such an audience. And another result : it is better to provide two types of
arguments for people with higher education to convince them, but if we are
looking at an audience with secondary education, then it is better to leave only
positive arguments for them. Western experts also talk about another pattern: if
the audience is friendly. she has enough positive arguments. if the audience is
critical, they should be given two types of arguments. Selectivity of
perception A person consciously cultivates a number of barriers that block
the introduction of information flows into it. Schiffman and Kanyuk call these
three barriers: selective attention, selective perception, and selective
appeal. In the case selective attention the consumer selects only those
messages. which correspond to its interests and discards others. It's like he just
wants to hear what he wants. It is simply not so easy for him to physically
everything, since there is such a thing as noise. A set of advertising messages,
set of speeches by candidates distract attention from one another, leaving
vague memories as a result. Repeating the message helps you overcome
physical noise. Selective perception indicates that people are trying to avoid
conflicting information. and they select only the one that corresponds to their ideas.
For example, supporters of the Communist Party will read their newspapers,
listen to their deputies, while supporters of Rukh will do the same. Therefore,
it makes no sense to influence " outsiders "during election campaigns,
since they are in their own" closed " information world. Therefore, attention is
directed to those who have not yet made a decision. The sum of selective
attention and perception becomes call selectivity. The consumer pays attention
only to those messages. which help them meet their interests.
Audience Research by Kerry
Tooker and Doris Derelyan (Tucker K., Derelian D. Packaging messages and media to
cut through clutter / / Public Relations Journal. - 1991. - Febr.) offer the f
set of questions for audience research from the point of view of ongoing
communication: 1. What is the desired effect of communication?
2. Who is our target audience?
3. What are the needs/concerns / interests of the target audience?
4. What is our message?
5. What is the most effective communication channel?
6. Which of the speakers will be trusted more than others? As the authors
write further: "After you have answered these sop'sNow, you're ready for
step seven-packaging your message in a way that addresses the
needs, concerns, and interests of your audience." To successfully
solve the problems of" packaging " a message, you should carefully
consider the following questions:
- does the communication arouse the needs, concerns, and interests of the audienc
should easily put themselves in the proposed situation, it attracts attention,
without which it is impossible to spread information;
- is your product, problem, or organization offered as a solution quite
succinctly and clearly? - the advantages of the proposed solution should be presen
as clearly as possible. As the authors write: "The more clearly you can identify
and arouse a need in the audience. concern or interest, by offering your
message as a solution, all the more consistently, you will be able to take
advantage of proven techniques of human motivation";
- are the consequences of not addressing needs, concerns, and
interests clearly presented? - since any actions have positive or negative
consequences, the audience always associates actions with consequences;
motivational principles require a clear display of the negative consequences of
unrealized interests;
- did you help the audience to repeat in their head or think through the action that you propose
to take? - it is not so easy for people to translate information into actions,
they should be helped in this, this is why recipes are printed , filled envelopes
are offered. As for mental repetition, asking a question can help.
Including a number of "keywords" in the text helps generate the desired
behavior. Such phrases are "think carefully" or " when was the last
time you...", which do not appear in the order mode, but translate the
word "order". a new behavior is applied to the person himself, as it were.
All of the above characteristics indicate a more complex presentation
of the audience than it was previously. As a result, the object of influence
is more complex and requires more sophisticated methods of influence.

§7 . PR for post-communist countries

The question often arises to what extent the methods developed within the framework of
Western PR are applicable to us. In this case, it should be borne in mind that the basic
concepts and findings still remain the same: PR, as it were, reveals the "pain points" of
influencing a person. At the same time, the atlas of anatomy is the same. We can offer
different arguments within the framework of our own system of values (the presence of
which is also gradually becoming problematic), but the main work remains the same and
its direction repeats the Western one. At the same time, the Western experience has
one important characteristic, which we will not soon reach. This is the transfer of the
entire system of influence (both in the framework of PR, and in the framework of advertising,
propaganda and counter-propaganda) to objective and systematic rails. For example,
any PR campaign plan must include an element of evaluation based on pre-defined
criteria, which are determined before the plan is implemented, in order to avoid any
falsification of facts. So from this point of view (purely methodological), this experience is
very important for us. But, of course, when working with your audience, you should try to
find your own specific characteristics.
Mismatch of priorities and ratings can harm commercial success. So.
"Komsomolskaya Pravda" (1998, May 13) predicts failure in Russia for the American
film "Primary Colors", where B. Clinton's
love affairs are presented in an artistic form, based on the following argument: "If in
the United States the news of a candidate's love affairs can cost him victory, then in our
country such messages traditionally play into the hands of the candidate: well done, a
real man." However, it is not clear why the failure, if such a story is clearly favored by the
native audience. The national coordinate of the audience
is always present everywhere, starting from intelligence. Therefore, the transferred
experience should take this parameter into account as one of the main ones. Muriel
Rousseau, in the advertising issue of Itogi magazine (January 27, 1998), expresses
an interesting idea about the discrepancy between Western and Russian approaches:
"The biggest difficulty in working with Russian clients is their straightforwardness
in relation to the image. If it's the Kremlin , it should be the Kremlin. This often
makes it difficult to apply the second level of meaning, the image game. So, back in
the 60s, the walls of the Paris metro were covered with huge posters with the image
of a green pear. Two months later, they were replaced by posters offering
a Renault 4 car just launched into production, which actually looks a bit like a pear."
In other words, there is also a discrepancy in the methods of influencing the audience.
The first thing that should be noted in this series is that today we seem to be in
a situation of confrontation between two possible trends: traditional and new -
Western-oriented, which creates a moment of bifurcation, a certain
"social schizophrenia" in our society. For example, we had a more
harmonious version of the relationship, with a higher level of predictability than
that one. which replaced it. Karen Horney describes this new (for us) type
as follows:: "Modern culture is economically based on the principle
of individual competition. The individual has to fight with others
with othersIf they are members of the same group, you have to take them up and
often "push" them to the side. The superiority of one often means failure for the
other. The psychological result of this situation is a vague hostile
tension between people. Each represents a real or
potential rival for any other" (Horney K. Neurotic personality
of our time / / Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time. Samoanaliz. - M.,
1993. - P. 216). All this immediately
affected the features of PR, primarily government ones. among the complaints of
the population to the authorities , the lack of care and attention on the part of the
authorities came in second place, after the lack of criminal security. And only in third
place were financial difficulties put, which, it would seem, should lead. This is
also felt by psychologists when they talk about the growth of social tension, about
the social lack of demand for people. So, V. Levy wrote: "The biggest mistake
of the current authorities is that people are not provided with a sense of security
and care, they are mentally lonely and orphaned. They are street children.
Soviet people, on the other hand, are used to having someone strictly look after
them,and take care of them, and punish them" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996,
May 31). It is interesting that Frank Jeffkins, talking about the problems of PR for
the third world, suggests a lot of problems for us (Jeffkins F. Public Relations. -
London, 1994). Let's list some of them.
1. Western products they are dramatically higher in perception than locally
produced goods. Such a model of overstating someone else's money also exists
in Western ideas, for example, the image of a Swiss watch.
2. Meal - free niche of dietary products and instructions, kitchen products.
3. Cars - lack of car magazines. There are no easy waysdrivers.
4. Energy - you should start advertising energy-saving technologies and
appropriate consumer behavior.
5. Cans - it is necessary to overcome suspicion of banks and insurance campaigns.
6. External PRS - a separate program should be the disclosure of the country and its
airlines. hotels and other infrastructure in the direction of the Western consumer.
There is a problem of creating the image of the country as a whole.
But this is undoubtedly a Western view of our problems, which does not reveal
the specifics of the impact in our case, about the ways in which the image is
being built in post-communist countries. And it is very specific. it is hardly possible
to imagine that the wife of a US presidential candidate will start showing "her
croup" against the background of the stable, as V. Bryntsalov's wife did in the
program "Days" (ORT, 1996, June 2). With the words that her croup is more
beautiful than that of a horse, she turned this very "croup" to the viewers.
What features of the mentality do these and other
examples reflect? We note several significant trends.

Closed society was very wary of foreigners, After the disappearance of prohibitions,
the love of everything foreign immediately crosses all borders. As a matter
of fact, Peter I already tried to break down this wall between Europe and Russia,
introducing external formal signs of a new type of behavior (beards, a German caftan.
training, travel). As a result of this behavior, it was recognized that the tsar was
simply replaced abroad and the antichrist returned to Russia under the guise of the
tsar . Since the devils on the icons of that time were depicted beardless and in
German kaftans. Foreign language currently, it has become the only possible
role model. General role
imitations today it has increased dramatically. This is also due to the fact that, the
fact that there are several patterns of behavior in a society in transition, there is no
consensus on which one is true. The state does not give
explicit hints that the population would trust. at the
same time, the old types of "oracles" such as actors and directors of the Soviet era
disappeared, but new ones did not take their place.
A big role is played by ostentatious behavior (to the public). Society has
no deep roots of behavior, so it tries to show its preferences superficially,
and therefore vividly and vulgarly. This is a household dressing of gold when
going to the market or the presence of carpets and simultaneous dirt in the room. If
Western fashion models "worn" things, then in our case labels and a wide
variety of stickers designed to certify the Western origin of things play an important
role. is such an example. like building a house in Transcarpathia, when no one
lives in the best rooms, and people continue to huddle in old buildings. On another
level, what happens is protrusion of wealth, as is the case, for example, with V.
Bryntsalov, who demonstrates many of his houses from the screen.
Very strong nostalgic memories about the last Soviet period.
Old films are viewed with interest, and Soviet films are the most popular on ORT
, not Western films. The program "Old Songs about the main
thing", shown on New Year's Eve on ORT, was a success. Almost all artists have
improved their image after participating in this concert. Only Vladimir Presnyakov
, Bohdan Titomir, and to a lesser extent Philip Kirkorov were found to have
deteriorated (Kievskiye Vedomosti, 1996, May 30). What roles led to the popularity
behavior of these pop stars? It is important, because it clearly reflects the rejection
of a particular type of behavior within this mentality. Kirkorov had the role
of a shabashnik, a man of southern nationality who twisted love right and
left. Presnyakov plays the role of a loser, which also caused rejection - every tenth
man changed his assessment for the worse. It should also be added that the type
of voice Presnyakov combined with his appearance worked no less than
his concert role. Interestingly, Bohdan Titomir, who performed a Ukrainian song, was
also rejected. It was "disliked" by 13.4% of men and 16.5% of women. Probably, it
was not the "varnishing" character that played a role here, but to a certain extent the
understated nature of his role, in which there was no "beauty". The "new
Russians" are massively characterized by the popular consciousness as carriers
of ostentatious wealth. This is evidenced by dozens of anecdotes by the way, this
is the only thematic area where jokes still continue to appear. Anecdote is an
important parameter that demonstrates a certain "split" in the mass consciousness.
Compare anecdotes about leaders that contradict the official hagiography.
Social lack of demand Social scientists also note that it is an important
component of the new consciousness. In this area lies the loss of self-esteem.
Karen Horney wrote: "Another reason why success becomes such an alluring
dream is its impact on our sense of self-esteem. Others
evaluate us only by the degree of our success; willy-nilly, our own
self-esteem follows the same path" (Horney K. Neurotic personality of our
time / / Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time. Samoanaliz. - M., 1993. -
P. 217). Accordingly, the level of social tension is growing, in response to which
both PR and advertising should fundamentally change.
For this reason, certain groups of the population look to the past as the only
correct result of development. For Ukraine, socialism is the best
system for the majority of people over 50. According to Russian data
, 39% of the general population (and 58% of the rural population) prefer
the Soviet system. These are VTsIOM data for May 1996 (Izvestia, 1996, June 6).
Actually on implicit references to the past The stage was marked by the
victory of Leonid Kuchma in the presidential election when it came to the official
status of the Russian language and economic ties with Russia. Indirectly, the
same idea is being exploited in one form or another by Russian presidential
candidates, primarily Vladimir Zhirinovsky. At the same time, it is very interesting that each
of the two main opposing sides refer to clearly opposite results of the same
experience. Yeltsin's supporters frighten with return of cards and terror. Supporters
of Zyuganov refer to the stability of the past period.
A similar argument can be traced in Ukraine. So, the words of Boris Oliynik
draw one picture, and Lev Lukyanenko - another. 1. " By the way,
the idea of socialism is eternal. I agree with Academician Moiseyev, who believes
that socialism is only a formation, but I will add that it is a phenomenon inherent in
any formation. It's about social justice. And the mistake then and now is the same:
the economy and politics are not for the good, but against the person" (Kievskiye
Vedomosti, 1995, October 21); 2. " Russian chauvinists ... they want to revive
the empire and pull Ukraine back into the Russian colonial yoke. In Ukraine, these
are members of the Communist Party of Ukraine. Even here, in the Supreme
Soviet, there is a fifth column of Russian imperialism, which acts against
the interests of Ukraine " ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, October 21). There
is a paradoxical problem here parallel with Christianity. Here is a quote from Otto Rank
when he compares the role of Caesar and Jesus: "Where Caesar lost politically
and economically, Christianity won spiritually. The poor created a religion
that solved their problems for them with a timeless and extra-local ideology,
creating a powerful class with a completely new psychology." (Rank O., op. cit.
- p. 141). We are facing the same pattern of behavior today. Not solved
by communism (socialism) material problems could not set off
a certain psychological solution. In reality, it is the ethnic problem that has become
the main argument for the separation of Ukraine. It was in this cross-section,
and not in the social one, that the main work of dissidents of the Soviet period was
built. But it is also subject to loosening, for example, in the words of ex-deputy Yuri
Boldyrev: "In the Soviet Union, the Republic of Ukraine was among the recipients,
but not the donors. And this happened because in the Soviet bureaucracy,
Ukrainians occupied a dominant position. Therefore, the very idea of a national
liberation revolution in Ukraine is untenable. It is truly such only for the Galicians
and a very narrow circle of the Kiev intelligentsia " (All-Ukrainian Vedomosti,
1995, November 18). N. Vitrenko, for example, undermines another argument,
sometimes recognized as the difference between Ukraine and Russia: "Why is socialism the future of
Ukraine? It comes from our mentality, from the traditions of the people, from the structure
of the economy. Individualism is not our way of life. Ukraine will never become America.
Our people are drawn to each other. The structure of the economy is as follows. that the
degree of socialization in it is extremely high "("Vsukrainskiye Vedomosti, 1995, 4 Nov.).
There are certain features inconsistencies in the priority of certain characteristics
of Western and Slavic mentality, traced to the material of Western
advertising on our screens. For example, the irritation against advertising of women
's hygiene bags has already spilled out on TV screens. From the point of view of our
mentality, this is not the right object. which can be the subject of a wide discussion.
There is a clear discrepancy when advertising chocolate, when it is served as food
(on the screen, loggers eat, students are supported). Within our norms, chocolate is
a luxury item. These two examples show that there is a clash
in the ratings of these objects within different cultures. Normality in one
culture is not the same in another culture.
One of the central themes of the analysis of the public mindset
of post-communist countries should be the study of anxiety disorders. This is a very
characteristic feature. And only by closing it verbally or nonverbally, you can
win both in the PR campaign and in advertising. The activity of this factor for
individual psychology can be confirmed by the words of Karen Horney: "In
reality, it seems that we are doing everything possible to
avoid anxiety. There are many reasons for this, and the most common one is
that intense anxiety is one of the most excruciating affects we
can experience. Patients who have gone through severe anxiety attacks
will tell you that they would rather die sooner. than relive them again. In addition,
some components of the affect of anxiety can be particularly unbearable for
a person. One of them is helplessness. You can be active and brave
in the face of great danger. But in the state ofyou feel - and in
fact are - helpless" (Horney K. edict op. - p. 37). If
Western advertising can be built on closing the anxiety factor, then post-Soviet PR in
general should be shifted only to this area. Without solving it, there is no way to
influence the population. the presidential election in Russia shows how the solution
to the problem of anxiety is seen either in the past or in the future. But it's always
about her. The problem of anxiety was already solved by ancient societies, an example of
which is Christianity. Crisis stages strongly
emphasize these problems. But thanks to them , new types of personalities are created.
Otto Rank writes: "Three principles are simultaneously involved in the creation and re
-creation of personality types within the Western world: on
the basis of a common inspired type, accessible to all types of influence,
new personality types are created during social and spiritual crises of religious,
political and economic origin. Such crises manifest themselves in all
ages in the struggle between temporary and eternal values and facilitate the emergence
of a strong leader. By setting him a task similar to those that were solved
by many people of action, he changes his goals and,accordingly, his personality
in order to approach the heroic tradition of leadership. Thus, he accelerates the creation
of a new order and with it a new type of person who changes himself to the prototype
of a leader, whose skill consists in following this general development of his own
personality" (Rank O., op. cit. - p. 165-166).
The status of PR and the results of agencies ' work, as well as their weaknesses, can
be seen from the following priority set of "bottlenecks" in the Russian PR services market
(Shevchenko D. Wow played ... / / "Adviser". - 1997. - No. 1. - p. 10):
- poor training of PR-specialists,
- insufficient PR-literacy of decision-makers,
- "black" PR,
- difficulties in determining the product itself of PR-agencies,
- lack of domestic literature on PR,
- low level of responsibility of PR-agencies for the quality of their services.
Everything we said was a point of view from our side of the former "iron
Curtain". What it looks like on the other hand, will give us an opportunity to understand
the statement of Philippe Boisry, a leading PR specialist in France: I think that everything
that is being done now in Russia under the name of public relations is everything, but not PR. In
the work of Russian PR agencies, a large place is occupied by the purchase of custom articles and places
in ratings. In France, a PR professional who buys an article and
a journalist who accepts money for publication will be excluded from the profession. Everything
will be found out sooner or later. Russian professionals should work within the framework
of international standards" ("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 11).
The CIS countries introduce their own priority areas of PR, putting
political ones in the first place. If financial, governmental and crisis
public relations are booming in the world, then in the CIS, political relations are coming out on top.
And all the development of PR here starts from the parliamentary or presidential
elections. Each such stage involves new intellectual forces,
attracting new financial opportunities. As a proof
of the above, we present data on paid TV advertising in the presidential campaign in Russia in 1996.
(Krylov I. V. Teoriya i praktika reklamki v Rossii [Theory and Practice of advertising in Russia]. Moscow, 1996, p.

Candidate Costs ( $ ) Airtime (sec.) Number of outputs

Central Election Commission

3515167 43738 835

Yeltsin 3290801 33900 690

Shakkum 860624 19783 683

Swan 673174 6331 182

Yavlinsky 536195 6959 361

Zhirinovsky 313469 6285 158

Zyuganov (2nd round) 220360 2615 9

 Fyodorov 18999 233 43

Gorbachev 3941 88 6

Total 9433822 119997 2980

Igor Krylov notes that if you add the cost of placing

the"Vote or lose!" commercials, the total cost of Yeltsin's TV ads increases
to $ 6 million. He also gives an example of interesting dynamics in this campaign.
When Moscow was plastered with posters showing Luzhkov shaking hands with Yeltsin, Mr.
Zyuganov said at a press conference: "Yeltsin has already covered the whole of Moscow
with billboards on which Luzhkov says goodbye to him." Immediately during the night
, a transparent film was pasted on all the posters with the inscription - " Only together!" (Krylov I. V., ed
154). French advertiser Jacques Segela is quite strongly opposed
to the Americanization of his culture. He says: "Personally, I can't even imagine
that tomorrow French children will be "children of Coca-Cola" - I want them to be children
of Bordeaux. I don't want little Russians to become "children of Coca-Cola"
as well - let them be "children of vodka" ("A&PR Digest". - 1998. - № 1-2. - p. 41). In princ
is an interesting and sad phenomenon of crushing not only the commodity market, but also to a
certain extent the mentality of people who have gradually switched to
Western types of values, without having the appropriate
technologies that support them.
Russia "launches" the program " buy Russian (Moscow)", appealing to
national feelings, which will naturally be based on the reliance on local
technologies, including. Sergey Mironenko of the Made in Russia agency states:
"We are engaged in positioning domestic products. Not being a leavened
patriot, I think it is quite normal for Russian residents to believe in domestic
goods. At the same time, I am aware that in Russia, with rare exceptions,
super-quality products are not produced. Accordingly, when we think about "packaging", we
can't work the same way as in the case of an order from a Swiss watch company" ("Results". -1998
. - 27 Jan.). Strengthening the national element in the advertising object
itself naturally leads to strengthening it in the ways it is presented to the national
audience.
Today's national businesses have come to understand the role of PR in their work. As stated
in the program" In fact"(TV-Center, 1998, 23 Apr.), the general director of the magazine
" Expert "A. Shmarov:" Reputation is capital. A good reputation means a lot
of capital." With these words, he prefaced the rating of Russian producers,
the first places in which were taken by the following organizations: Gazprom, Kristall, Krasny
Oktyabr, Lukoil, Inkombank, Baltika Brewery. These are really well-known
serious organizations that stand firmly on their own two feet.
An interesting opinion was expressed in the program "Old TV" on the day of museums (NTV,
1998, May 18): genuine Russian patrons of art did not demand public
applause. So, S. Tretyakov was offended when they emphasized his patronage. And more:
Under Nicholas II, Russia was treated as a very militaristic power, but entering the
Western arena of Russian art (Fyodor Chaliapin and others) brought the largest flow
of investment to the country. It is also supported by the following arguments of the multiple world chess
champion A. Karpov: "When the entire world chess championship is over, then the whole world is over."
the world realized that the Soviet Union has a great attitude to sports and
understands that sports are the business card of the country and the people, everything was
copied from us: state or semi-statepositive attitude to sports. It is no coincidence that
the Americans now have very strong Olympic teams, they have very big prizes for
gold medals, they took all this from us. The same applies to European countries. We
are as usual: the whole world is in step, we are not in step, or vice versa... "(Figures
and Faces, supplement to Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998, No. 6). It is a well-known
truth that sporting and cultural achievements easily transcend any boundaries.
PR is an integral part of any economic system with a competitive environment. PR is
also a necessary element of the democratic system, as it is used
as a tool for conducting elections. For this reason, PR becomes an unavoidable
method of our understanding of the situation in other areas as well. Cf. The subtitle of
the article about the ex-chairman of the Constitutional Court: "Valery Zorkin, who
invented "President Yeltsin" (Figures and Faces / Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998, No. 6).
That is , the system of thinking characteristic of PR, its imagery, has become
widespread, which is also the key to survival in new conditions.
 Chapter three. Public Relations: tools
§ 1. Relations with mass communication media
The world of mass media is the main tool of public relations, so
it is given special importance in PR. And, as a rule, it is very often
journalists who work in the field of PR, since they are the ones who have experience
working with each of the mass media channels, know all the necessary requirements,
and have a sufficient amount of professional and personal connections. Although we
recall once again that the classic of this direction, Edward Bernays, actively objected to
the convergence of PR with journalism, considering that PR is more socially than
philologically oriented professional field. At the same time, the PR uses journalism not
only for external, but also for internal needs, creating a variety
of publications for employees of its organization. We should
also mention the special status of mass media from the point of view of the Western
paradigm. Researchers believe that the mass media sets the "agenda", which is then
discussed by society. Therefore, the task of any organization is to fight for determining
the priorities of this agenda. Particularly characteristic of this approach is the work
of the White House Communications Service (for more information, see Pocheptsov G. G.
Public Relations, or how to successfully manage public opinion, Moscow, 1998). Two
features distinguish them and our world in this regard. On the one hand, the society
has a very clear mythological role of journalists as "dogs of democracy". That is,
even at the subconscious level, they are pushed out to search for a variant of behavior.
Accordingly, this type of behavior is also taught in universities. For example, the
Watergate situation is being studied as a separate seminar based on the book Bernstein C.,
Woodward B. All the presidents men. - New York, 1974. On the other hand, in that wo
there are no administrative levers of pressure on the press, which are possible in our
world, and for this reason, the replay of the press is primarily carried out at
the intellectual, rather than at the administrative level.
American researchers (Center A. H. a. o. Public Relations practices. - Englewood Cliffs,
1990) name the following fundamental features of mass media, which largely
determine the approach to them as a tool of PR:
1) Mass communication does not work immediately. Only a repeated appeal
of the mass media to this issue can lead to changes in behavior,
form this or that attitude, this or that stereotype.
2) The mass media informs us first of all, about the existence of products,
services, companies, and ideas around us. This is important because you can't make
decisions without knowing they exist. 3) Mass media prefer negative
events such as accidents, incidents, scandals, mistakes. It should be recognized
that in general, this is not so much the "oddity" of the mass media, but rather
the reader's interest in a brighter and more spectacular event, in which there is always
a conflict, a confrontation between the parties. Readers themselves
prefer "bad "news to" good " news in a 7: 1 ratio. And this creates a very serious
problem for businesses that are not the purveyors of bad news.
All this requires a special skill in creating such news that can be not
only interesting for the mass media, but also important for the PR.
Relations with journalists should be as effective and fruitful as possible,
because the world today depends heavily on their interpretations, rules
and analyses that are disseminated by the mass media. After all, it is not for
nothing that they received the name "fourth power". Ukraine will also gradually
come to the realization of this trend, which is still only potentially laid down
in our country. Journalists expect an honest relationship from PR. And PR
professionals are interested in providing information to journalists, so
PR specialists should not violate the requirements of fair play, otherwise
journalists will turn away from them. At the same time, we repeat the path
already taken by other countries. But not only the path, but also the errors on
it. So, until the end of the sixties, Great Britain built its relations with journalists,
as we do now. But then, when faced, for example, with the takeover of
companies by others, they saw. that they can't contact investors who don't know
anything about the company. For the lastOver the past fifteen years , a number
of factors have emerged in the UK that have led to a complete rethink of
relations with the media. Among them were (according to the situation (White J.,
Mazur L. Strategic communications management. Making public relations work. -
Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 129):
- the development of pension funds as investors, which led to a review
of relations with investors, including a new look at the financial press;
- the growing role of consumers, the development of a set of programs,
newspapers and magazines that provide comparative information;
- increased coverage of business issues in more general publications;
- development of specialized journals; -
understanding that. that their own employees also read newspapers and watch
television. We can sum up these changes as a fundamentally
different level of communication: it has become stronger, more extensive,
and more specialized at the same time. And when the company in these
new streams is poorly represented or even simply not enough. this immediately
serves as a signal that something is wrong with it. In 1993, an analysis
of the reasons for poor relations with the press was carried out, including
the following (in % of respondents)::

Few contacts 20

No contacts 16

Weakness of the Public Relations Department

10
by the press

Poor quality of the

information provided 8

for more information

Irregularity, 6
 non-system nature

Uninformative links 5

Lack of openness, dishonesty,

3
privacy policy

322 English journalists were interviewed (according to White J., Mazur L. Strategic communications
management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - P.
128). Information flows in the mass media are quite organized, and only from the outside
they can look like a free flow of news. In 1973, 1,000 reports in the New York Times
and Washington Post were examined to determine the channels through which this
message reached the press. It was a long time agoThree such main channels have been
updated: routine, where official press conferences, press releases, and official
events are located; informal information leaks, messages from other
information structures, etc.; free channel -
reporters ' own interviews with people, their own reasoning, and events that the reporter
saw for himself. It turned out that this channel was the source of only twenty-five percent
of messages, while the routine channel gave all sixty percent. These
statistics show us in many ways the real ratio of free and
organized information in the mass media. Mass communication media themselves
are interested in information, but it must be provided to them in
accordance with the requirements of novelty, as well as with the requirements of a
particular communication channel (press/radio/TV).
American PR specialists have developed the following rules for working with the press:
1. Speak from the perspective of the public, not your organization.
2. Make your news easy to read and consume.
3. Report the most important facts first.
4. Don't argue with the reporter, don't lose control.
5. If the reporter asks a direct question, give them a direct answer.
6. If you don't know the answer to the question, just say so.
7. Tell the truth, even if it's hard.
8. Don't hold a press conference if you don't have what journalists think
is news. Press
Secretary of the President of Russia Sergey Yastrzhembsky confirmed that the Kremlin
uses tactics of preliminary preparation for press conferences (TV-Center,
1998, June 3): "We are calculating what questions can be asked." By the way, the salary
of the press secretary, as it turned out, reaches 1000 conventional units.
Now we will move on to the specific ones communication events, koto
They are both part of PR work and part of journalistic professional
activity.
Press conference. We have seen above that most of the information
provided by newspapers is organized. Some events are organized in the same
way . So, Mary Aronson and Don Spetner notice: "As a PR representative, you
often become responsible for creating events that will draw
attention to your client." (Aronson M., Spetner D. The Public Relations writer' s handboo
- N.Y., 1993. - P. 93). They also suggest taking into account the following wh
holding a press conference :
1) place - you can invite those who have no difficulty getting there;
2) content - invite those who are professionally familiar with the content
of the event;
3) the visual side - what, in addition to "talking heads", will journalists,
especially TV viewers, be able to see;
4) time - the time should not coincide with other events of that day, and also
take into account the future publication of the newspaper.
Therefore, in general, an invitation to a press conference should contain the
following elements, which, on the one hand, should attract, on the other, weed
out those for whom its subject is not of professional interest: the purpose of
the event; where it will take place; when; why you need to come, and not jus
get this information by phone; will whether food and drinks are served; who to
contact for more information. At the same time, from the Ukrainian experience,
it should be added that although both food and drinks are attractive, they can
strongly attract not only the attention, but also the journalist himself.
Each journalist should receive as much information as possible in writing
to facilitate the process of writing future materials. Such a set may
include:
- a press release describing what is happening.
- biographies of officials who will perform;
- copies of speeches delivered at the press conference;
- a brochure about the company or sponsor of the event;
- photos. Preparation
for the press conference also includes making a list of possible questions and
answers. There is nothing to worry about if some time is spent on rehearsing
an oral dialogue. And the rehearsal of the entire event as a whole is also an
important element that contributes to its effective implementation. The press
release after the event will be written in the past tense, will contain the names
of celebrities who were present, and will mention how many people took
part in the event.
Letter to the editor. If an error appears in a newspaper article, in Western
society a person rushes to correct it and write a letter to the editor. In princip
letters are generally an important element of a Western newspaper, and this
should be taken into account, especially in the case of relations between
Ukrainian firms and Western consumers. A letter with correction of incorrect
information must contain: - the date and page where the original article
appeared; - incorrect information that was printed;
- correct information to be restored; - the
name and professional titles of the email author.

Sometimes you should not repeat incorrect information, so as not to draw

attention to it again. A similar rule applied in the laws of counter-propaganda
during the Second World War: it is better not to refute any message of the
enemy, so as not to attract the attention of the masses to it.
Press release. A press release for the Western world is a fairly common way
of transmitting information. It provides the following information for future use:
:
- about changes in the company's management;
- about the release of a new product or service.
- about an upcoming event.
- new information about the company and its activities. In the first paragraph,
which in the West is called "lead", all the most important information should
be immediately reported. Each subsequent paragraph will provide the reader
with less important information.
There are four requirements for such press releases (Aronson M., Spetner D.
- P. 17):

1. Two dates (one

reveals the time of writing, the other tells you when it
should be made public). 2.
Contact Information (the name and phone number of the person you can contact, and
in case of an important event, you should also provide their home phone
number). 3. Heading (journalists often change their headlines, but in order to attract
attention to their press release, you will also have to be resourceful in finding
the headline.)
4. Letterhead (you should use the institution's or client's letterhead in order
to give your presentation a sufficient professional level.)
A very important element of communication with the press is photo, which
must contain an indication of who, what, why, where and when it was captured.
Mary Aronson and Don Spetner add another rule that is very clear to our
readers: never send a press release to the editorial office before it is approved
at all the necessary bureaucratic steps. It is better to get the signatures of each
person who approves this information message, so that you don't end
up as a scapegoat later.
Performance on the radio. First, we will add a few characteristics for a press
release if it is sent to the radio, because among other things, it must contain
certain audio material. Unlike the print press, radio stations do not like long
phrases, so you should try to present only the facts. And intrigue with the very
first paragraph, which, as you remember, is called "lead". Radio as a communication
channel has many advantages. We listen to it while doing a lot of other
things at the same time. That is why the radio coverage of the population is
surprisingly wide. True, this audience is not the target audience, but the random
variation here is so large that the radio deserves the closest attention. &
especially in the conditions of Ukraine, when, on the one hand, the circulation of
newspapers has sharply decreased, on the other hand, the rural population has
always preferred radio. Add to this the fact that radio is a live voice, with the most
personal intonations, and you will understand all its advantages.
If you are speaking for the first time, then pay attention to the fact that the listener
clearly understands when you go to read a pre-written text, because there
are completely different constructions and different words. Also pay attention to
the smacking sounds that appear when you are getting ready to start for a long
time out of excitement. As far as radio ads are concerned, 10 -, 20
-, and 30-second ads will be quite effective, especially if they are filled with more
than just words. The melody that the radio listener remembers will also help you in
the following ads and advertisements.
Performance on television. The level of excitement here is usually much higher.
Therefore, calmness during performances will not come to you immediately. You
need to learn to behave quite freely. However, constant communication with
people from the world of business and politics is quite conducive to this.
Just speaking and speaking spectacularly interesting are two different things. It is
good if the figure of the interlocutor is quite unusual for the public, which in this
case is very interesting.m will accept even the most banal statements and
situations. A speaker on television should be able to easily rearrange himself,
freely construct texts that are interesting for the audience, use facial expressions
and gestures, and generally have pleasant manners for the viewer. Talking heads
can only be interesting if they are smart heads. And
most importantly: try to calm down, learn to manage your nervous tension, without
this you will not have a successful performance. Ask your family to take a slightly
critical look at your appearance on the TV screen, they will tell you those habits
that are invisible to you, but visible to the viewer, that you should get rid of. You
should not knock on the table (especially with a pen), you should blow your nose
quite decently. And the most important thing is to remember the time. 90% of people, being in
a state of nervous excitement, tend to talk indefinitely, they have
shifted the boundaries of time, it seems to them that they speak no more than two minutes,
although ten minutes have already passed. Keep your cool! But don't constantly
look at the clock, this also annoys the viewer. Since you will mostly fall into
the hands of "talking heads", try to somehow divide the spheres of influence. It
is not very good to look at a situation when heated arguments are so fascinating
that people start interrupting each other without letting each other finish their
sentences. Remember that you will be watched not only by your relatives.

§ 2. Political performances

In politics, there are basically no individual events. Each of its manifestations

is a mass event. And not just passive access to a mass audience,
but rather active work with the audience, taking standardized forms. This is a
pre-organized communication [Link] AI that is well-rehearsed and takes into
account the significant role of the audience in this process. After his election
in the third vote in the State Duma, Russian Prime Minister Sergei Kiriyenko
said in the program " Mirror "(RTR, 1998, 26 Apr.) that the approval of the
government is a kind of political action, where everyone plays their role.
 Rituals of various kinds always accompany humanity. Carl Jung even
associated them with a certain mental defense: "even the most primitive
people take some drastic measures during all those periods of life when
mental changes should be effective. Some of the most important ones are:
initiation at puberty , traditional ceremonies associated with marriage, birth,
and death. All these ceremonies, which are observed with the greatest precision
and care in primitive cultures that are still free from foreign influence,
seem to serve initially to prevent mental damage that, if they were not
present, could occur during these periods..." (Jung K. G. Essays on contemporary
events. Psychology of Nazism / / Odainik V. Psychology of politics. Political
and social ideas of Carl Gustav Jung. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 295).

In pre-revolutionary Russia, the idea of theatricality was widely spread by N.

Evreinov, who considered it as a universal human property that
manifests itself in a wide variety of situations. And this, in his words, is the "primacy
of Theatrocracy" he traces at all times and in all situations (Evreinov N. Theater for
yourself. - Ch. 1-3. - P., 1915-1917). At the same time, there are interesting parallels
with political "action" due to the fact that it takes place in a fundamentally mass
audience. Thus, analyzing primitive performances (children's and soldiers'), N.
Evreinov comes to the following conclusions: "first of all, the participants take part in
each stage. the type they embody is definitely simple; they do not want to take into
account any complexity of character ; if the character is a "villain", then it is a villain
"without a trace": in the personification of such naive actors, he is terrible "to death",
growls like a beast, gawks, grins teeth, and must cause horror not only on the
contrary, if it is necessary to portray a" funny "fellow, then such an actor spares
no effort to amuse the audience with at least completely inappropriate grimaces,
jumps, "freaks", in a word, provides the embodiment of the comic type with all
the attributes of clowning" (Evreinov N. Pro scena sua. - P., 1914. - pp. 74-75).
Interesting remarks about the medieval actor, lying in the same plane: "The medieval
crowd undoubtedly wanted first of all to hear everything and understand everything
that is being said from the stage; hence the need to speak loudly, clearly and without
haste; there can be no question of any" talk "or" semitones". Then such an audience
loved and demanded that the actor try, namely: I tried play (In the same place. - P. 75).
In the West, the theory of performance, which combines
various types of collective communicative behavior, has become widespread.
New York University professor Richard Schechner defines performance art as
"activities performed by an individual or group in the presence and for the benefit of another
individual or group" (Schechner R. Performance theory. - New York etc., 1988) . This
fairly general definition covers both theater and the wedding ceremony, and
much more.
At the same time, the central concept becomes the audience itself and modeling its
behavior in various types of performance. The selected audience types are very
important, since the performance is a complex communicative
action, where both the role of actors and the audience itself becomes equivalent
. Richard
Schechner distinguishes between a random one and integrated the audience. An example
of a random audience is the audience of a theatrical performance.
The integrated audience is those who are required to attend this
performance. For example, relatives at a wedding.
According to Richard Schechner, the general differences
between the two types of audience are as follows: 1) a random
audience has a choice of whether to attend or not to attend
events, they most often pay for attendance; 2) participants in
this case are atomized, it is impossible to involve them in the
general action, because they are strangers among strangers;

3) an integrated audience differs from a random one in that it knows exactly

what is going to happen, so it can pay less attention to what is happening;
4) a performance for a random audience should take place in a certain
time interval, for example, between dinner and eleven o'clock in the evening.
All these characteristics give rise to the special role of political performances as
a way of manifesting political ideas and demonstrating the role of their adherents.
American researcher Andrea Borreca spoke about political
drama, seeing symbolic and dramatic qualities in politics. Politics
becomes theater, "when it manifests itself as such, when representatives
are given a stage where they can be observed by the audience, and when the audience-
the requirement of staging on stage-becomes the norm of political
interaction". If the Vietnam War for the United States still developed according to its own law
then the war in the Persian Gulf was implemented taking into account the laws of mass
communication. This becomes possible, Because, as Andrea Borreca wrote, "all
human actions-writing of any kind, war, revolution, creating art,
crime, seeking political office, making love-have
the property of symbolism".
Another American researcher, Peggy Phelan, analyzes in this aspect
examples from the election campaign of Bill Clinton, believing that such phenomena
should be perceived "through and with the grammar and syntax of television". She
notes the following defining characteristics in that campaign:: "The emphasis was on
spectacle, space and speed, not on debate, discussion or depth. The camera is in
love with the superficial; the people of the United States are in love with the camera; and th
understand that this camera will allow them to repeat themselves for "the next four years"".
In the film about Clinton, the focus was on his meeting with President Kennedy when
the future president was fifteen years old: "There is an oddity in modeling the life and
career of a murdered president, because it assumes that you become
a substitute, a second coming, a copy, a return to the past. Clinton tried
to overcome this reading by saying that he needed a substitute father". The fact is that his
in a car accident three months before he was born, his stepfather was an alcoholic who
beat up his mother. When Billy was four years old, Clinton's father even shot at his mothe
but missed. Such details, of course, were not in the film. But at the age of fourteen,
Billy came to his mother's defense, forbidding his stepfather to raise a hand against
her. This paternal line, brought out to the public, was constantly running in his campaign.
For example, speaking about the first time he held his daughter in his arms, Clinton
said that his own father was not a dogesilt before that. And this cross-section corresponds
to the role of the father of the nation, which is traditionally assumed by the president.
In the United States, the difference in gender in the case of voters is just as significant
as in Ukraine. 56% of the votes for Clinton were cast by women. In general, political
action was supposed to become a theater within the framework of our civilization, which
absorbs the vibes of the spectacle from everywhere and turns everything into a theater.
a sight to behold. In the CIS, we have the first TV politician Vladimir
Zhirinovsky and the first TV death of Vladislav Listyev, the reaction to
which was given an unprecedented scale in society. Neither great
writers nor statesmen have been buried in this way until now. The world of
spectacle has drawn us all in, without exception.
Since political performances strongly correspond to the context
of their time (whether it will be, for example, a May Day in the forest, or a
solemn meeting in the Kremlin Palace of Congresses),
these contextual (and if we take the context in a broad sense, then even
certain civilizational) characteristics should be included in our consideration.
In the most general form, we can lay down such a framework for their
definition: the degree of interdependence of the upper and lower levels, the degree of
the possibility of the existence of individual consciousness within the
framework of a given collective consciousness. If we look at the phenomenon
of performance from this perspective, we can distinguish the following three
types of communication space in which performance develops: - ritual,
- symbolic,
- democratic.
In ritual but this interaction is so tightly formed that
neither the top nor the bottom can change anything in it. They obey pre
-established rules of communicative behavior. And for the ritual, the main
thing is to perform it, not a violation.
A characteristic sign of this time is the absence of a personal " I " in
literature and life. Ritual civilization was strongly oriented to the past,
not knowing the future. "An appeal to the past is characteristic of ancient and
medieval cultures. The psychological turn "facing the future" began, apparently, in the midd
of the first millennium BC. e. under the influence of Messianic teachings and eschatologic
thanks to which both the highest significance and the main attention of people were tra
the past to the future" (I. S. Klochkov. Spiritual culture of Babylonia: man, fate,
time, Moscow, 1983, p. 29).
All societies treat their past with maximum reverence (the current
period of national history is an exception in this regard), but
this is typical of the ritual period to the maximum extent. Igor Klochkov wrote:
"Psychologically,
the Babylonians, like the Sumerians, were oriented in time to the past.
If for modern man "looking to the future "means" looking forward, "then
Sumer or the Babylonian, looking forward, saw the past; the future lay behind him"
(In the same place. - P. 28). Societies automatically go
out to generate their own rituals, largely relying on rituals already developed
in the past. Thus, the process of funerals of top officials, as reported in the
film "The Other Day-82 "(NTV, 1998, May 22), was restored in the case of
Suslov (the funeral of I. Stalin, and before him - M. Kalinin). In
symbolic in space, there is a certain freedom for the upper classes, but it is not
for the lower classes, because the upper classes play a role that a real person
cannot influence . And each individual person gradually gets the right to
autonomous behavior, but it is strongly symbolized. "As soon
as a problem arisessuch behavior leads to accusations of hypocrisy. This is unavoidable:
is deliberate in its nature, it claims to be valuable in itself. Public opinion
demanded that a person choose a style and stick to it. It was necessary not to
just to live, but to appear, to demonstrate belonging to a certain
ideology, philosophy,"phrase system". The concept itself is associated with mass participation. Aristot
and Plato did not yet need symbolic behavior, deliberate style, but
the army of philosophers needed uniforms and insignia. The style-bright, catchy,
uniform-was necessary" (Kovelman A. B. Rhetoric in the Pyramid System, Moscow,
1988, pp. 156-157. Yuri Lotman analyzed the behavior
of theDecembrists in terms of significance and came to a similar conclusion: "...Any chain of
actions became a text (acquired meaning), if it could be clarified by its connection with a cer
literary plot. The death of Caesar and the feat of Cato, the prophet denouncing and
preaching, Tirthaeus, Ossian or Bayan singing before the soldiers on the eve of battle
(the latter plot was created by Narezhny), Hector leaving for battle and saying goodbye to
Andromache - these were the plots that gave meaning to this or that chain
of everyday actions. This approach implied the "consolidation" of all behavior,
the distribution of typical literary masks among real acquaintances, and the idealization
of the place and space of action (real space was conceptualized through
literary space). So, St. Petersburg in Pushkin's message to Glinka - Athens, F. [Link] -
Aristide" (Lotman Yu M. Conversations about Russian culture. St. Petersburg, 1994, p. 34
The ballet"Swan Lake"became a symbolic version of communication within the
framework of the former USSR vdrun . Broadcasting it on the screen during the GKChP
was recorded as a type of political action. Prior to that, on November 10, 1982 ,
the Police Day concert was canceled, and symphony music was played all day. This is
how the death of Leonid Brezhnev was "marked" before its official announcement.
In a democratic one in this space, both the upper and lower levels have the ability to form
a communicative space relatively independently. At the same time, there must
be respect and acceptance of the point of view of the minority, and not just
the majority, as we are used to.
In a real activity, all three variants of the communicative organization
of space can be used, overlapping one another. In the above example, Bill Clinton
acted as the father of the nation, implementing actions within a symbolic space. But
at the same time, this behavior was ritualized to a certain extent within the framework
of the accepted performance drama of conducting such political actions. An interesting
example is when a Hungarian journalist kept waiting for the beginning of the event
itself, and only then,after watching it in the news, realized that the event lasted all
the time while she was waiting. That is, it is like an example of a ritual that is unfamilia
to the bearer of a different culture. There is some misunderstanding of our own rituals,
since there is no corresponding historical basis for their consecration. I am referring to
the ritual of taking the oath of office by the President of Ukraine. During the" inter-time
period", when the old system was disintegrating, the main ritual was a rally, and
it was there that many future deputy cadres were formed. The rally is characterized
by a very important feature-the maximum removal of control over the dissemination
of information, the removal of the veil from the gods forbidden/allowed for
criticism (this is an element of a certain Bakhtin carnival).
David Risman saw similar changes in the spread of literacy among the population: "
More and more readers are starting to see messages that are not
intended for them. And they read them in situations that are no longer controlled or
structured by the narrator - or by their own involvement. This increase
in the number, diversity, and "spread" of messages, together with the general depersonalization
of print, which causes these specific effects, is becoming one of the most
important drivers of social change." (Riesman D. a. o. The Lonely Crowd. - Р. 122).
At the same time, some events can be deliberately held "under the guise" of a
particular performance. For example, in the program "Man and the Law" (ORT, 1995,
17 Apr.) it was said that thieves ' gatherings are held under the guise of weddings,
funerals, etc. At the same time, as an exception, other performances may "flow" into
other forms. For example, here is what former chairman of the USSR Council
of Ministers Nikolai Ryzhkov said in an interview: "At one of the Politburo meetings,
where all the same economic issues were discussed for seven hours,there was a
scandal. It got to the point that it was unacceptable <...> Gorbachev and I began to
cover each other with obscenities, and then we almost grabbed each other's breasts.
They rushed to separate us, the noise rose... "("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995,
March 29). Performances become a central form both in the period of" decadence "of
society (for example, our "jubilee" period), and in the period of rapid changes (recall
the attention to the first sessions of the parliament, both Union and Ukrainian).
In both cases,performances allow us to develop a single interpretation
of reality. Therefore, both the USSR and Ukraine included a large number
of writers, journalists and other specialists of the verbal world among their first
people's deputies for this very reason. And the point here is not even in the new
nomination, but in the fact that the main method of production in such periods is the
verbal method, and people of literary work can more easily adapt to this plan. They
always go ahead of reality, only modeling it within the framework of symbolic
reality. They live by the rhetoric of future victories, so they never feel the bitterness
of defeat. Pierre Bourdieu also emphasized another way of professionalizing the
verbal sphere: "Any use of force is accompanied by a discourse aimed at legitimizing
the power of the person who uses it. It may even be said that the essence
of any relation of forces consists in the manifestation of all its power only to the
extent that this relation as such remains hidden. Simply put, a politician is someone
who speaks: "God is with us." The equivalent of "God is with us" today is
"Public opinion is with us" (Bourdieu P. Sociology of Politics, Moscow, 1993, p. 164).
Every significant event requires its implementation not only in the real field,
but also in the informational field, and in the symbolic field. Hence the craving, for
example, for celebrations whose history stretches back to the most ancient times.
Let's take an example from antiquity: "On his return from Africa to Rome, Caesar first
of all delivered a speech to the people, praising his victory. He said that he had taken
so much land that he would deliver two hundred thousand Attic medimns of grain
and three million pounds of olive oil to the state storage facility every year. Then he
celebrated the triumphs of Egypt, Pontus, and Africa... After the triumphs , Caesar
began to distribute rich gifts to the soldiers, and arranged treats and games for
the people. Twenty-two thousand tables were filled with food for all citizens. Games
-gladiator fights and sea battles-he gave in honor of histh long-dead daughter
Julia" (Plutarch. Comparative biographies // Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p.
154). Accordingly, performances
are designed to promote the elevation of top performers. "It is necessary that every
office should be something sacred and great, and that the person who exercises it
should be honored, "Plutarch wrote in his treatise on State Affairs
(In the same place. - P. 611). We often, without knowing the measure, rather move towards
the concept of "personality cult", and even at the level of our small institutions.
At the same time, performances can be aimed at completely different tasks. In some
cases, they may be aimed at creating an image of a "family", as was the case during
the 1992 US election campaign. By the way, this example showed the ambiguity
of the perception of the family in the modern world. So, Peggy Fellan writes:
"The 1992 campaign revealed a crisis in the family display area - he himself
reflected the crisis in the image of the state. It has become very noticeable
everywhere in the world that the traditional family and the traditional state are no
longer safe, happy social units. On the other hand, it led to a sense
of almost ecstatic freedom - a dizzying delirium of new
political and social opportunities..." (Phelan P. The Rats and the Democrats // The
Drama Review. - 1993. - № 3. - Р. 178). Probably, the result of the performance
campaign, launched under the slogan: "I vote for Hillary's husband", was the
return of Hillary Clinton to the position of first lady. She herself said in an interview
:" I was told that opinion polls show that people don't even know that Bill and I
have a child." And then she was shown in a performance with her own
baked sweets and next to her twelve-year-old daughter. The French
semiotic Patrick Pavy discusses the " mise en scene "in a way similar to our
understanding of performance art:" it is a transformation or, rather, a
concretization of the text through the actor, through the stage space, embedded in
the time interval lived by the viewer. Space, so to speak, is shifted to
words: the text is memorized and recorded in the actor's gestural space based on
replicas. The actor is looking for such movements, such postures that would best
correspond to the spatial recording of the text" (Pavi P. Dictionary of Theater,
Moscow, 1991, p. 179). In other words, we are faced with the most profitable
model of spatial implementation, which most effectively affects the viewer.
That is why such attention was paid to solemn meetings, festive
demonstrations, and party congresses.
Performances can be considered as a social speech act, the task of which
is to maximize the impact on all channels. Society
and civilization are primarily interested in social speech acts. The very
idea of writing and printing is the idea of realizing the needs of a social
speech act. An individual speech act is subject to time erosion, while a social
act should not depend on it. A social
communication act is characterized by the desire to increase the number of
recipients of messages: in this way, it is introduced directly into the collective
consciousness (conciliar consciousness, to use the terminology of Russian
religious philosophy). At the same time, the corresponding specialization occurs:
from the binary channel of information exchange, which is characteristic of an
individual act, we have a mono channel, a channel with one direction. The
problem of text reproduction was also solved in the non-written era: then the
heralds successfully coped with this function . Today, according to a similar
principle of oral realization (but repeated many times), the theater moves the text
from individual memory to collective memory. Reading a single text of the" Bible "
develops a single mentality and unity of associations.
For the purpose of further realization of social memory, the intensity of different
components of the communicative process is used.
Sender's intensity The sender reinforces

the effectiveness by taking on

of your word, yourself an authority. This is, to
by example, commander in relation
to the to soldiers, chief
software in relation to subordinates.
Recipient's intensity Here you can increase the number of
witnesses to the event. Russia, to
In Ancient Greece, for they rubbed their ears so
example, witnesses are better off that they would remember the act of sale.

Text intensity Text is amplified when included in it

oaths and divinities
as separate functional units.

Code intensity The code also functioned

the unwritten era by-
significantly greater was
Q2 : power the spoken word. Breaking it
considered as
a significant behavior.
deviation in Today's army
relevant
language, for example,
principles in relation to
has speech Commander: "the law
characteristics for subordinate", "orders
non-students. are being discussed" , etc.

As a definite substitute for the writing system, the system of real

symbols functioned. They reinforced the situation with their standard
readability. For example: pumpkin - as a refusal of matchmaking
on the part of the girl; the guy drank or rejected mead after the
viewing; handing bread with salt at the meeting; chicken and porridge
as symbols of fertility on the wedding table. "Oral" events to become
socialthe real ones were saturated with such real symbols. These
are symbols, not signs, because they have individual contextual
uses that are poorly combined with similar ones. According to these
criteria, a religious service can also be assessed as an intensive
speech act. Sender's intensity Special type of clothing and special type
activities of a clergyman.

Recipient's intensity Being in a special place,

solemn, not everyday field
communication.

Text intensity The text of the sermon contains

both earthly
and divine examples.

Code intensity The language of

the church was different
from the language in which
said population. There are special
rules language behaviors associated with
with a confession, for example.

Researchers believe that politics merges with the theater due to the fact
that in both cases there is an attempt to win an audience. This unity
of ends results in a unity of means. Even as a result of events such as
the abduction of Aldo Moro by terrorists, the action unfolds in this way,
to hold the audience's attention. "Mass communication media represent
the place where an event unfolds, the stage to which the audience turns its
attention; it is precisely through the clear alignment of the plot ( sequence
deployment) and the scene (channel) that the audience and, accordingly, the
social (or political) drama itself is held" (Borreca A. Political dramaturgу // The
Drama Review. - 1993. - № 2. - Р. 67). Once again, we return to the classic
demand: "bread and circuses." Politics should include not only an analytical
component, but also a spectacular one, and in this area we are still very, very
far from the ideals of antiquity. Suetonius describes the reign of Augustus in the
following words:: "In terms of entertainment, he surpassed all his predecessors:
his shows were more frequent, more diverse, more brilliant. According
to him, he gave the games four times on his own behalf and twenty-three
times on behalf of other magistrates when they were absent or without funds.
... In the days of these spectacles, he posted guards around Rome to protect
the depopulated city from robbers" (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillusedit. The Life of the
Twelve Caesars, Moscow, 1990, p. 55). Analyzing examples of the role of
space in the theater, Vyacheslav Ivanov says that each epoch in the history of
culture differs in the choice of its spatial distinctive feature. The medieval model
chose "verticality", which "was reflected both in the verticality of such main
symbols as the world tree, and in the very form of the scene in the medieval mystery
theater, where the stage was divided into heaven, earth and hell" (Ivanov
Vyach. Sun. Hall and stage // Theater, 1978, No. 7, p. 76). In conclusion, politics
merges with the theater, giving rise to its own political performances, due to
the fact that mass action must fundamentally be built according to the same
laws. Therefore, the closeness of politics and theater, realized in their struggle
for the audience, will inevitably increase in the future. Politics in any country
and at any time will borrow the most effective ways to influence the audience.

§ 3. Nonverbal communication

Both in performances and in any other form of communication, nonverbal

communication plays an important role . It covers not only non-verbal
characteristics (such as timbre, tone), but also the characteristics of
movement, posture (add the same type of hairstyle, appearance, costume). In
short, much of what we get is primarily through visual channels. This is a more
ancient method of influence, so it works both more effectively and [Link] all-encompassing.
Any modern means (and writing, and even television) they still
require special training in order to properly use this tool. Therefore, more ancient
methods of influence are more powerful. The log on the subbotnik, which was
carried by V. Lenin, also illustrates the simplicity of such event communication.
And this is not just our example. Bill Clinton on the birthday of Martin
Luther King, dressed in a T-shirt with the inscription Stanford University and
jeans, went to one of the Washington schools to paint the walls and wash the
windows with the students. He is still pictured with a brush in his hand. Here
are some other historical examples. Suetonius says of Augustus: "He incurred
the greatest and most deadly hatred by this act. The senators, who came in
full force to present him with many of the most venerable decrees, he received
in front of the temple of Venus, the Ancestress of sitting. Some say that he
tried to get up, but was restrained by Cornelius Balbus; others, on the contrary,
It was as if he hadn't tried, but had even glared at Gaius Trebacius when he
asked him to get up. This was particularly outrageous because he himself,
riding in triumph past the tribune seats and seeing that one of the tribunes
named Pontius Aquila did not stand in front of him, was then so indignant that he exclaimed:
"Will you not also return the republic, Aquila, Tribune of the people?" (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillusedit.
The Life of the Twelve Caesars, Moscow, 1990, p. 33). Konstantin
Stanislavsky wrote the following words about the role of the costume for the artist:
"The famous artist Martynov said that when he had to play a role in the
same frock coat in which he came to the theater, then, entering the dressing room, he took
it off and hung it on a hanger. And when it was time to go on stage after the make-up, he
put on his coat, which ceased to be just a coat for him and
turned into a costume, that is, into the dress of the person he was portraying. This moment
can not be called just dressing the artist. This is his moment vestments. The moment
is extremely important, psychological" (Stanislavsky K. S. Ethics, Moscow, 1981, p. 28).
Here we are talking about being included in a new role. And communication with people,
which both a politician and a businessman have, is also always a certain role. At the same
time, the desired message is transmitted through a number of channels, among which the
main ones are verbal and visual.
In the field of nonverbal communication, even entire dialogues can occur. Plutarch
describes Alexander the Great as follows: "When Callisthenes' turn came , he took the
cup (the king was distracted by a conversation with Hephaestion), drank the wine, and went
up to the king for a kiss. But then Demetrius, who was called Phidon, exclaimed, " O king, do
not kiss him, for he alone of all has not prostrated himself before you." Alexander evaded the
kiss, and Callisthenes said in a loud voice:: "Well, I have one less kiss."
(Plutarch. Comparative biographies // Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 96).
Professor Yuri Lotman writes that in a number of situations, Suvorov " clearly preferred
gesture to word. He, who surprised his interlocutors with his eloquence - in other situations -
here clearly began to lack words, and he switched to glossolalia: crowing,
ecstatic gesticulation" (Lotman Yu. Conversations about Russian culture. St. Petersburg, 1994, p.
272).
A lot of examples of nonverbal communication are recorded in the memoirs of Otto
von Bismarck (Bismarck O. Thoughts and Memories, vol. 1, Moscow, 1940). For example:
- "I never felt the need to wear orders anywhere, except in St. Petersburg and in Paris
in these capitals, it is absolutely necessary to show yourself on the street only with
a ribbon in your buttonhole, if you want the police and the public to treat you
politely " (p. 58);
- "One street boy shouted after me: "Look, this is a Frenchman."
Subsequently, I was repeatedly presented with a reason to recall this
review. My long goatee-the only thing I didn't shave off-soft hat and tailcoat
gave the boy the impression of something exotic "(p. 19);
- " Emperor Nicholas asked him [Friedrich Wilhelm IV] to send two non-commissioned
officers of the Prussian Guard for a prescribed back massage, during which the patient was
given a special treatment. I had to lie on my stomach. At the same time, he said: " I always
manage with my Russians, as long as I can look them in the face, but from the back, where
there are no eyes, I would still prefer not to let them near" (p. 159);
"Even in Berlin, when I became a minister, I did not refuse to dance when ladies of my
acquaintance invited me or princesses gave me the honor; but I was constantly
forced to listen to the king's sarcastic remarks on this subject. "I
am reproached," he said, " for having chosen a frivolous man as my minister. "
you shouldn't support that opinion with your dancing." The
princesses were forbidden to choose me as a cavalier" (p. 59).

Jacques Seguela, a leading French advertiser, analyzing the gestures of Francois

Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac, came to the following conclusions: "Among the typical
gestures of Mitterrand are the hands placed on the table one on top of the other or with the
fingers clasped, palms raised inwards, or one hand raised in the same position. The first
movement reflects the ability to dominate the interlocutors, the second-self-confidence, the
third-sincerity, the fourth-the desire for reconciliation. Jacques Chirac often
raised both hands, palms up (a sign of submission, uncertainty), and at
rallies spread them wide apart (this is considered a gesture of a generous
person) "(Kommersant of Ukraine, 1994, No. 14). Gesture becomes the main means within
the framework of theatrical art, as the Sun wrote well. Meyerhold. Vyach. Vs. Ivanov,
analyzing the work of S. Eisenstein, wrote: "The attempt to use gestures as a special
language can also be seen in his directorial practice of these years. Eisenstein argued
that the gesture already contains the entire mise en scene (Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Modern Science
and Theater // Theater, 1977, No. 8, p. 106).
These characteristics are actively used by advertising to use not only
verbal communication tools, but also nonverbal ones. So, women and children in
advertising are often depicted lying on the floor, sofa or bed, which can not be said about
men. This depicts their dependence on others, as it
is an unprotected pose. Or, for example, an image of a man who puts his hand on a
woman's shoulder. And by the way, on commercials, men are always taller than women in
height. Such an analysis of visual advertising was once conducted by the American
researcher Erwin Goffman. For some inconsistencies in the visual language
of your ad, see Ryukle H. Your secret weapon in communication. Mimicry, gesture, movement.
- Moscow, 1996. Many
nonverbal characteristics remain in the memory of the event's witnesses. So, Mark
Zakharov recalled :" When Yeltsin left the party, as long as he looked people in the eye, no
one moved, everyone was like rabbits before a boa constrictor, fascinated by his strength
and power. Only when he inadvertently turned his back - there was no other way to get out
of the hall - only then did they start shouting, whistling, and trying to bite him in the back.
But when he smorit in the eyes, no one decidestsya" (Trud, 1996, June 28). Another
example is the response of Sergei Mikhalkov to a confidential criticism of one of his
colleagues of his poems that have become the national anthem. Hearing the words. S.
Mikhalkov said that the poems he composed were shitty: "Shitty, not shitty, and you'll listen
to them standing up." At
the same time, excessive visual information is dangerous, because this is how you can convey
your unnecessary anxiety, for example. S. N. Parkinson suggests studying the video recording
of your own speech: "Observe the facial expression, the movement of the eyebrows,
the shrug of the shoulders, the raising of the finger. Which of these gestures was
necessary? What impression do all the others make, besides. that a person
can't sit still? They may reveal your character, but would you like to reveal
exactly these aspects of it? Are these gestures convincing or distracting? Do they promote
expressiveness or just annoy you?" (Parkinson's S. N. Parkinson's Laws, Moscow,
1989, P. 288).
French semiotic Patrick Pavy suggests several ways to connect
a gesture with a word. This can be either an accompaniment, a supplement, or a substitute.
And his words about the actor can also be transferred to either a politician or a business
leader: "in the plastic work of an actor, everything is significant, nothing is left to chance."
everything is semiotic, so that gestures, whatever category they
belong to, are included in the aesthetic category. On the other hand, the
actor's body cannot be completely reduced to a set of signs, it resists
semiotization, as if in a theater, a gesture forever preserves the imprint of the
personality that creates it" (Pavi P. Dictionary of Theater, Moscow, 1991, p. 101).

A certain equivalence is laid down in the ratio of the costume and the hero. "For
the costume of a well - heeled heroine," writes Sheila Jackson, " anything is
bettertry to follow the fashion pictures of the Victorian era with their sugary
colorfulness and do not skimp on artificial flowers, feathers and bows. A young
virtuous woman who is going through difficult times due to the machinations of
villains and other vicissitudes of fate, it is best to dress in a plain simple dress with
a lace collar, a neat apron, a shawl and a lace cap. For her outdoor
costume, if she also has to wade through the snow with a baby in her arms,
it is best to choose a large shawl that covers her and the child" (Jackson Sh. Costume
for the stage, Moscow, 1984, p. 58). We see even more: the interdependence of the
costume and... the plot. As for the male characters, their characteristics are just as
definite. "Another typical character in melodramas is a villain wrapped in
a black raincoat, wearing a wide-brimmed felt hat or a shiny top hat,
always with a mustache and sideburns. His trousers are best tucked into leather or
rubber boots. It is best to wear a romantic shirt with
a Byronic collar on a lyrical hero. A loosely tied black silk scarf will add
tragedy to his appearance, and red leather slippers will be perceived as
a hint of depravity." (In the same place. - P. 58-59). And if someone
thinks that this aspect is not so important for a business person or a politician, then
he is deeply mistaken. The fact is that, on the one hand, this type of communication
affects us directly, without requiring "translation". On the other hand, it is
very important in terms of a minimum of information. So,for example, the Americans
"read" the relationship between Boris Yeltsin and the military on the basis
of the fact that Yeltsin, before getting up from the table, buttoned up his jacket to
all the buttons. This corresponds to the relevant analysis rules: if " zippedopens
the jacket-the partner feels attacked and defends himself" (Ryukle H.
Your secret weapon in communication. Mimicry, gesture, movement. - M., 1996. - p.
187). Here are two more examples from business life: "The higher the level
of work offered, the more important the elusive factors become. Over
the years, I have had numerous conversations with various managers about why
they chose one candidate for a high-ranking position over another. One, as I
recall, was not satisfied with the candidate's poor posture. The limp handshake
was mentioned many times. The leading candidate for a high position lost, because
the person standing above him did not want to see a bald man as the head of the
largest division. One man who was a serious candidate for the presidency of a
solid, medium-sized firm found out later that he lost because he was wearing short
black socks and during an important interview showed a piece of uncovered
leg between his pant leg and his sock" (Half R. How to get a better job in this crazy
world. - N. Y., 1991. - Р. 157). And here is an example from political life (a fragment
of an interview with People's Deputy of Ukraine Alexandra Kuzhel): "When
I went to England, I bought a very expensive suit, because I knew that without
it I would not be "accepted"in their parliament. Before I left, I read everything about
how they live, how they relate to their appearance. ...The fabric and work were so high-quality
that I was immediately given a certain score. And already based on this,
a further conversation was built. And when did you first go to the United States,
I had to pick up a lot of their magazines. I looked at what women were wearing, what
kind of costume jewelry they were wearing. Here, for example, is an interesting touch:
in the summer , you can not appear in congress in a red suit - this is bad form. In
winter-please, in summer-no way!And ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, October 28).
L. Brown, who has worked with five US presidents, says about the tie: "Any man
who meets with clients, employees, and solves business problems at any
level, should think more than once about choosing a tie - because a tie will tell
you a lot about him. Some executives who frequently appear on television even
bring proven "TV ties"in their briefcase. They put them on
before filming and take them off at the end of the program." (Brown L. Image is the path to
success. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 49). Tie, jewelry, etc. they are signs that tell
you much more about their owner than he himself thinks.
A person who is confident, successful, and behaves differently. Humanity
has also developed certain signals that tell us about this. "The growth
of superiority seems to increase us in size. The winner is carried on his shoulders,
his arm is raised up, and he is allowed to stand on a towering pedestal.
A top-down punch is intended to illustrate how the opponent was defeated. The cups
go up. The winner gets the right to complete a lap of honor, which
often resembles processions in Rome. Big cars and big houses,
well-known status symbols are also an expression of triumph. They
illustrate the fact that their owner has achieved success" (Ryukle H. Your secret weapon
in communication. Mimicry, gesture, movement. - M., 1996. - p. 225). US Secretary
of State Warren Christopher said about his expensive suits that their high quality is
a sign of his respect for the interlocutors. This is the most general principle of PR,
which we can express in the words of Cicero: "In relation to people - and to all the
best, and to others - we must show, so to speak, respect. For to neglect the opinion
that every human being has formed about himself or herself is [Link]
example, there is a manifestation not only of arrogance, but also of complete moral failure. But in
our behavior towards people, there must be a distinction between justice and respect.
The task of justice is not to offend people, the task of respectful behavior is not
to offend their self-esteem" (Cicero. On duties / / Cicero. About old age. About friendship.
On duties, Moscow, 1975, p. 83).
There are certain rules of nonverbal behavior that
the interviewer should warn the speaker about. Americans mention among them,
for example, a ban on the following types of distracting body movements and
habits ("You must break the ice": the art of interviews in recipes from Miami / /
Journalist. - 1993. - No. 5):
- continuously nod when talking.
- it is unnatural to bend over to the microphone;
- speak with chewing gum in your mouth;
- speak softly and indistinctly;
- turn away from the camera.
All this time we were talking about visual signs, which Roman Jacobson believed
(Jacobson R. To the question of visual and auditory signs / / Semiotics and artometry. -
M., 1972), are constructed in spatial, not temporal dimension. This leads to an
important conclusion: these signs seem to be in stopped time, so they are not dynamic.
It is for this reason that the authorities can actively use them. And the monument
on the square, and "Glory of the CPSU''on the gable of the house. Visual PR signs
contain the most constant messages. For example, the authority of the government
(Stalin, for example, did not just stand on the podium of the mausoleum, but on a small
bench, so as not to be lower than others.)
Nonverbal and verbal signs are in a certain correspondence. The judge's
suit and general's uniform give rise to various types of statements. Alexander Zakushnyak
claims: "You need to know where and where the actor is talking from. For example:
"Hello, Ivan Kuzmich "(Chekhov's"Daughter of Albion") is said from a steep bank-
down. So the sound of the voice itself must be appropriate. Sitting down, the character
speaks differently than standing up. In winter-differently than in summer" (Zakushnyak A. Evenings
of the Story , Moscow, 1984, p. 61).
We see that in nonverbal communication there are constant characteristics
of verbal communication itself, such as the differentiation of male and female
voices. They do not change dynamically during a conversation, but are permanent
in nature. Accordingly, they increase their own values. Thus, the low
male voice under the influence of cinematic cliches became a sign
of masculinity, and many young people in America lost their voice, trying to
imitate them. Or a foreign accent: for example, during the
Cold War, the Voice of America was deliberately attracted to speakers with accents, since
they were not psychologically perceived as"traitors". Or a pleasant timbre
of voice. Elena Fedorova quotes the following quote from an ancient source about
Cleopatra: "She had a wonderful voice, and thanks to her charm, she could
talk to everyone. It was a great pleasure to sit and listen to her, so she
could bring down anyone: both a cold-blooded person and a middle-aged one. She
decided to impress Caesar in this usual way and put all her hopes on her
daughter to achieve a favorable outcome of the case" (E. Fedorov. Imperial Rome in faces
, Moscow, 1979, p. 42). The title of the full-page article in Komsomolskaya Pravda (1996,
July 12) reads: "Why does General Lebed have such a voice?". L. Brown also writes:
"The voice of a columnist is as much an integral part of his image as his
appearance or a journalistmaster's degree" (Brown L. Image is the path to success. St.
Petersburg, 1996 , p. 113).
Various experiments have been conducted to prove the effectiveness
of this particular aspect of communication. Thus, Peter Brook said: "We have forgotten what
man has known for many thousands of years, what lies at the heart
of ancient tragedy. The word is like an iceberg, and the idea, the concept in this case, is just
the surface, the tip of the iceberg. We have done a lot of experiments of a purely
research nature aimed at removing this upper part of the iceberg, that
is, to overcome the intellectual component of the word. And we found that an infinite amount
of meaning can be conveyed through sound. We played in the Old Persian language, in
the languages of the peoples of Africa. At the same time, the words in their purely superficial
meaning were inaccessible to the audience. But at the same time, the audience was
forced to listen to the sound of words, to the vibrations that arise from
pronunciation, and the impression turned out to be much richer than from a word
perceived only in its semantic content" (Brooke P. Lectures at the Moscow Art Theater //
Theater. - 1989. - No. 4).The main channels for us are two: visual and auditory.
Through the visual channel, we receive messages in various "languages": costume,
hairstyle, etc. All of them are constant in nature, transmitting unchanging
characteristics of a person, such as their gender, status, social class, etc
. For example, in late October 1995, the Speaker of the Ukrainian
Parliament, Alexander Moroz, visited rural areas of Zhytomyr region. At the same
time, the TV news immediately revealed a discrepancy between the long, expensive
raincoat of the visitor and the usual short robes of rural workers. In other words, even
within this language, you need to monitor the correctness of messages.
A very serious professional mistake is our exclusive
attention to verbal communication. But even within this framework, listening,for example,
occupies 53% (21% - mass communication, 32% - non-mass), and speaking only 16%.
Remaining : writing - 14% and reading-17%. We struggle to learn to speak and write,
but no one tries to learn to listen. By actively listening, asking questions,
and looking closely at the other person, we can easily win their heart. But this is the
task of PR. The listener may lean forward slightly to express their attention and interest.
He certainly doesn't get distracted. He writes it down. He's all ears. How different this is
from our usual listening routine, which is constantly interrupted by whispering with others.
Or remember how often the "boss chair" even looks past us, busy with their papers,
or the conversation is periodically interrupted by phone calls, the arrival of subordinates.
This immediately puts everything in its place: we are not needed here. In another world,
everything is organized completely differently. For example, an American mayor can
remove the door from his office altogether, inviting everyone to his office. In another city
hall, once a month, tables are taken out to the street so that everyone can address their
complaints. There, the hearing is modeled overactive to show its
dependence on the public, otherwise it will turn away from such
leaders. In principle, listening training is becoming a permanent element in the training
of both managers and political leaders in the West. Then it all comes back a hundredfold.
J. Spiegel gives such an example from the pre-election race of B. The Clinton
campaign. "He seemed to have a special ability to connect with the audience and make
them understand what he was [Link] yourself. How? By asking questions. Clinton was
once asked: "Do you understand what an economic downturn means if you and others
around you still have jobs?" Clinton responded with a question: "Have you lost your
job?" The person who asked the question seemed surprised and answered "Yes". Clinton
continued, " Have your friends and acquaintances also lost their jobs?" The man said
"Yes" quietly again. Clinton paused, expressed genuine sympathy, and then explained
his economic program. Everyone listened carefully, because by asking
questions of this man, Clinton captured our attention. He appealed to
the common man and made him feel his value and social
significance" (J. Spiegel Flirting is the way to success. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 26). Or such
an interesting example during the Clinton couple's stay in Kiev, one of
the journalists wrote a note about the manifestation of a respectful relationship between
the spouses, accompanying it with a purely visual portrait in the newspaper of two
people sitting next to each other.
Thus, we see that a large proportion of information is transmitted not only
verbally, but also nonverbally. Intonation can instantly cross out words of condolence
or congratulations. This is due to the fact that we are good at controlling outgoing
verbal information, but much worse at controlling nonverbal information. Therefore,
it can give you the true thoughts of your interlocutor. So, the Americans, after analyzing
the non-verbal side of the speech of a high-ranking Chinese politician, recognized
that there is very little truth in his words . By using a camera to capture the other person's
reaction during negotiations, businessmen can determine to what extent their partners
are willing to make concessions in a trade deal. We need to understand that our gestures,
facial expressions, postures, intonations, and other forms of additional communication
are [Link] can tell you as much about us as our words.
Therefore, a candidate for deputy should think not only about his speech, but also about,
for example, what kind of costume he can appear in front of a given audience.
Within the framework of verbal communication, certain distances are set at
which communication can be conducted. There are only four of them:
- intimate - 0.15-0.46 m (this is how children, parents, spouses, lovers,
close friends, and relatives can communicate).
- personal - 0.46-1.2 m (this is communication at a party, official reception, or
friendly evening).
- social - 1.2-3.6 m (at this distance we keep away from strangers);
- public - more than 3.6 m (this distance is maintained between the speaker and
the audience). These communication distances
are, of course, disrupted in urban environments where people are allowed
to gather, such as on public transport, in the elevator, and so on. It is surprising
that by allowing a person to go to an intimate distance in this case, we model
their complete absence: we don't look closely at his face and generally pretend
that we don't see him directly. Or an example like this: "People who are prone to
using brute force have a wider intimate sphere, which can
be twice as large as that of other people. This explains why they
begin to sense the approaching threat much earlier and, accordingly , resort to
protective measures much earlier." (Ryukle H. Your secret weapon in communication.
Mimicry, gesture, movement. - M., 1996. - p. 214). Relevant experiments
conducted with prisoners. The so-called "body buffer zone" was revealed: "
The size of the buffer zone was four times larger for those convicted of violent
attacks than for those convicted of other types of crimes. When someone came
too close to one of the [similar] groups, they would resist, as
if the experimenter "hovered" over it or "climbed" to it" (Fast [Link] Language. Body
language. E. Hall How to understand a foreigner without words, Moscow, 1995, p. 71).
By the way, different cultures have different standards for the distance at which
communication is allowed. Therefore, a Latin American, who is accustomed to a
closer distance in communication, tries to get closer to him during a conversation
with a European . He begins to retreat. And each of them is offended: the Latin
American thinks that the European does not want to talk to him normally, and the
European sees the Latin American as an aggressor who invades his intimate
territory! Edward Hall, the creator of a new science of human dimensions of space,
called proxemics I drew attention to these facts when I was confronted with
the Americans ' lack of understanding of the perception of space peculiar to other
peoples. For example, when they arrive in Latin America, where homes and the
surrounding area are almost always surrounded by a fence, Americans complain of
feeling walled up. After moving to England and getting to know their neighbors
better, they discover that the neighbors don't want to be friends at all and are no
different from any person on the street (E. Hall how to understand a foreigner without
words. Body language. E. Hall How to understand a foreigner without words,
Moscow, 1995). We can also give our own space coordinates. Remember what any
boss's office looks like. It is huge, you have to walk on it for a long time to reach
your goal. There are a lot of telephones on the table, which create a special
atmosphere of significance in this space, evoke a sense of involvement in
"important state affairs". This feeling can also be reinforced by a map on the wall.
Match the office and desk (always zagadka, how you manage to add it there).
That's why we often don't have a conversation in such an environment, because
we feel like we don't belong on this island of state property. It is necessary to learn:
nonverbal communication is very important for both a politician and a businessman.
The time of an all-powerful government official is gradually running out. The
new generation should choose not only Pepsi, but also, first of all, PR.
Visual communication - this is the transmission of information within the spatial
dimension, and not the temporal one, according to which our speech is built. If
speech can transmit only one sign after another, letter by letter, then
several information streams start working in visual communication at once.
Today, you can't imagine advertising without visual information. Unfortunately,
all our campaign leaflets are usually poor and unimpressive. We still
believe that the most important thing is in our text. But we forget that in order for
someone to access the text, you must first draw attention to it. In a rational age
, you can be less rational. For example, the walls of houses in the Shevchenko
district of Kiev were once plastered with a profile picture of an artist
who was running for deputy. As a voter, I didn't remember the other candidates,
but his profile was firmly embedded in my memory, because it was the only one,
and this made him stand out from the general series. American
researchers wrote that the Battleship Potemkin justified the revolution in the
eyes of the people of Russia, most of whom are not proficient at reading ( Larson
Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. - Belmont etc., 1995. - p. 380). In
general, the collapse of the Soviet Union was more likely to be based on the level
of nonverbal communication than verbal, if only because there was not such a
volume of verbal communication., what was the amount of nonverbal impact?
Visual communication is much more important today than
it used to be. Let us recall that leaders try to perform in front of us against the
background of the national flag, as if "pulling" a part of it over themselves. Let's
recall a successful ad that makes you slow down. Let us recall the "struggle" of
the portraits of presidential candidates in this and previous elections. These faces
looked at us from everywhere. Visualization allows you to convey the necessary
information in the form of a specially selected photo on a newspaper page.
Visualization sets our perception based on television information: researchers
have noticed that participants in anti-war, anti-nuclear demonstrations are shown
on television as dirty, bearded guys who usually leave trampled lawns full
of empty bottles. In response, the audience begins to perceive their
performances as deviations from the norm. We usually show demonstrations of
the "left" as a campaign of old people, the operator emphasizes the signs of past
life - worn clothes, order pads, senile appearance. As a result, such a
demonstration remains in the mass consciousness as a campaign from the past,
which has nothing to do with the future movement of the country. The United
States sells 150,000 hours of television programs annually. We see in them
"pictures" of a life that is inaccessible to us, even if we throw away our own world for
the sake of the world of others. I found an amazing juxtaposition of Western advertising
and Soviet socialist realism. No one has ever looked at these phenomena from
such a unifying angle. American researcher Michael Shudson noticed that both
options do not reflect reality, but visualize and aestheticize their ideals: this is
how it should all look. In this respect, a tractor driver on arable land is functionally
equivalent to some capitalist playboy who smokes cigarettes or
demands "Jim-Beam". The only problem today is that we get
visualizations of things that we don't really have access to. Only the criminal path
can give us the well-being that flows from the advertising screen. Although the
socialist advertising stunt-hundreds and thousands of visualizations of Lenin,
Stalin, and Gorbachev-also did not bring us happiness.
The authority and importance of a person can also be visualized metonymically,
using a joint arrangement. Let's recall those located in the same visual area
planes (although actually separated) Marx, Lenin, and Stalin. Or the example
given by Plutarch: Octavian entered Alexandria, talking with the philosopher Arius
and holding his hand in order to raise the philosopher in the eyes of his fellow citizens.
Of Pompeii he remarks: "In his youth, Pompey had a rather attractive appearance,
which disposed in his favor before he had time to speak. A pleasant appearance
was combined with greatness and humanity, and in his blooming youth there was
already a premonition of mature strength and regal habits" (Plutarch. Comparative
biographies // Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, P. 204). Caesar once committed
a nonverbal communication offense similar to the one we described at the beginning
of this section. "Caesar was sitting on the speaker's platform. When the consuls
and praetors, together with the full Senate,approached him, he did not rise from his seat,
but, addressing them as if they were private persons, replied that the honours should
be lessened rather than increased. By this conduct, however, he aroused the discontent
not only of the Senate, but also of the people, for it was generally believed that Caesar,
in the person of the Senate , had insulted the State. Those who could have stayed no
longer immediately left the meeting, greatly distressed." (in the same place, p. 158).
Who is sitting with whom, who is talking to whom, etc. - all this carries additional
messages that become very important when there is a lack of information.
For example, when clouds gathered over Voroshilov in Stalin's politburo
, the following happened:: "Everyone got up and went to the gym. Voices rang out.
Everyone talks to each other. Voroshilov is alone, no one comes near him. < ... >
Everyone sat down at the tables - just the two of them, the three of them. There aren't
many people, three tables are occupied. And Voroshilov sat down alone, no one sat down with
him" (Romm M. Oral stories. - Moscow, 1989. - p. 111). Our general conclusion is that the
visual channel also requires attention and special organization, only then it will be able to
carry not just the values, but the values that were laid down in it by PR specialists. The
audience will accept the message and the result will be better if this message is written
and verified in advance, and will not be random in nature.

4. Speeches, their writing and delivery

Humanity listens very much to the verbal construction of a model of the world,
very sensitively reacting to the verbal aspects of certain phenomena. Thus,
during the election campaign of A. Lebed, they found out that Yermak had the
surname Lebed, and also played the famous film "Don't shoot white Swans". G.
Seleznev, reacting to the youth of government ministers S. Kiriyenko, suggested
calling the Russian government house "the house or palace of pioneers" (NTV
news, 1998, May 6). Such vivid verbal characteristics are easily remembered
and begin to be retold to others, which creates powerful communication flows, in
which media reports continue to flow through interpersonal channels like passing
through jokes or rumors. Cf. a whole section in the book about Alexander Lebed,
published by the RAND Corporation, called "lebedisms" (Lambeth B.S. The warrior
who would rule Russia. A profile of Aleksandr Lebed. - Santa Monica, 1996).
This makes the impact of the image more multidimensional, and accordingly,
there is a greater memorization of the situation and the figure of the politician.
Speech in this regard is the highest level of the verbal sphere. Therefore, the PR
services take the preparation of speeches into their own hands. Speeches have
always been an essential element of social management. They show a special
magic of the word, which makes people listen in fascination to the spoken
sounds. Often , such magic also works because people in a crowd cross the boundaries
of permissible physical proximity, so purely biological ones begin to act.
patterns that automatically lead to increased excitability,
which facilitates exposure. An important element is the beginning of speech. Following Hitler's
drum performances, today's stage managers also
prepare the audience in advance with music and applause, bringing their excitement to
a peak, and only then release the first person. Even if we are just talking about
a speech, it is always important to highlight this beginning in a certain way. The well-known
reader A. Zakushnyak, summarizing his many years of experience, wrote about this
as follows: "Before you start telling, you need to" gather " the audience. This
feeling is very important: "I'm starting" (Zakushnyak A. Evenings of the Story, Moscow, 1984, p. 5
The peak of the significance of this type of communication falls on the time of antiquity, when
the ability to speak was mandatory for every educated person. This was
also of great practical importance, and made it possible toYou can, for example, defend yourself
in court. Western leaders also learn the basics of public speaking at universities,
where there are always debate teams, and universities compete with each other, as
in our KVN.
Classic names in the history of public speaking are Demosthenes and Cicero. Demosthenes
envied the fame of the orator Callistratus, even as a boy. Demosthenes overheard
Metr's speech during a brilliantly won court case. "From then on,
abandoning all other classes and children's games, he began to practice hard in
making speeches, hoping to become a real speaker in time" (Plutarch.
Comparative biographies // Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 281). He began by
making speeches in his own defense, against his guardians. He did not win the trial, but, having
hardened himself in judicial eloquence, decided to engage in state activity.
His first speech was "booed": "The people met his first speech
with dissatisfied shouts and ridicule at the ridiculous construction of the speech: its periods
seemed confusing, and the evidence was too unnatural and strained. To
this, they say, was added a certain weakness of voice, unclear pronunciation and
ragged breathing, which created pauses between periods and obscured the meaning
of what was being said" (In the same place. - P. 282). After that, Demosthenes, as it were, c
himself. He built a special room under the ground, where he began to go down every day for
classes, sometimes even half-shaved his head, so as not to break away from classes for two or
three months. He used every opportunity to rise to a new
level: "Even random meetings, conversations, business negotiations, he used as
an excuse and an excuse to work hard. When he was alone, he quickly
descended to his dungeonYe yi repeated the entire conversation from beginning to end, with all
the relevant arguments. Those speeches that he had heard, he
carefully studied, reconstructing from memory the course of judgments and periods; to the words
spoken by someone else or his own, he came up with all sorts of corrections and
ways to express the same thoughts differently" (In the same place. - P. 283). Demosthenes did
dare to speak without preparation, considering that those who prepare speeches in advance are
loyal to the people and do not show indifference to how the majority will perceive the speech. He
practiced not only the content of his speeches, but also their execution. "
He tried to correct an indistinct,lisping accent by taking a few pebbles in his mouth
and trying to read passages from poets clearly and distinctly; he strengthened his voice
by talking as he ran or,going up a mountain, uttering poems
or some long phrases without taking a breath. At home, he had a large mirror, standing in front
of which, he practiced recitation" (In the same place. - P. 285). Similarly, at the cost of incredi
efforts, Cicero also rose. "It is said that he suffered no less than Demosthenes from
shortcomings in recitation, and therefore diligently studied both from the comic theater of Roscius
and from the tragic theater of Aesop. ... Cicero's declamation , on the other hand, greatly
contributed to the persuasiveness of his speeches. Making fun of speakers who resorted to
to a loud shout, he said that those who were weak rode out on the thunderclap,
just as the lame get on their horses" (In the same place. - P. 304-305).

Cicero himself distinguished two types of speeches: oratorical speech and conversation.
The first one is intended for speeches in court, at people's meetings, in the Senate. The
second one is for meetings, arguments, feasts, gatherings of close friends. He wrote:
"Oratorical speech is of greater importance in gaining fame; after all, this is what we call
eloquence; but it is still difficult to express the extent to which the sweetness and
accessibility of conversation attract the hearts of people. We have received letters from
three of the most far-sighted men,Philip to Alexander, Antipater to Cassander, and
Antigonus to his son Philip, in which they advise us to ingratiate ourselves with the crowd
by speaking kindly to them, and to win the soldiers over to our side by addressing them
kindly. As for the speech that is given to the people during debates, it often
brings glory in the eyes of all. After all, a rich and wise speech greatly admires people;
listeners think that the speaker understands the essence of the matter and understands it
better than others. But if a speech is characterized by persuasiveness combined with
moderation, then this is the most amazing thing that can be, and even more so if
it is inherent in a young person" (Cicero. On duties / / Cicero. About old age. On
friendship, On duties, Moscow, 1975, p. 112).
We have before us all the most important parameters that the speakers are still guided
by today. Centuries have passed, but the main "pain" points of a person
have practically not changed. All the more surprising is how early the ancient speakers
came to them. They even used the technique developed by today's propaganda to
combine positive and negative judgments about the object for greater effectiveness
of influence. Plutarch also speaks of this (only on his own level) as an established
practice: "Every democracy treats statesmen with distrust and prejudice, and therefore,
if useful decisions are made without disputes and struggles, there is a suspicion of
preliminary collusion; such slander strikes communities and friendly circles hardest of all.
True discord and discord in one's own environment should not be allowed; however, the
Chian people's leader Onomadem, When he came to power during the troubles, he did
not allow all his opponents to be expelled without exception, so that, as he himself said,
"because of the lack of enemies, we should not start quarreling with our friends," but
these were absurd words. Since, however, the crowd is suspicious of anything great
or useful, it is prudent for the adherents of the undertaking to come out in a low voice,
as if in unison; it is well that two or three should calmly contradict their friends, and then
seem to be persuaded by arguments, and draw the people along with them, convinced
that they are guided by considerations of the common good"(Plutarch. Instructions on
state affairs / / Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 607).
Speech has in the past been part of (and very important) a military battle. It is somewhat
similar to shamanism, because it functions in the same way, trying to lead people
out of the zone of individual existence to a place where social values override
their human preferences. Here are excerpts from the speeches of representatives of two
opposing sides: the consul Scipio, who led the Roman army, and Hannibal.
The last words of Scipio's speech are as follows: "There is no other army behind us,
which, in the event of our defeat, can block the enemy's path; there are no other
Alps that can delay him and give us time to recruit new troops. Here we must defend
ourselves with as much fortitude as if we were fighting under the walls of Rome. Let each
one of you imagine that he is defending not only himself, but also his wife and young
children; let him, without confining himself to this domestic anxiety, constantly remind
himself that the eyes of the Roman Senate and people are turned on you, that the fate
of the city of Rome and the Roman state will depend on our strength and valor." (Titus Livy.
Istoriki Rima [History from the foundation of Rome], Moscow, 1969, p. 233. Hannibal's Speech
ends with the words: "Those who have a shelter, who, in case of flight, can
reach their native fields by safe and peaceful roads, are allowed to be
timid and cowardly. You must be brave; in your desperate situation
, any other outcome than victory or death is cut off for you. So try
to win; if your luck starts to waver, you will prefer the death of the warriors to the deat
of the fugitives. If you have firmly imprinted these words of mine on your hearts, if you
are determined to follow them, then I repeat-victory is yours: the immortal gods have not
given man a stronger and more victorious weapon than the contempt for death." (In the
same place. - P. 236).
Another that is highly valued by the population is sincerity. A politician
characteristic
should look and speak in such a way that we believe him. Thus,
Alexander Kerensky was able to communicate with the public with captivating sincerity:
"It is said that even in his old age, the head of the last Provisional Government proudly
recalled how many thousands of protesters
who filled the squares of Russian cities listened to him with fascination. At the same time, hi
improvisations, captivating with their sincerity. Detractors called them
hysterical speeches. Just such a politician-a politician-orator-was needed in
the first weeks after the February revolution, when one of the most popular forms
of political life was a rally and a rally-concert, which alternated
between speeches by politicians and actors, ministers and musicians. And the "people's minister"
really a "star" - people went "to Kerensky". And he literally felt
the mood of the audience with his skin, "infected" and" charged "with it, and skillfully found w
to strengthen this mood of the mass" (Mirror of the Week, 1995, March 4).
Official speeches become an important element of public communication. In
the past, even for our leaders, they were written by assistants, and especially important
speeches were prepared at the level of heads of departments of the Central Committee, who
even went out of town or to a hotel for work for a certain time.
T. Okulova-Mikeshina, in an article directed against the status of advisers to top officials in
the former USSR, cites a number of facts about the influence of these advisers through
memos and writing speeches (Okulova-Mikeshina T. "For reforms-always, for utopias-
never!" / / Nash sovremennik, 1998, No. 2). Thus, she calls A. Bovin the author of
the well-known "maxims" of L. Brezhnev: "The economy must be economical", "We have
embarked on this path and we will not leave it". She quotes the statement of A. Bovin, w
said it while looking at the multi-volume collection of works of the Secretary General: "It is
his slogans, but my slogans that the Soviet people read in the evenings on the
advertisements of our cities that sparkle with fire" (p . 274).
In the United States, the texts of the leader's speeches are prepared speechwriters. Here is
Komsomolskaya Pravda presents Joshua Gilder to its readers: "He became the
author of two presidential reports on the state of the United States, which are made 1-2
a year or about significant historical changes (something like the Secretary General's
report at the next party congress). He prepared the president's televised speeches from
the Oval Office, which were broadcast all over America. Author of a speech at
Moscow University that is considered one of the best of Reagan's entire political career"
(Komsomolskaya Pravda, September 9, 1992). This is not exactly our usual way of prese
as our speechwriters are more likely to be in the shadows. Press Secretary of the President
of Russia Sergey Shoigu. Yastrzhembsky described the technology of speech preparation
in the Kremlin (TV-Center, 1998, June 3): "The blank is prepared by speechwriters. Then
the president works on the text. Often the text is wrapped." At the same time, he opened
the veil over some improvisations, which, as it turned out, are prepared in advance.
So it was with the gift to two leaders - Kohl and Chirac. "We presented
some options for how to win this or that gift."
To write a good speech, American PR experts Mary Aronson and Don
Spitner suggest the following ten steps:
- start your work by asking questions from the speaker himself;
- learn about the place of speech delivery, the composition of the
audience; - focus your attention on a separate topic;
- get approval of the topic and general plan before you start writing a
speech; - write for the human voice;
- think about how to please the audience, not the speaker;
- keep in mind any critical polemics around the speaker's personality;
- remember the importance of repetition; - listen to the speech
reading. - think about how to distribute the speech so that as many
people as possible can get acquainted with it. During an interview with a
speaker, you should write down their words in as much detail as possible
in order to capture their turns of speech as accurately as possible.
At the same time, you should formulate answers to the following
questions: what is his personal style of speaking? rhythm? word
selection features? When deciding on the audience, it is necessary to establish:
what is the essence of this event, who will come, whether it will
be a diverse or homogeneous audience, the age of the audience, their
interests, education, attitude to the speaker.

When choosing a topic, you should find out what exactly the speaker
cares about, determine the time of the speech, because it is difficult to
keep the audience for more than 20-25 minutes (6 pages of text will
sound for 10 minutes). Since the audience cannot go back to the
beginning of an oral presentation, some repetitions should be allowed.
The same applies to the end of the speech, you should warn the
audience about it in advance: "Before you leave the podium...", " At the
end...", " I know that you are ready to listen to the next speaker, and
before you leave...". Try to avoid our favorite phrase "And the last..."
which we repeat repeatedly, killing any hope in the audience to live to see the
end of the performance. Speech must have a personal character, only
then it will remain in the memory. There are also
a number of specific comments that help the speaker rather than the
writer, but they must be taken into account: - all
numbers in the text are written only in capital letters, so that the speaker
does not have to count zeros.
- emphasize the selected words; - leave
large margins when typing so that the speaker can complete the speech
with their own comments
; - repeat nouns, avoiding pronouns;
- use simple words and simple affirmative sentences
; - do not overload the text with subordinate sentences.
The American" Bible " of PR lists the following advantages of presenting material
through a speech:
1. This is a direct and convincing way to communicate, as it represents
direct contact with a live audience.
2. It helps to "personalize" the organization, which is especially important in our time,
when large organizations are not perceived as personal structures.
3. Enables dialogical, two-way communication.
4. Helps demonstrate the organization's openness.
5. Increases the prestige of the speaker and his organization.
6. Conveys the opinion of the PRorganizations to reach the audience. 7. Provides
authoritative material for subsequent stages of communication. We can see that
speeches seem to re-form the communication environment around the organization,
attract attention to it, restore its past successes, and serve as an indication
of the future. As a side note , there are already computer programs that make speec
easier. So far, we've only talked about the text of a speech, but the ability to prono
it is equally important. even ready-made. Let's recall the abundance of speeches
delivered on a piece of paper in the Brezhnev era. Since then, we have been very
good at speaking without a "cheat sheet". About the United States, Viktor Anatolyev
writes the following: "It is a fact that the presidents rehearse the annual State
of the Union address for 3-4 hours, polishing the text with their voices. George W.
never had a "coach" who would be present at such preparations and
give advice intonation plan. However, he received semantic advice - which ideas
should be emphasized even intonationally-from James Baker. I don't know if
Bill Clinton has a personal trainer, but even if he does, it's not
considered supernatural in America: campaign presidents,
bankers, and politicians of various levels often use the services of such specialists"
(Ogonyok, 1995, No. 38).
A politician or businessman can turn to very specific "coaching" instructions from
famous actors and readers. Take for example Alexander Zakushnyak, in his advice
to "Young storytellers" (Zakushnyak A. Evenings of the story. - M., 1984. - p. 59
find a lot of professional comments. Here are just a few of them (
there are fifty-two in total):
- before you start telling, you need to "gather" the audience, this
feeling of "I'm starting" is very important; - starting
to tell, you need to, so that the installation should be like this: "What an interesting
I'm going to read to you right now".
- it is good if you feel - even if you imagine it-that there is a person in the
audience who listens very well and understands everything very well; - when finishing
one position and moving on to another, one should calm down, leave everything and
definitely move on to another; one should not smear; - if there are several chapters,
several pictures in one story, then each one should be separated from the other by
the timbre of the voice; the beginning, middle and end of the story, the first and se
parts, etc., introduction and an epilogue is all different things; each time you start
a different position in the story, you need to change the timbre of your voice;
- pauses are of great importance in the art of storytelling, you need to learn
how to hold them and master them;
- all letters in the word must "play"; the letter is an assistant to intonation; - who gave
birth to words, he gave them correctly; he experienced them, and therefore they emotionally
carry the state that gave birth to them;
- working, you can skip, rearrange or change some words and phrases,
you can add exclamations, etc.; it is important to achieve the right state of health, and
then you can clear the text, specify.
Plutarch, surprisingly enough for us, considers first
of all pure PR qualities necessary for a statesman: "Let this word show
a frank disposition, genuine nobility, paternal directness and care, and
let its adornment and charm form sacred concepts and thoughts accessible and
convincing to all. Proverbs, historical examples, traditions and comparisons
have more place in state speeches than in judicial ones." (Plutarch. Instructions on
state affairs / / Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 591). Plutarch simultaneously
defines a special type of communication associated with [Link] addressing the crowd,
by reacting to a remark in an argument; even this does not escape the attention of the theorists
of antiquity: "The most important thing is that your speech before the people should be carefully
considered and not empty, and you should be protected from failure; as you know, even Pericles
himself , before each of his speeches, asked the gods that not a single unnecessary
word should fall from his lips. But when you respond to the enemy, you need to be quick and
resourceful, because circumstances change rapidly and bring with
them just in civil strife a lot of unexpected things. It is said that Demosthenes was weaker here
than others, because he was not at a loss for time and hesitated. < ... > On the contrary, he
starts from the present circumstances and seizes the moment, knows how to impress,
convince and adjust the crowd in the necessary way" (In the same place. - P. 592-593).
If the visual language discussed in the previous paragraph differs
in the transmission of constant values, then the speech is clearly dynamic. If
it is additionally superimposed on the reaction of the crowd or opponent, then it becomes
doubly dynamic. S. N. Parkinson says about the appeal: "It is backed by
a concrete living person, not a faceless administration. There are no long words and confusing
constructions. The words are coined, each one like a hammer blow, not a piece of cotton wool.
It is also useful to dilute your speech with a joke. It always helps - your message
becomes more human, it attracts attention. Humor will fix it in the memory of your
listeners. Cleverly linking a joke to its content is the trick; once you remember one thing,
the listener will remember the other." (Parkinson's S. N. Parkinson's Laws, Moscow, 1989, Pp. 3
). To the surprise of many, Alexander Lebed also puts his idea into similar "formulas"
.
Every skill comes only through training. Therefore
, L.'s words are completely true. Brown: "Don't avoid any opportunity for public
speaking and treat it as a rewarding opportunity
to practice again. Remember that the most successful speakers and announcers have studied
the art of speech for years, and yet they continue to practice. In most
cases, a good voice is not an accident, but the result of a lot of work and practice"
(Brown L. Image is the path to success. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 109). Unfortunately, we do
a wide distribution (and therefore demand) of courses that teach public
speaking and debate. All this is connected with the past "monologue" state
of our society. When we move to a truly "dialogical" society, where
the voice of the other becomes significant, and not just a single leading voice, we will
immediately plunge into the need to be able to speak and speak.
I would like to conclude this part of the book with the words of
Plutarch:"Enough has been said about how to prepare and make
speeches; a clever person can figure out the rest for himself" (p.593).

§5 . Crises and rumors

PR works not only in the "golden days", ending with receptions and
presentations, but also on test days. Crisis situations (such as the appearance
of poison in the medical drug tylenol, which caused seven deaths in the
United States) are a serious threat to business. After all, this immediately
affects the financial and economic situation of any company, its reputation
immediately falls. Therefore, it is quite natural that the sphere of crisis is one of
the main areas of work in PR. But when a crisis happens, it's too late to start
correcting the situation. Therefore , PR specialists try to prepare the company as
much as possible for any possible crises. Remember that the PR industry itself
emerged as a response to the crises associated with railway accidents.
Therefore, a PR specialist is primarily a crisis specialist ("crisis manager" in
the professional jargon of Russian specialists). J.
White and L. Mazur define the crisis situation by the following three
parameters: - a high degree of threat to the life, security and very existence of
the organization; - lack of time: this means that decision-making should
happen much faster than usual; - stress
in those people who are responsible for managing this situation (White J., Mazur
L. Strategic communications management. Making public relations work. -
Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 210). At the same time, work in a crisis
situation becomes the main task for law enforcement agencies and special
services. But behavior in a crisis forms the attitude to the organization after the
crisis, which in any case will come to an end. Therefore, they should repeat
the experience of large organizations such as oil companies or airlines, which
are required to have communication facilities, teams that are ready to act
in the event of a crisis. Peter Green identifies four main components
of the crisis management program (Green P. S. Winning PR tactics. - L., 1994. - Р.
139): - identification of risk areas;
- prevention of crises by introducing changes based on
the definition of crises;
- preparation of a program of actions during possible crises;
- management itself during a crisis.
He also offers his own rule for restoring reputation during a crisis:
The first twenty-four hours are the most critical, so the initiative should
be restored as early as possible. And the decision on this kind of issue is not
made within the PR department, it is the decision of the highest management.
Responding to a crisis situation it is an important component of PR. Sam Black
identifies two types of crises from the PR perspective:
- known unknown, which means: "it is known that an accident
may occur, but it is not known whether it will occur, and if so, when".
- unknown unknown these are "disasters and accidents that no one can
prevent".
The American PR Bible identifies three types of crises::

1. Sudden crisis, in the case of which there is no time for research and
planning. For example, a plane crash, fire, or earthquake. In this case
, a general plan of action should be prepared in advance to avoid
confusion and delay in response.
2. Emerging crisis which gives you time for research and planning. For
example, dissatisfaction with the work of employees, overloaded with government
contracts. There is an opportunity for the management to take
certain actions in advance so that the crisis does not pass into the final
phase. 3. Constant crises which can last for years or months, regardless of
efforts to resolve them. For example, rumors. By the way, rumors are also
a very significant object for PR, but it deserves separate consideration.
American professor Otto Lerbinger outlined the following set of crises
that a corporation might face:
- technological crises, an example of which is Chernobyl.
- confrontational crises, when certain groups criticize corporations, which
can sometimes lead to a boycott of their products.
- malicious behavior crises the type of placement of bombs by terrorists in
residential areas.
- management crises, when groups within the organization are not working
effectively enough. Such a case occurred in a London Ambulance when a
computer system was launched without a thorough check, which ideally
allows reducing the travel time. However, in reas a result, the Ambulance
(quoted from White J.,
was unable to perform its main functions; - crises that include other threats
to the Mazur L organization. Strategic communications management. Making
public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p. 204).
The following types of possible crisis situations are identified for the
European Union: - environmental conflicts,
- product centralization,
- job losses,
- strikes,
- rumors that affect sales,
- any other development that may affect the company's credibility,
its products and services (White J., Mazur L. Strategic communications
management. Making public relations work. - Wokingham etc., 1995. - p.
209). The crisis is dangerous for everyone, because we are all used to
working in a well-predictable environment, for which we have long had
scenarios of behavior. In the event of a crisis, there are no such
scenarios. Therefore, the task of PR is to develop such scenarios so that
managers can act as efficiently as possible, even in new unforeseen
circumstances. In this case, American PR experts suggest
that the following preliminary developments should be carried out:
1. Identify what might stop functioning, and identify the most vulnerable
areas in your organization.
2. Identify priorities by understanding the most
necessary and most likely situations.

3. Create a set of questions, answers, and solutions for each potential crisis
scenario. 4. Clearly describe the
two main tasks of the first critical hours of the beginning of the crisis: what
exactly to do and what exactly to say. 5. Develop a strategy
of deterrence, not response. An information center should immediately
start functioning, which will provide journalists with photos and videos that
are more recent than the initial ones., so that the print doesn't repeat the
visual information of the time when the accident started. A round-the-clock
telephone line should start functioning, where you can get all the necessary
information. We should try to give journalists the most complete version of
the event, because otherwise they will look for other sources of information.
After a crisis, the team working in a crisis situation should evaluate the
existing plan and make changes to it. Sam Black also emphasizes the need
for pre-training of leading employees. The program of such training should
include classes on conducting telephone conversations, on the technique
of speaking on the radio, and coaching answers to television interview
questions. By the way, all senior employees of the company should
have a copy of the detailed rules developed for their company to resolve
all possible types of crises. As an unfortunate example, we can recall
Chernobyl, when just a few days after the tragedy, speaking at a meeting
at Kiev University, one party leader could only answer one thing: this
is not so important, now the city is more concerned about whether to sell
alcoholic beverages for the holidays. According to Peter Green,
it is difficult to prepare for crises. Before the crisis occurs, such preparation
is seen as a waste of time and money. But since there will be no time
for repetitions and rehearsals during the crisis, everything must be adjusted
in [Link] "Bible" of American PR specialists calls such erroneous
actions during the crisis (Cutlip S.M. a.o. Effective public relations. - Englewood Cliffs,
1994. - Р. 367):
1. Indecision, doubts, which creates a sense of incompetence
and unpreparedness of the company among the public.
2. Blurring, what's the dialectit is about dishonesty on the part of the company.
3. Counter-accusations which increase the voltage, not decrease it.
4. Prevarication which creates new problems, because nothing can replace
the truth.
5. Ranting which only creates a vulnerability because it is not
directly related to the case.
6. A confrontation that gives others a platform to fight.
7. Court proceedings further provoke a fight. We see that all these rules
are effective both for working with crises and for working with the public. That
is, in a crisis situation, you should not create new points of struggle, just deal
with one, the central one. You should not downplay the problem, because it
causes a sense of dishonesty. You should not avoid comments, on the contrary,
you should provide as much information as possible. New information should
always be provided, because the flow of fresh events dampens the crisis, and
the old information only describes and fuels it. No matter how unpleasant it is,
you have to be open and tell the truth, even singling out a separate
employee who can be reached all twenty-four hours a day. The general
meaning of all these rules is clear: the main information should go through
your communication channel, then you will have no one to blame.
Fighting rumors is also part of working with crises. Sam Black gives this
example: about the toothpaste "Colgate" rumors spread that its production uses
pork fat. It is clear what a decline in sales this gave in Muslim countries. Rumors
can also be beneficial for a particular structure. For example:" Some time
later, the straggling legions came up, and the Flavian army became even more
numerous. Rumors of this spread among the opponents and caused confusion
in their ranks." (Cornelius Tacitus. History // Historians of Rome, Moscow, 1969, P.
348). Accordingly, there are negative rumors: "Those who led these legions to
Pompey spread bad rumors about Caesar among the people" (Plutarch.
Comparative biographies // Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 137).
Rumors are an element of oral communication. It is still present today, when we
are fully covered by the industrialized forms of mass communication. But
a person is still a person. Oral communication is generally underestimated
today. But after all, reputation is formed in many ways in this area. The
Japanese have long determined that in a situation of such "mini-communication"
it is very effective to create a reputation, for example, for a doctor, or
to assert the effectiveness of a particular medicine (Neverov S. V. Language as a
means of persuasion and influence in the social and linguistic practice of
modern Japan. Language as a means of ideological influence, Moscow, 1983).
Naturally, the presence of rumors in the field of oral communication, which often
arise in conditions of information scarcity, is also a sign of a crisis, and therefore
working with them is also part of the scope of PR.

6. Stereotypes and myths as an integral part of PR work

PR works with the mass consciousness. Mass consciousness prefers to work

with non-risk strategies, and is willing to rely on already implemented options.
This is also due to the fact that this approach saves time. This includes
analyzing and recognizing who is standing in front of you. This leads to the
well-known rule of 15 (sometimes 30) seconds, during which our opinion about
the interlocutor is formed. It is clear that in such a situation we will react only to
external signs, and the samee's that have clearly legible values. You can refer
to this approach as complementary. We try to immediately complement the image
of the interlocutor to the stereotype that we already have. We try to fit it into
a scenario, a frame, in a global sense-a myth. And this is a general law of the
human psyche. After all, even within the framework of intelligence processing, it
is considered that a fact in itself means nothing until it is put into a system
where it is considered in combination with other facts (Platt V. Information work
of strategic intelligence , Moscow, 1958). Facilitates penetration through
the filters of consciousness and the brightness of the image. Mass audiences
are difficult to reach in a single way. Bright behavior in this regard always
attracts attention. No matter what we say about Vladimir Zhirinovsky, we will still
go to the TV when it becomes known about his [Link] has not only an informational,
but also, to a certain extent, a hedonistic (entertainment) function,
since it operates according to the laws of mass culture. It is more important
V. Zhirinovsky reacts sharply and caustically, so that his
specific image of a rather aggressive type clearly fits into the mass consciousness.
But for the mass consciousness, such aggressiveness is
still positive as a result. Conditional enemies can generate any negative about
him for any length of time (such as M. Poltoranin's statement- " Zhirinovsky has a
political climax. And he starts to worry" - the program "Around the Kremlin", RenTV,
1998, 26 Apr.). But the process character of Zhirinovsky removes the negative,
submitted in a different, non-process, but classical way. Zhirinovsky himself and his
criticism move as if in different planes, without intersecting or rejecting each other.
It is interesting that prikhomass consciousness also immediately tries to justify A.
Lebed by providing him with a "cell" that has already been tested once. Some
people enter it in the "cell" of A. Rutsky, some-in the" cell " of A. Pinochet. That is,
we use ready-made symbolizations, as if drawing them from already implemented
options. As William Kay writes, "science and technology in the context of the
twentieth century are based on the work of creating symbols that have not only not
freed man from the symbolic quagmire, but have made him even more dependent
on symbols and what he believes they are." they mean or they don't mean anything" ( Key W. B.
Subliminal seduction. Ad media's manipulation of not so innocent America. - N.Y.,
1973. - Р. 55). Before us, the real image is constantly being reinforced, as the mass
consciousness seems to hypertrophy the features it needs, turning a blind eye to
those that it does not want to take into account.
In any case, A. Lebed performs compensator those elements of disorder and chaos
that his constituents felt. He promises to beat up voters from them. And we
are witnessing a certain moment in the birth of the leader. As V. writes: Odainik:
"where society is in disarray, where the individuals who form it are on the one
hand disunited and atomized, and on the other hand are drawn into mass
organizations, where unconscious forces that want order are brought into action,
there is a need for a leader. Here again, the archetypal heritage rooted in
the collective unconscious plays a certain role, because
the imago of the leader, a powerful, effective, magically powerful personality, is one
of the oldest stereotypes of humanity." (Odaynik V. Psychology of politics. Political
and social ideas of Carl Gustav Jung. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 107). Image creators
of A. Cygnus and Cygnus talked about a certain charisma that even they didn't
expect to feel. G. Le Bon wrote about charisma: "The great leaders of the crowd:
Buddha, Mahomet, Joan of Arc, Napoleon possessed this form of charm to the
highest degree and thanks to it they subdued the crowd. Gods, heroes, and
dogmas are suggested, but not challenged; they disappear as soon as they are discussed."
(Le Bon G. Psychology of Peoples and Masses, St. Petersburg, 1995, p. 247). But
charisma is also a new connection to irrational communication. This is working with
those characteristics that are not subject to rational human processing. It is included
in them on an unconscious level. A different mentality
tries to interpret politicians who are alien to them through more understandable
images. The image of a bear has become a well-known example, just as the
Russian bear is presented in the West by Boris Yeltsin. The bearish image includes
not only a certain slowness, mass, but also a strong share
of unpredictability. The Swedes added S. Kiriyenko to this series, who was also
considered through the image of this particular type, only completely different -
a koala bear. And the Swan is described as follows: "Alexander the Swan looks
like a poorly trained grizzly bear. Rough, hairy hands protrude from the sleeves
of the suit... The impression of primitiveness is enhanced by a deep-set bass voice.
his eyes and the immobility of his face, but it is somewhat neutralized by the
fact that the former general continuously smokes cigarettes inserted in a
mouthpiece resembling a lady's " (cit. by: "Komsomolskaya Pravda", 1998, May 19).

In the same plan, "connecting" to texts of a different level can also be interpreted as an
image. This is especially evident when emphasizing the national characteristics of
certain images. For example, the analysis of "shko" conducted by J. Gerbner. flax" prose
(Gerbner G. Images across cultures: teachers in mass media, fiction and drama // The
School Review. - 1966. - N 2) showed that in Western texts, the teacher often helps to
solve personal problems for his students. "Eastern" teachers and students
helped each other more often. Our students were more likely to pass exams, while
Western students were more likely to simply find pleasure in life. Americans were more
likely to show female teachers. They portrayed the teacher as less professional and
unwilling to move up the social ladder. The teacher belongs to everyone's middle class.
Signs of luxury and power in this context appeared only in 10% of American, 14%
of Western European, 3% of Eastern European and 7% of Soviet stories.
It is also interesting to compare the image of the scientist in the Soviet and post-Soviet
world. In the first case, he was part of a certain elite stratum, such a career was
prestigious. Today, scientists are no longer among the most prestigious professions. The
scientist of the past was modeled in a somewhat ascetic manner.
His internal, scientific goals were decisive for him. Today's successful type of scientist
loses this asceticism, it is more likely to approach the image of a businessman, because
only in this way can you" knock out " funding for the continuation of scientific research.
A Soviet-era scientist could move in a detached manner, outside of socially accepted
norms. An example of this is the images of scientists in the film "Nine Days of one
Year", based on the novel by D. Granin. The defining feature for him was
an intellectual trait. Ideologically entangled scientists looked
like an anachronism. So in this regard, the image of that scientist was a harbinger
of coming changes. But at the same time, the post-Soviet scientist is losing the
mono-outline of intellectualism, to which everything previously obeyed. And this seems
to contradict the movement of changing images in the world. The image of a
businessman in the United States has shifted over the decades from the type of
discoverer and developer (oil, gas, coal, etc .) to the image of a leader who achieves
everything in a purely intellectual way. T. Clancy, with his novels,changed the typical
image of the American military, moving from the priority of physical strength to purely
intellectual signs of his work. His novels, by the way, served to cure American society of
the Vietnam War syndrome. The image of the post-Soviet scientist, unfortunately,on the
contrary, departs from pure intellectualism.
In the same way, the image aspect can also be interpreted as really indistinguishable
diverse parties that grew up in the post-communist world. But they rapidly
generate their differences in the symbolic world. Here is what Leonid Ionin writes: "At
the same time, the differences between these parties and movements remain almost
exclusively stylistic. Programs tend to look the same- democratic in
the most general sense of the word. There is no communication with the population and
no reliance on special social strata and groups. ... And very often we observe
an arbitrary change of styles, political and stylistic re-identification not
only of ordinary party members, but also of their leaders" (Ionin L. G. Fundamentals of
sociocultural analysis, Moscow, 1991, pp. 105-106). That is, they see their difference not
in the actual manifestation, but in references to image characteristics.
Robert Ludlam brings this situation to the point of absurdity when, in the preface to his
novel "Trivaine", he writes:: "Last year, our country witnessed two
the most shameful, humiliating, ridiculous, hypocritical and insulting
presidential election campaigns, what can only remember the current admirers of our
system. The candidates were selected through cynical manipulation
of public opinion. Empty promises instead of specific programs, emotions
instead of common sense. The presidential debate was not a debate, let alone a
presidential one, but was reduced to unconvincing answers to directly posed
questions. The basic rules for these robot exercises were developed
by glib-tongued intelligent scammers who treated their customers with
such disdain that they did not allow them to speak more than d v u x m i n u t" (Ludlam
Trivein, Moscow, 1995, p. 7). What is important here is the emphasis on the
conventionality of this action, where the competition in one symbolic field is transferred to
completely real results. At the same time, we
fill in this field with purely mythical characters. Heroes and enemies, crooks and buffoons
appear here. We sort of populate it according to the theater program that everyone
has in their hands. moreover, the presence of one characteristic actor no longer makes
it possible to take the place of another. For example, when Boris Fyodorov tried to move
Chernomyrdin's figures and perform other gestures from a clearly alien repertoire in the
Russian State Duma elections, the crowd rejected him, and this place was already taken
by Zhirinovsky. When Bryntsalov appeared in the presidential elections of '96 in Russia
, showing the "croup" of his wife, V. Zhirinovsky turned into a completely
different, quite respectable politician. By the way, the image of A. Lebed has also
changed. As Komsomolskaya Pravda (1998, May 19) writes about the dynamics of his
image in Krasnoyarsk: "Lebed seemed less determined on the eve of the vote. He tried
to appear less like a general, even an intellectual. At the TV interview, he put on a light
jacket, changed his hair, and even smiled like [Link] with a smile that
just looked like Grandpa Swan."
By the way, during the campaign, the general lost six kilograms. And Alla Pugacheva,
calling the general ironically Alexander Abramovich, hinting at Berezovsky,
made public the level of campaign expenses on the part of Lebed -
$ 10 million (Stolichnye Novosti, 1998, May 19-26). So promoting your image to the
masses is quite an expensive process. Politicians
speak instead of the silent masses. Miners on strike in Donetsk block traffic - this is a
purely non-verbal action, otherwise they have no voice. Politicians lobby primarily for their
own interests, hiding behind the interests of the masses. This is the function of a politician
to be someone else's voice. From here, it can come closer to the actor. But unlike the
actor, the politician tries to portray himself as both the author of the play and the director.
An actor is more honest than a politician in this regard, he plays in a play where the
author and director are openly displayed on the poster. Hence the disappearance of some
politicians, when the author and director turn away from them. If we look at the
change of actors-politicians in Ukraine, we will see that those who played in the first act
are no longer allowed in the second.
Power is also the supreme right to Language. P. Bourdieu writes: "one of the simplest
forms of political power in many archaic societies consisted in an almost
magical power: to name and call into existence with the help of nomination.
Thus,in Kabylia, the functions of elucidation and the work of producing the symbolic,
especially in times of crisis, when the sense of peace is slipping away, brought poets
prominent political posts as military leaders or ambassadors" ( Bourdieu P. Sociology of
Politics, Moscow, 1993, p. 67). It is the Government that declares who is a Friend and
who is an Enemy. In our case, the authorities even changed the language of
communication from Ukrainian to Russian. Power behaves as it did in the strictly hierarchical past.
the society. But nowadays there is a change of communication in society, which is reflected
in the rights to the language of power. For example, A. Panarin formulates such new
communicative rules of post-totalitarian society (Panarin A. S. Introduction to
Political Science, Moscow, 1994):
1. Transfer of information from unofficial to official communication channels,
2. Rapid development of horizontal communications, while in the past
society there was a hypertrophy of vertical communications.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that any political movement (and not just
the government) produces a whole series of myths designed to justify its existence.
So, in the framework of Soviet mythology, the central place was occupied by the myth of unity,
the monolith (see, for example, Geller M. Car and cogs. Istoriya formirovaniya
sovetskogo cheloveka [History of formation of the Soviet man], Moscow, 1994, p. 225. The c
of this mythical representation made it possible to punish those who tried to destroy it. At the sam
the ban on "otherness" was one of the important reasons that led to the collapse of the USSR.
The mass consciousness does not perceive a myth as a myth. It is simply used to
interpret real events. This is something akin to Ferdinand de Saussure's
distinction between language and speech, when language is presented as an abstract mechanism
written in the brain,which in this form no one has seen or heard. A person deals with speech
every time, that is, a specific implementation of the language. There is a myth, but it is not pres
real verbal fixation. These are the rules behind the creation of, for example,
"Young Guard" or "Virgin Land". But without these codes, there would be no texts themselves.
Tony Schwartz proposed a communication model, based on the idea that you should not
put something in a person's head, but rather try to create a resonance with what
is already in their head (by default). Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. -
Bеlmont etc., 1995. - Р. 341-342). Similar ideas in our literature were defended
by Yuri Lotman, when he presented two systems for obtaining information. "One is
receiving from outside. In this case, the information is generated somewhere on the side and
transmitted to the recipient in a constant volume. The second one is constructed differently:
only a certain part of information is obtained from the outside, which plays the role of an exciter
that causes an increase in information inside the recipient's consciousness" (Lotman Yu. M.
Kanonicheskoe iskusstvo kak informatsionnyi paradox [Canonical Art as an Informational paradox].
Problema kanona v drevnem i srednevedovom iskusstvo Azii i Afrika [The problem of Canon in the
ancient and Medieval Art of Asia and Africa], Moscow, 1973, pp. 18-19). In this way, Yu.
explained the phenomenon of reading one book all your life, as it was in the past, in contrast to
multiple set of books in modern people. T. Schwartz proposed a simpler idea of calling the ready.
Ch writes: Larson, " Schwartz found that the most experienced knowledge is not expressed
symbolically, because it is not stored as a symbol. Instead, it is written as a feeling - a sense
of ease or difficulty. The best way to indicate these feelings is through drama:
the source evokes a feeling in the listener's head. Many times, the prompt
is made using music, color sound effects,
actors ' facial expressions or tone of voice, acoustics, or some other nonverbal
message." (In the same placeProbably, this model also implies the strategy
of Boris Yeltsin's team, which saturated his speeches with certain "code
words". Roland Barthes analyzes the example
of the following headline in "France-soir" - THE FIRST DECREASE IS PLANNEDLOWER PRICES:
VEGETABLES HAVE STARTED TO FALL IN PRICE. And his analysis is as follows: "The signified,
that is, the concept, is something that will have to be designated by a barbaric but
inevitable neologism governmentality, because in the big press, our
Government is perceived as the essential embodiment of efficiency. From here
the meaning of the myth is clear: fruits and vegetables are getting cheaper because that
the government decided so" ( Bart R. Mythology, Moscow, 1996, P. 256). Once again, we see the
introduction of an interpretation from the outside into an almost neutral title, understanding it through
the proposed mythological scheme of interpretation. R. Barth understands this as
a"theft of language": myth takes linguistic examples in order to create
a love of government with their help. The language is ideally suited to these processes, since its words
still require one interpretation or another. "Language provides a
kind of porous meaning to the myth, which can easily be swelled by the myth that has seeped into it; l
is stolen here by means of its colonization" (In the same place. - P. 258). The same applies
to literature as a system ready for myth: "all our traditional Literature
is characterized by a voluntary willingness to be a myth; in normative terms, this
Literature is a pronounced mythical system" (In the same place. - P.
260-261).
R. Barth analyzes bourgeois myths and myths of the left, considering the latter more narrow.
"The left-wing myth never captures the vast area of interpersonal relations,
the vast space of "insignificant" ideology. Everyday
life is not available to him: in bourgeois society, there is no "left" myth that would relate to the wedding,
the kitchen. domestic economy, theater, justice, morals, etc." (In the same place. - P. 274-275). In
principle, R. Barth considers the left-wing myth to be more scarce, since it is created to order for
a short time. "In fact, what could be more wretched than the myth of
Stalin?" (In the same place. - P. 275). This leads to a statement that we can
apply to the aforementioned miners 'strike:" the word of the oppressed cannot but be
scanty, monotonous, and unmediated; his language is proportionate to his poverty; it is always
the same language - the language of actions; the luxury of metalanguage is not available to him" (In the
- P. 275).
A political leader is an element of a myth. Different periods
of Ukraine's post-Soviet development put new types of leaders in the first place.
The first stage required separation from the USSR, so the leaders were two variants
of the elites. On the one hand, it is a standard nomenclature that is interested in moving from
the positions of second roles to the first ones. On the other hand, to achieve these goals
, the nomenclature also had to put a new type of elite in the first row - with ethnic
slogans. It was the ethnic national elite that, by proclaiming the right to secession,
helped the nomenklatura to solve its problems. This elite was characterized by the
following characteristics: it was humanitarian, partly dissident and oriented
towards Western Ukraine. The nomenclatural elite, on the contrary, was technical,
pro-Soviet, and Moscow-oriented. The combination of these two elites-
nomenclature and ethnic - led to the choice of Leonid Kravchuk, who
combined the requirements of these two elites as a result.
The second stage gradually replaced the elite 2 (ethnic) in the second roles. Elite 1
(nomenclature) merged with elite 3 (regional), which led to the election
of a new president, Leonid Kuchma. The regional elite was able to grow rapidly in
the post-Soviet era, as the weakening of Moscow's ties could not replace the strength
of the nascent Kiev elite. Regional elite took places, really
sooappropriate to its financial and political strength. In the case of Ukraine
, the Dnepropetrovsk elite has entered very strongly. At the same time, this brings a sharp rejection from
other elites, primarily from Kiev.
All these movements require justification at the level of myths and stereotypes.
Any movement forward is checked by preliminary" sending " of myths. Myths
actively function in the language, not allowing you to think about their real
content. Let's take a common expression as an example
a "strategic partnership" that has no real meaning or replaces what
already existed. A surprisingly definite
coincidence of the mythology laid down in the United States and here. Here and there,
politicians exploit the idea (and this is really a connection to the myth) of their simple
origin. Reagan was born in Dixon, Illinois, and Clinton in Hope
, Arkansas. "If a politician cannot find a simple beginning, he or she must
find some substitute for it - usually it is deprivation or suffering. Patricians
like Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy. The Kennedys used their physical
infirmities or emotional sufferings as symbolic substitutes for difficulties
of simple origin" (Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. Belmont
etc., 1995, p. 233). That is, the Cinderella myth is a more successful way to enter the
mass consciousness than something aristocratic. In the" alphabet " set by Cinderella,
there was both the position of the King and the Prince, but they, as it turned out, were
not the most favorable. Probably also because this is a real story about Cinderella, since
both the King and the Prince do not fundamentally change their positions during the
story, which cannot be said about Cinderella, which gains many new components in its
course. Plus, Cinderella is the winner, beating out her stepmother and sisters, and
humanity is very fond of the mythology of winners. Another
frequency myth is that of the savior, the messiah. In fact, this was Stalin, whose death
was mourned by the whole country, which could not imagine living without him as long
as possible. In the United States, Lincoln saved the nation, Roosevelt brought it out of
economic collapse, Kennedy saved democracy, Reagan saved the economy.
Zhirinovsky always wants to present himself as the messiah. The basis for a good public
response to this is that we like simple and clear solutions, and do not like
highly intelligent rants. And the closer the proposed solution is,
the more happy we are to see it. Zhirinovsky's typical text
was: you elect me, tomorrow I will decide this and that.
Mircea Eliade considers it a human trait to constantly return to eternal,
mythological values. A person wants to break out of the ordinary. And the myth
gives him this opportunity. "We leave the world of everyday life and enter a world
transformed, re-emerged, permeated by the invisible presence
of supernatural beings. It is not a matter of collective re -creation
of mythical events in memory, but of their reproduction. We feel the personal presence
of the characters of the myth and become their contemporaries. This implies existence
not in chronological time, but in the original epoch when the events occurred. occurred
for the first time. That is why we can talk about the time space of the myth,
charged with energy" (Eliade M. Aspects of Myth, Moscow, 1995, p. 29). As part of the
former USSR, we really went back to the mythical time of 1917, we saw at demonstrations
sailors with red bows and soldiers with rifles and pillows, as if we were really
transported to that time. The change of the USSR required a new mythology, and they
are trying to replace it, for example, with Zapthe Orozh sich. But building up a mythology
also requires effort and time, and so far the mass consciousness has rejected
it. Americans also tried to isolate new modern myths of America, which are
clearly present in the mind. So, when asked what exactly you are proud of in America,
the following answers were received: freedom-71%, opportunities for the individual-6
%, America is the best-5%, economic well-being-4%, the system of government-4 %,
science and technology-1%, military power-1%, culture and art - 1%, other-6% (quoted
by Kearny E.N. a. o. The American way. An introduction to American culture. - Englewood
Cliffs, 1984. - Р. 20). It is very interesting for us that these are characteristics of an idea
order, and not material ones. Accordingly, Robert Reich tried to imagine
myths of modern America that "tell us how and why life
works through a metaphor that may be a basic human trait,
a universal characteristic of our pulsatingly rational, deeply
emotional, meaning-seeking individuals. ... In America, the focus
of public myths is biographies of great people, popular novels and music, evening news
reports and rumors. ... They cement our understanding of politics. .. Being able to give
meaning to everything gives them strength, as well as the ability to bring intelligence and
interconnectedness to the overall experience. The result corresponds to reality, although
the illustrations are fantastic" (quoted by Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and
responsibility. Belmont etc., 1995, p. 239). It is necessary to pay attention to the
saturation of our own being with such tools that make sense of it. For example,
when we talk about a rich entrepreneur, we immediately enter the concept
of"party money" into his image, as lying at the base of his wealth. And although no
one saw this money, and we have no real evidence of their existence, the introduced
interpretation frees us from worry, does not require us to look for the reason in another.
Or the same other argument - "he is a Komsomol member", again referring to the origin
of his money. Perhaps the myth that makes it easier for everyone else to survive is the
myth of the criminal origin of any wealth.
Myth is always a winner, as it reflects intellectual potencies that have already been
tested throughout the history of mankind. Therefore, the role of" engineers of human
souls " who create myths is becoming central at the present stage. The publicist
Leonid Radzikhovsky, who was engaged in A. Lebed, described
his "object" somewhat earlier: "Noun - a man, adjective - cool, biography-
heroic, jaw - you can see for yourself. In short, charisma is charisma"
(Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, July 6). Boris Yeltsin's videos were tested in focus
groups reflecting all segments of society, which, for example, rejected the story of a
sailor who was happy with his salary. "Experts from the focus group
categorically rejected the seaman's thesis, unanimously stating that "
only fools are satisfied with their salary" (In the same place). The focus group
system allows you to reach mass perception, which no expert could have achieved.
The focus group reflects more or less accurately the desired sociological cross-section
of society. Then it is placed in the conditions of free discussion of interesting
aspects, for example, the candidate's image. The moderator, liberating the speakers,
reveals their knowledge/ignorance on the issue under discussion. "The researchers
then analyze the recordings, looking for repetitive images, words,
actions and interactions, themes, and other potentially symbolic material.
The results are then examinedfurther, using "objective" and "scientific " techniques" (
Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. - Be lmont etc., 1995. - p. 67)
By the way, the propaganda of the Yeltsin team against G. Zyuganov also struggled
to create myths of an anti-communist orientation, trying to bring to life the horrors
of hunger and camps. It seems to us that their role was zero, since the youth audience
already made their decision in favor of Yeltsin, and the older generation was only
supposed to be annoyed. The experience of similar advertising in the State Duma
elections gave negative results. As the researchers write about it: "it was an advertisement
for the party that formed the main opposition to the Communists in the elections.
Such advertising is inefficient and undemocratic, as it is built on the principle of
competitor's anti-advertising. In fact, it is based on humiliating the dignity of the enemy,
who is not able to temporarily respond to political attacks." ( Lebedev A. K., Bokovikov A. K.
Experimental Psychology in Russian Advertising, Moscow, 1995, p. 87).
Walter Fischer suggested that any behavior should be interpreted in terms of a "narrative"
(quoted in the book of the same name). Larson Ch. U. Persuasion: reception and
responsibility. - Belmont etc., 1995. - p. 62-65), which to a certain extent coincides with
modern approaches adopted in many current areas, for example, in the framework of
research on artificial intelligence (see, for example, Schenck R. Processing of conceptual
information, Moscow, 1980). Probably, the narrative is to some extent
an elementary form that has dynamics, which allows you to lay out any
event in such a framework. In principle, this is a scheme similar to, for example,
the"subject - predicate - complement" scheme proposed for analyzing any
sentence. In the framework of the concept proposed by W. Fischer, the presidential
campaign should be considered as a story, which is played for viewers who are voters.
There are bad and good characters in it, they have their own performance
characteristics, and they characterize their opponents in their own way. A narrative is
triggered when two conditions are met: coherence (the correspondence of all its parts
to each other) and correctness (the truthfulness of the story being told). For example,
rumors about Boris Yeltsin's illness at the last moment of the presidential campaign as
a broken voice, a cold, etc . did not stand up to criticism. "Narratives can be applied to
such high-minded issues as religious ones, and to such low-minded issues as child
pornography. They can be used as relative booleans. as well as for emotional reasons.
They affect our natural imagination and feelings. Moreover, they have an easy
"access code" in the sense that we do not need to know a complex symbolic
system (sophisticated language) to understand them. The earliest fans
of silent films were immigrants who could not understand the language, but who could
understand the storytelling format in which early silent and late sound films
were told" (In the same place). Myths are close to people,
because they do not reflect new information, but already learned. It's like listening
to familiar music, where active behavior and analysis are not required. Myths are the
helpers of humanity, facilitating its transition to the new. It is the work with mythologems
that should be recognized as the highest PR aerobatics. In this case , the introduction
of new information is not required, and the task becomes connecting to the information
already recorded in the mass consciousness.

§ 7. Political campaigns

Politicians are the first to develop the most effective ways to influence the
audience, actively using all the new technologies available at that time. In
the last century, candidates for American prezidents first began meeting
thousands of people during their campaigns. Benjamin Garrison, who was
the Republican nominee in 1888, met with 110 delegations consisting of
200,000 people. William McKinley interviewed 750,000 people brought
to his home by Republican activists in 1896. The last such "on the doorstep"
campaign was the 1920 campaign. It's time for radio-a new opportunity to
reach the largest number of voters. This brought its own difficulties. In 1928,
candidate Al Smith's New York accent and rattling voice reached everyone.
However, the applause broadcast by the radio was perceived as disapproval.
The audience was confused: it was impossible to understand whether he
was being praised or, on the contrary, slammed. Hitler was one of the first to
use an airplane to fly around cities during the election campaign, and as a
result, he created a sense of his presence everywhere. The first specialists
in political campaigns appear in the United States, where the spouses of K.
Whitaker and L. Baxter founded the first agency in San Francisco in 1933.
specialized in this field. From 1935 to 1958, the firm ran
80 major campaigns and won all but six of them.

Each time, the authorities use the communication channels at their disposal most
effectively . For Hitler, this channel was radio. Messages from the front
lines had a special status on it. "All programs were interrupted. The message was
preceded by a short, inviting fanfare, followed by Liszt's bravura "Prelude." Then
the announcer read a military communique containing information about another
German triumph. When the announcer finished reading, the special message
ended with a marching bravura song, such as "We 're Marching through England",
one of the most popular songs in the [Link] in 194042. These special
messages began during the Norwegian operation and continued into 1941,
celebrating the great victories of the Wehrmacht in Russia" (Hertzstein R. E. The war
that Hitler won. Smolensk, 1996, p. 235). Goebbels was outraged when one of
the illustrated weeklies published a picture of the fanfare recording. He believed
that this could lead to the loss of the solemnly mysterious atmosphere and
threatened the perpetrators that he would send them to a concentration camp.
It wasn't just individual messages that were significant. The entire
communication strategy was planned. "Goebbels realized that people listen to the
radio to calm down, relax and just listen to music with the same interest
as they listen to news from the front lines. Back in 1934, the minister decreed
by decree that after the strong emotional impact that listeners
received after the party congress in Nuremberg, the radio should
transmit light music for several weeks. Programs designed as an instruction to the
masses should be informative, of course, but not too didactic, but the
"good German conversation" should be useful for recreation" (In the same place. - P.
235-236 ). The context requirements
imposed restrictions on the type of possible content of radio broadcasts. However,
the demands coming from above and the demands from below start to diverge
at certain points. "Despite his refined tastes, Goebbels encouraged radio workers
to transmit German marching music endlessly. These aggressive marches
during periods of great victories and impending offensives were probably meant
to shake up the most apathetic fellow citizens, but their complete incongruity with
the situation that had developed in Germany after Stalingrad made them simply
Bessmentally" (In the same place. - P. 236). Or such an example of a discrepancy:
"The music allowed to be broadcast was perceived as old-fashioned. In Germany,
marching songs performed by soldiers 'choirs occupied the same place as
jazz and pop music occupied in the United States" (In the same place. - P. 235-236).
An interesting turnover of the main communication channel is formed. If in the
past this channel was visual, then it was changed to audio. Since the fifties , a
global shift has been taking place again, caused by the sharp growth of television.
That is why Americans consider J. R. R. Tolkien the first image president. Kennedy.
But Eisenhower has already invested $ 2 million in television advertising. In 1948
, there were half a million television receivers in the United States, but already 19
million in 1952. This is a general trend: in China in 1975 there were 800 thousand
televisions, today there are 300 million of them. The Soviet-era Vremya program
made verbal demands to the visual channel. So we looked at a turner who couldn't
speak, instead of convincing us that he was a fine turner or the chairman of a
collective farm. The collision of conflicting requirements created the failure.
propaganda of that period, which resulted in a serious discrepancy
between the official and unofficial interpretation of the events taking place.
In 1996, Bill Clinton took the " Express to the Twenty-first Century." we looked at
it as a new technique. But this technique was already used by Franklin Roosevelt.
In 1932, he traveled by train to Chicago, performing in thirty-six states. Harry
Truman spoke to 6 million people in six weeks in 1948. With the
advent of television, external behavioral characteristics become an important part
of the campaign. Oratorical style is also changing: now it required It is not the
masses of people gathered to listen to a live speaker who will excite you, but the
remote viewers sitting in their chairs at home. A politician becomes even more
of an actor, who can, on the one hand, even make the viewer laugh, and, on the
other, convince the voter that he can solve all their problems. For example, M.
Thatcher is evaluated today as a genuine actress. Here is how Leonid Zamyatin,
ambassador to the UK during the Mikhail Gorbachev era, writes about it:: "I have
no doubt that if Thatcher had not been a major political figure, she
might well have become an actress. However, it was such - in politics" (Zamyatin L. M.
Gorby and Maggie, Moscow, 1995, p. 121). What new qualities come first
for a political actor? Ability to clearly and figuratively formulate a problem. Among
Western politicians, this was successfully done by R. Reagan and M. Thatcher.
Post-Soviet leaders are far from perfect in this regard. The press constantly
parodies the statements of, for example, both B. Yeltsin and V. Chernomyrdin.
A politician should create vivid, spectacular situations that would look
good on television. For example, B. Clinton helps push a stuck car. These images
immediately create a sense of openness of the presidential candidate. B. Clinton
actively participated in all talk shows, in numerous meetings, creating the feeling
of a person who cares about the aspirations of people. Today's politician should
be able to control his body on an equal basis with an actor, giving out only those
messages that are required at the moment. K. Stanislavsky describes acting
opportunities as follows: "in the creative state, a great role is played by bodily
freedom, the absence of any muscle tension and complete subordination of the
entire physical apparatus to the orders of the artist's will. Thanks to this discipline
, Paulthe result is a perfectly organized creative work, in which the artist can
freely and freely express something with his body. what the soul feels" (Stanislavsky
K. S. My Life in Art, Moscow, 1980, p. 311).
Conducting a successful election campaign includes both strategic and
tactical goals. Strategic goals include the following: (Wayne S. J. The
road to the White House 1996. - New York, 1996):
- creating an attractive appeal that consists of two components: a)
the party's image, and b) the main political problems. For example: Eisenhower in 1952
marched under the slogan "Communism, corruption and Korea", demonstrating
himself as a candidate capable of ending the war. George W. Bush in 1984
showed his experience in foreign policy, personal knowledge of many foreign
political figures. However, the same image hurt him in the next election in 1992,
when America's domestic problems became the main issue. Economic problems
have become central in recent times. No election is complete without them.
Reagan wins his 1980 election against Jimmy Carter by asking the most important
question: "Are you better off today than you were four years ago?" In order
not to forget about this most important component of the presidential campaign.
The campaign's top campaign official has
hung an all-weather slogan over his desk : "It's the
economy, you idiot." - creating the image of a leader.

For example, a leader should look strong, confident, and dominant. The leader
must demonstrate his closeness to the audience. So, if for Americans
, wealth is a characteristic that the audience is willing to accept, then in
the UK, the candidate should shade this part of his life. Sometimes
other characteristics come on stage. After the Watergate crisis, winsJimmy
Carter arrives, promising never to lie.
- taking into account the role of the current president or someone who just wants to take this
place.
The current president may emphasize the inability of the candidate to take his
place, since he will always look like less experienced. The current
president is also supported by his constant participation in various events.
attracting press attention. However, the current president is open to criticism
of the current state of the country, for which he is responsible. The candidate is
free to criticize him as he pleases, especially since the population always
accumulates grievances against the authorities. To
tactical issues These include problems of communication techniques for
communicating with voters, specific campaign organization, and organization
of campaign stages. For example, the 1988 Bush campaign consisted of three
stages: a) proving his qualifications as an experienced national leader,
b) striking out at an opponent when Dukakis was portrayed as an insufficiently
experienced statesman, and c) putting a positive emphasis on
the idea of "peace and prosperity", which became the main theme for the last
month of the campaign. It should also be noted that the election campaign is
going for the votes of those who have not yet made a decision. And according
to Western data, 80% have already decided who they will vote for during
this period. So all the effort and millions of dollars are invested for the sake of
a limited audience size. The situation is not the same in the CIS countries, where
the number of those who have not yet made a decision is quite high. From this
point of view, both finances and efforts are not wasted here.
The election campaign is also a strong test for a politician. "In a modern
election campaign, a politician performs the roles of organizer and protagonist
at the same time. Both roles can be seen as a test of the ability to govern
in the future. Someone who performs brilliantly during the election campaign
will not necessarily make a good head of government. Good organization
of the election campaign, on the contrary, is a sure sign of a future
statesman" (Radunsky P. Conducting an electoral campaign as a form
of political communication / / Political parties in the conditions of democracy.
The role and functions of political parties in the political system of the Federal
Republic of Germany. St. Augustine, 1995, p. 446).
We should also add the following: election campaigns should be
fundamentally different each time, since they reflect a given moment in
space and time. For example, R. Verslin, who is considered the main "culprit"
of R. Reagan's victory, recalls: "There were some unique events this year
things that gave us special opportunities. I saw that in the late seventies
there was a significant shift towards conservatism, although not towards the
conservative ideology as we classically understand it" (Public Opinion. - 1981. -
Dec./Jan.). The candidate must be able to capture this zeitgeist, which should
lead him to victory.
The basic terms that describe an election campaign are: target
audience and key messages. The candidate does not work with everyone, but with his
audience, which allows you to more accurately formulate key messages, the
main communication channels for this audience. So, in the case of M. Thatcher,
such a target audience was the highly qualified working class. Accordingly
, its core values were determined, as well as the main communication channel.,
which turned out to be the evening television news. And the election team
of M. Thatcher began to generate situations that satisfied the interests of this
audience and got into this news. They began to generate messages that no editor
could refuse the visual image of. Thatcher strokes a newly born calf. Thatcher
at the clothing and clothing factory. In Reagan's case, the target audience
was (a) blue-collar workers, (b) Catholics, and (c) Southerners. And their
ideals were defined as conservative values, which managed to reach the
supporters of not one, but two parties at once, ensuring greater support in the
electorate. Key messages cannot emphasize more than three or four topics, since
the mass consciousness differs from the consciousness of specialists in political
science. For the voter, "politics is only one area of life along with others (such as
a profession, family, leisure) and not the most important" (H. Kanitz Figures of
municipal politics / / Political parties in the conditions of democracy. The role and
functions of political parties in the political system of the Federal Republic of
Germany. St. Augustine, 1995, p. 288). This observation is no less true for us, as
the knowledge of political names (with the exception of the first three or five)
outside the capitals is plummeting. In Russia, for example, politicized Moscow
and St. Petersburg make up only 10% of the electorate. Nonverbal
messages become an essential component of the impact. If generating situations
for future press coverage is the norm in PR work, it is all the more important
for a political campaign, where it is necessary to generate messages even
more effectively and get concrete results in a more stringent time frame. David
Gergen, who has worked with four American presidentsami (Nixon, Reagan,
Carter, Clinton) says :" Today, quite often, both presidents and politicians
are judged on their performance: how well they play the game. Did they give
a good speech? Or what interesting things did they do today? It's the same thing.
The election race, which is covered ad nauseam, also dominates the
presidency today" (The New York Times Magazine, 1993, Oct. 31).
Politics is basically a communication process. As we mentioned
above, since the Nixon campaign, it has been established that the voter
does not have the opportunity to get to know the candidate personally, so he
reacts to his television image, that is, to the communicative reality. Experts even
then came to a somewhat cynical conclusion: you can not change the candidate
himself, because the voter does not see him, you should first of all change
his image. Another feature of the world of politics is the "alignment" around the
number one person-the president or presidential candidate. All other characters
are given the right to exist only as a representation in a new context of this
symbolic figure. So, the first lady appears as a realization of the female context
of this figure. In the case of the United States, this made it possible to implement
many messages related to feminists. Even the country becomes a contextual
realization of the president's figure: for Clinton, it turned out to be a movement into the
twenty-first century, as if without him America could remain in the twentieth century. Even
President Clinton's daughter , Chelsea, is also a kind of illustration in a different context of
president's figure. As the Guardian newspaper writes: "when Clinton announces to the whole
of America about the promotion of family principles, there is nothing to reproach him. His fam
represents that pattern, which any American can look up to. And in this scenario
, a solid bet is being made on the Chelsea card. Anyone who dares to reproach Clinton
of will and softness will immediately bite their tongue when they look at Chelsea -
only a very positive person could have raised such a respectable daughter" (Kiev Vedomosti,
1996, October 26). By the way, this family sign Clinton constantly demonstrates
nonverbally, sincerely embracing his wife (as it was, for example, in Kiev) or his wife and
daughter (as it was against the background of a festive salute on the occasion of his re
election) in the presence of photo and TV cameramen.
University of California Professor Richard Andersen says: "One of the conditions for a
successful campaign is respect for the voter. This is exactly what Choice of Russia lacked in
1993 , which addressed the population in a somewhat arrogant tone of a candidate who
not doubt his victory "(Advertising World, 1995, No. 18).
Having worked in Russia, Andersen sees such features of the average
Russian: "As I understand it, a typical Russian, especially in the provinces, almost does not
subscribe to newspapers, because they are expensive, and is not fond of political programs on
television. How to bring the program of a particular party or bloc to him, how
to fix the image of the leader in his mind? How to establish candidate-voter communication?"
the same place
And in these conditions, all the same, one way or another, citizens unite in
communities that correspond to certain political preferences, with which
the parties actually work. As G. Diligensky writes: "Even such
an act of political behavior, which does not seem to require any joint actions or communicati
, as voting in elections, is not such a mechanical sum. People
vote for the same party or candidate because they are influenced by the same iland other
social factors (mutual communication, previously formed or acquired in
the process of socialization of ideological and political positions, political propaganda
carried out through mass media channels, etc.), they actually
united in a certain informal political community" (Diligensky
G. G. Socio-political psychology, Moscow, 1996, p. 151).
Election campaigns are a very active process
involving both intellectual and material resources. During this
period, some communicative features begin to manifest themselves in a special way.
So, Katz and Lazarfeld, examining 800 women in a city with a population of 60 thous
inhabitants, found that personal contacts have a greater impact than mass
communication (Brown J.A.C. Techniques of persuasion. From propaganda to brainwashing. -
Harmondworth, 1963. - P. 145). Lazarfeld outlines five reasons
why personal communication trumps mass communication:
1) personal contacts, although more random, are more difficult to avoid,
and the selectivity characteristic of mass communication does not work here;
2) personal contacts are more flexible, so the content begins to vary in order to
overcome audience resistance;
3) direct connections within personal communications increase the degree of reward/
punishment in case of acceptance/rejection messages;
4) people believe more in personalized communicators;
5) personal contacts can force a person to do something, even without really
convincing them, for example, a friend can vote as they are asked, without changing
their views. It was these characteristics that probably
led B. Clinton in the 1992 campaign to new non-traditional types of communication
with the population. John Beer traced,for example, the use of talk shows,
late-night coms in the presidential [Link] shows and the MTV channel.
29% of respondents in North Carolina paid attention to discussing the election
on late-night comedy shows, but among young people aged 18 to 24
who played a major role in the election of Clinton, there were already 52% (Bare J. Non-
traditional news sources in the 1992 presidential campaign // North Carolina
Datanet. - 1993. - N 2). Bush initially refused to participate in such shows, saying tha
at 68, he was not a boy and would not do it, but after seeing the reaction of young
voters to Clinton's appearance on MTV, he changed his point of view. 35% of all
respondents in North Carolina paid attention to discussing the election on MTV.
Business Week magazine predicted that MTV could become a variant of CNN for
the Nintendo generation. Being close to the electorate is very important. One of the
first to understand this was Hitler, who during his election campaign, thanks to the
plane , visited 21 cities in 7 days. It seemed to the voters that he was everywhere a
once. Many purely communicative parameters, for which a fairly good
scientific understanding has already been developed, should be taken into account
in the work on the election campaign. Here are some of them.
Title. Richard Andersen: "If it is chosen poorly, you can hardly expect
the success of the campaign as a whole. And if today "Our Home-Russia" gives rise
to people 's association with "Our Home - Gazprom", then such a parallel, I believe,
can destroy the electoral bloc" ("Advertising World", 1995, No. 18).
Visual series. "The general idea should also work with the visual range in political
advertising: the logo, posters, cartoons... I still consider
the Polish Solidarity logo unsurpassed, where the font solution carried an important
semantic load: the symbol of solidarity was formed from the groups themselves, as if
supporting each other" (In the same place).
Entertainment, brevity. "By themj-makers should find a form of advertising that presents
the party's or bloc's platform to people in a short and clear way." (In the same place).
Tagline. "The election slogan is very important, which should be clear, easy
to remember and, of course, logically follow from the program" (In the same place).
Compliance of the form with the interests of voters. What matters most is "not only what
the candidates say, but also how they say it. I remember the "Zhirinovsky effect" in
1993, who spoke to people from the pages of newspapers, from the TV screen, from
the public rostrum as "his own in the board" (In the same place).
Simplicity. "The main requirement for a candidate (...) the goal is to maintain key issues
and common interests, making them simple and at the center of the discussion."
(Ratzan S.C. Political communication as negotiation // Campaign'92: new frontiers in political
communication - American Behavioural Scientist. - 1993. - N 2. - P. 204).
Identification with the target audience. Clinton stated: "I will wake up every
day thinking about you, your interests and hopes, your children and your future, this
is what you need me to do in the White House" (Ibid.).
Identification with open communication formats. Bush looked at his watch in televised debates
and was uninterested in the ongoing dialogue,thereby " conveying the image
of a candidate who is uncomfortable in a format that requires open and direct
communication. Bill Clinton's behavior was a clear contrast to the president's. As
the talk show exchange progressed, the Arkansas governor became increasingly
connected to the audience, supporting the process of mutual engagement with
verbal and nonverbal indications of consent and care in response to messages
from audience members." ([Link] the same time, the researchers found that
the voter's understanding of the candidate after watching a talk show is more
accurate, than after looking at a carefully crafted paid ad image.
As we can see, certain communicative tasks arise during the election campaign
. One of them is to reduce the proposed ideology
to a limited set of simplified representations to facilitate communication with
a mass audience. For example, G. Diligensky writes: "in the United States
, presidential candidates tend to present political reality in a much
more simplified form, offer much more primitive, unambiguous solutions
than when the same figures become presidents. In this case , the imperatives of
the struggle for power are reflected: the majority of voters have neither the desire
nor the ability to understand any complex concepts that require mental effort,
it is more important for them to grasp the main focus of the candidates 'political
programs, their "general spirit", and it is more likely to be conveyed using
the simplest unambiguous formulas" (Diligensky G. G. Socio-political
psychology, Moscow, 1996, p. 222). American
public relations is characterized by the transfer of good practices from electoral
technologies to presidential ones, and vice versa. Roger Ailes saw analogies
in this regard and in the distant past: "The
reality is that every successful politician in the history of the world had people
who advised him how to look better. Who do you think advised Caesar
to wear the purple cape? Who do you think told him that six chariot horses
were needed instead of four? Why do you think he rode through Rome denying
that he wanted to be king? Who could have thought of all this for him ?" Seitel
F.P. The practice of public relations. - New York etc., 1992. - p. 417).
Of course, as today, careful planning of the election
campaign is necessary. Reagan's American advisers proposed seven rules that
allow you to manage news (Ibid. - P. 416-417):
1. Plan ahead;
2. Be on the offensive;
3. Control the flow of information;
4. Restrict journalists ' access to the president; 5. Talk
about the issues that are currently being discussed. you yourself do you want to talk;
6. Speak with one voice; 7.
Repeat the same message multiple times. In practice, these are the same rules
for dramatically simplifying the situation when dealing with a mass interlocutor.
The" blurry " image of the recipient of information puts forward its own
requirements for the type of text. If in the case of divination,in order to satisfy
everyone, the texts become less unambiguous, then here we have a new
phenomenon: the text shifts to a different pole - since simplicity implies the most
unambiguous type of text.
American data also explains the type of leader that we ourselves are so
used to. The greatest success in elections comes to those whose intellectual
level is not particularly far from the level of the average voter - the optimal figure is
25-30% (Diligensky G. G., edict op. - P. 230). At the same
time, G. Diligensky explains this by the
following factor: a leader moving to the top is highly dependent on his team, and he must
show conformism to group values and expectations. "This situation is extremely
unfavorable for people with strong intelligence. The power of the mind is primarily its
creative potential, the ability to find extraordinary, fundamentally new
solutions, but the psychology of group conformity inevitably suppresses this
ability. Therefore, people who have a strong mind and need to
implement it often go not to politics, but to science, literature and journalism" (In the same place.
- P. 231).
J. Brown provides data confirming the initial assumptions of W. Gemson,
according to which the predispositions of voters play a role. Even the first
experiments of this kind during the presidential election in Ohio in 1940 showed.
that the campaign has little impact on changing people's opinion, but the main
effect is to support the original electoral intentions or awaken other
hidden prerequisites. "People have been found to act very selectively and
mostly pay attention only to content that supports their
original views. Republicans listen to Republican propaganda, and Democrats
listen to Democratic propaganda. The study has repeatedly confirmed that people vote in
a group, that people belonging to the same church, family, or social club
tend to vote in a similar way" (Brown J.A.C. Techniques of persuasion. From
propaganda to brainwashing. - Harmondworth, 1963. - P. 144).
And here a special figure appears - opinion leader. The discovery of
their role in the process
of transmitting information made it possible to move from a one-stage model to
a two-stage one, in which information from the mass communication media
comes first to opinion leaders and only then to everyone else. J. Brown
formulates the following important characteristics of opinion leaders:
1) the existence of opinion leaders has demonstrated that personal influence
is distributed not only vertically, from top to bottom, but also horizontally among the same
social class;
2) opinion leaders should be politically active, interested in events
;
3)mass campaigns have a greater impact on opinion leaders; 4)
one of the functions of opinion leaders is to be a link a link between the mass media and
the people of your group.
In turn, R. Merton studied in this aspect a city with a populationm in 11 thousand
inhabitants (Brown, op. cit. - P. 145)., having found two types of opinion leaders - local and
cosmopolitan. The former are interested in matters within the local community, the latter
-outside. If the former is a local resident, then the latter has traveled a lot and is often a
relatively new resident of the town. A local leader, such as a shop owner,
knows many residents, while a cosmopolitan leader forms his acquaintances in a group of
his own status. Both groups use mass communication media more strongly than others.
However, the local leader is ready to answer a very wide range of questions,
while the cosmopolitan leader is interested in a narrow specific field (fashion,
business, international issues, etc.).
All of this was used by USIA in its impact models, when it became clear that "we
need to see our audience as channels, not as recipients of information"
or that" it is more important to convince one journalist than ten housewives or five doctors "
(according to <url>). Jowett G.S., O'Donnell. Propaganda and persuasion. - Newbury Park, 1992. - p
. 218). Therefore, in the case of the Gulf War, it was found that reaching
10% of the audience of the cultural elite actually means reaching the entire population.
We talked about the concept of packaging options in the case of the W. Gemson model, but this
problem is broader. Communication becomes effective only in the case
of appropriate packaging the right one messages. It is in this area that public relations
appears as a specialization in increasing the effectiveness of impact. Even leaders
are better served by packaging in the form of advice from the mouth of their own
person. Let's take a closer look at some points on the example of the election
campaign in Russia. The daughter of President Boris Yeltsin, Tatyana Dyachenko, for
example, says this about the appearance of the president without a jacket on KVN: "Now"I tr
make my father known not only as a statesman, but also as a person. So I persuaded
him to come to KVN and at least have a little rest. Dad agreed without much inclination,
but then admitted that he liked KVN" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, June 21).
When psychologists suggested that the Russian voter is more susceptible
to emotional rather than rational arguments, this is exactly the path taken by the B
campaign. Yeltsin. The active use of television as a channel has led to the fact that "the
election campaign of the current president occupies, according to estimates, up to
80-85%. total advertising time of candidates" (Babeva S. How to" sell "a candidate
/ / "Moscow News", 1996, No. 23). It also explains the" imperfection " of
Zyuganov's image as follows:"he has to have several images: one for
the outside world, another for plenums, and a third for ordinary voters."
In general, many specialized structures were involved in favor of Boris Yeltsin
(data from Ostapchuk A. Factory of ideas against handicrafts//
"Moscow News, 1996, No. 23). Boris Yeltsin's regional trips were handled
by the Agency for Intellectual Communications (AIC) under the leadership of Alexander
Batanov; focus groups led by the agency's specialists traveled to the regions
in advance, looking for popular local stories, determining the expectations of elites and the
masses. The Nicollo-M agency headed by Igor Mintusov and Ekaterina Egorova
was engaged in image-making developments for the president. The expert examination
of regional attitudes was carried out by the Andrey Shutov Center for Regional Studies
at the Russian Academy of Civil Service. The Gleb Pavlovsky and Andrey Vinogradov
Foundation for Effective Politics (FEP) took part in determining the presidential campaign
in the media . However, the headquarters of the city of ZyuganoAlthough not on such
a large scale, it still had at its disposal a pre-election map for 31 regions of Russia, which
identified the" pain points " of the regions and the main methods of campaigning, taking into
account local specifics (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, June 14).
Igor Krylov emphasizes the "synenergetic" effect of pro-government commercials under
the slogans " Everything will work out for us "and" This is my city " on ORT (Krylov I. V. The
and practice of advertising in Russia-Moscow, 1996), when the actor Nikita Mikhalkov was
perceived as the number two leader of "Our House". The campaign with the slogan
"Vote or lose!"worked in the same way. during the 1996 presidential election. She
worked more for one particular candidate than for others.
Boris Yeltsin, especially in the last moments of his life, actively relied on mass
informal movements. These structures are interesting and unique. What attracts people
there? The researchers note that one of the most popular ones is implemented in motion
self-fulfillment, enrichment of social ties of the individual becomes
the basis of these needs. "Indeed, for a person whose destiny is the daily routine
of uninteresting work and monotonous family responsibilities, social
activity is the sphere of application of personal strength and abilities; it radically
enriches the content of life, fills it with a new meaning" (Diligensky G. G.
Socio-political psychology, Moscow, 1996, p. 270). At the same time, in our
opinion, a person seems to rise above the level of problems that he
is"allowed" to touch upon. It grows in a conditional hierarchy of values, moves in
solving problems from the level of a room to the level of an entire country. In fact, this
was partly the phenomenon of dissidence, when a person broke the rules prescribed
to him from above. In principle, this is the pole of political activity, This
increases dramatically during transition periods, when large masses of people are
drawn into politics. However, this period is followed by a period of gradual
"cooling off".
The other pole of the political behavior scale is passive citizens. Those
Americans who usually don't go out to vote were the subject of a separate
study - No-show'96: Americans who don't vote. A study of likely non-voters for the Medill
news service and WTTW television. - 1996. And the researchers came to the following
conclusions about those who do not vote:
1. They are young: if 16% of those who vote are under thirty, then
39% of those who do not vote are young;
2. They have a lower level of education: 55% of non-voters have a school
level of education or lower, while only 37% of those who vote have such education;
3. They have a lower level of income: 48% had an income of less than $ 33,000 in
, while 33% of voters had the same level of income;
4. They include a large number of national minorities - 30% of them are
non-white, while among non-white voters 18 %;
5. They do not follow politics: among the voters, 53% said that they always follow, and
only 5% almost never, among non - voters-these figures were
24% and 24%, respectively.
It was estimated that 88 million Americans would not turn out to vote in November 1996.
As a result of a telephone survey of 1,001 people who are expected not to
vote, 80% did not vote in 1992. The researchers also identified five groups that are not
going to vote:
public figures (29%); they are young even for non-voters-48% of them are under 30; they
are engaged in their community, interested in politics (78% read newspapers at least
four times a week, 74% watch CNN at least occasionally), but will not vote; 77%
have a positive opinion of congress; only 39% believe that the country is moving in
the right direction; 63% are positivebut they rate both Republicans and
Democrats; 32% agree that it doesn't matter who gets elected.
non-employees (27%), who know little about public affairs and have a mixed
opinion of politics (31% read the newspaper less than once a week); 37% of them believe that
the country is on the right track; 67% have a positive opinion of Democrats, 49% -
Republicans, 61% - congress;
annoyed (18%), they are quite old - 38% of them have reached the age of 45; they mostly
consume information regularly (62% watch the evening news 6 times a week, 52% read
newspapers six to seven times a week), are angry with the government and are sure that their
voice does not matter; 65% of them believe that the country is going the wrong way; 58%
negativeopinions about congress; 33% of them are aged 45 and older; only
135 voted in 1992;
those who don't know (14%), who are more deprived of information than others and therefore find it
difficult to make a decision in voting; 90% do not express any opinion about parties; 73% do not
have any opinion about congress; 62% have no interest in local politics; 15% of them are between
45 and 64 years old, and 12% of them do not have an opinion about the congress. - older than 65.
alienated persons (12%); they are not interested in the news (44% read the newspaper less than
once a week, but 65% watch the news program on TV at least four times a
week), are angry with the authorities and pessimistic about their ability to influence
decision-making; 61% have a negative opinion of Congress; 61%
negative opinion about Republicans and 59% about Democrats.
What parameters in these studies coincide with ours? This is undoubtedly
the youth of non-voters. This is a certain detachment of them from social life.
This is also social pessimism, if we can use such a term, when
a person feels disconnected from power and unable to influence it.
Trust in the government and leadenu is generally one of the central parameters of public
relations that requires constant attention, and it is also one of the communicative
parameters of the election campaign. But in the case of the CIS countries, there is also an
interesting parameter: we are talking about voting "for" someone in order to prevent
the opponent from coming to power. Naturally, everyone has this situation to one degree or
another, but a survey after the Russian presidential election (Kommersant-Daily, 1996, Aug
29). It showed that for 32% of those who voted for Boris Yeltsin, his victory was indifferent
and only 67% were satisfied with it. And the data of the VTsIOM poll for September 25, 1996
showed a gradual departure of Boris Yeltsin to other positions in the level of public
confidence: A. Lebed is in first place with 34%, G. Zyuganov is in second place with 15% ,
and only the president is in third place with only 12%.
Fraser Seitel does not speak of a public relations specialist as a
professional communicator for nothing (Seitel F.P. The practice of public relations. - New York
etc., 1992. - p. 167). It is a professional like no other who should be able to build
communications for a wide variety of channels, contexts and tasks. Naturally, this applies
even more to electoral goals.

§ 8. Psychological operations

Psychological operations have now become almost a routine part of military

operations. Our civilization, having become informational,
must also take these changes into account in its military doctrines. Moreover, the so
-called "cold war" lost by the Soviet Union showed more serious possibilities of these
methods than previously thought. The United States had extensive experience with
public opinion during the Gulf War in [Link] then
had to mobilize its own public opinion in a " war-permissive"
aspect. It was difficult, poskolThere used to be the Vietnam syndrome, the fear of a new
Vietnam. For example, an analysis of media news from August 1, 1990 to February 28
, 1991 (a total of 66,000 units) showed that the word Vietnam was found
there 7299 times, more often than any other word (Jowett G.S., O'Donell V. Propaganda and
persuasion. - Newbury Park, 1992. - P. 252). This suggests an attempt to understand the
situation in the Persian Gulf through the format set by the Vietnam War. The massive participation
of propagandists was recorded already in the First World War, when in 1918 more
than 2 thousand balloons were produced every week, each of which was made up of
which contained 1000 leaflets. True, J. Brown believes that their impact was
small, since the fighting spirit was more dependent on success at the front or lack
of food (Brown J.A.C. Techniques of persuasion. From propaganda to brainwashing.
- Harmondsworth, 1971. - P. 94). By the way, then propaganda specialists
after the war made up the main body of public relations specialists in the United
States. Then the same situation was repeated after the Second World War in
England. Propagandists were engaged in the field of PR, because due to the lack
of products, there was no special need for advertising. All this also indicates a
serious intersection of public relations methods and psychological operations.
Today's developments show the successes and failures in this area.
If the first option is the war in the Persian Gulf, then the second option is
the war in Chechnya. The Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Federation
stated in 1996 that there had been a loss of a single military information field
(Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1996, March 29). Therefore, the US experience is of
particular interest, which we will try to satisfy. In what follows, we
will refer to the official guidelines adopted by the US Army: Psychological
operations, techniques and procedures. - U. S. Governmental Printing Office.
- 1994. There is a serious similarity in the tools and methods of psychological
operations (hereinafter -PO, the American term-PSYOP) and public relations
(hereinafter - PR). There are even overlapping tasks: for example, within
the framework of the software, there is also such a task as"creating a favorable
image of America's actions." In principle, the fundamental similarity is determined
by the fact that this American software guide relies on methods originally
developed in commercial advertising. From there, it also draws a lot of its own
methods and so on. As L. Voytasik once wrote: "Advertising provides propaganda
with effective methods of psychological processing" (Wojtasik L. Psychology
of Political Propaganda, Moscow, 1981, p. 75). The commonality of methods
leads to differences in only one aspect - more serious technological preparation
of the campaign, a more substantial research base for studying the target
audience that the software is aimed at.
This guide begins with a single global phrase: "Psychological operations
operate in times of peace, conflict, and war." Their essence is set as
supporting military actions. At the same time, support can also be purely
propaganda, as it was in 1989 in Panama, where loudspeakers played
an important role. The software
cycle consists of three components that are also familiar to PRS: estimation, planning
and execution. At the same time, testing messages and checking results are also
included in the software. For more information, the PO is signed in the following
format: - Intelligence gathering
- Target audience analysis
- Product development
- Media selection
- Media production
- Distribution The first component
is included in the evaluation, the next three in the planning, the remaining
two in the execution. End goalThis work recognizes behavioral changes
in the target audience.
More specific military functions are as follows::
- Assessment of psychological outcomes of military operations
- Advice to military commanders on PO-operations
-Dissemination and conduct of PO-operations in support of
military operations - Discouraging hostile propaganda

Unlike PR, very serious attention is paid to the audience, where

political, economic, and cultural issues are emphasized. social and ideological conditions
of target audiences. Perhaps this increased attention is due to the fact that the
software is aimed at representatives of other political, cultural and cultural organizations.
structures. Software is divided into three types: strategic, operational, and tactical, while
operational ones are served as intermediate between the first and third ones.
Strategic strategies are designed to produce effects that will occur in the foreseeable
future. Operational - aimed at regional target audiences.
Tactical - designed to directly support military operations.
There is a certain cynicism in the area of the tasks being solved
, and we are probably trying to hide some of these tasks and not include them in such
documents. We will indicate some of the types of possible tasks to get an idea of the
seriousness of your intentions:
strategic software:
- supporting and justifying American policy abroad,
- supporting counter-elites,
- strengthening friends and weakening enemies among leaders,
- supporting divergences between civilian and military elites.
operating software:
- preparing the population for the deployment of American troops,
- increasing dissatisfaction with the population and the armed forces.
tactical software:
- creating a favorable image of American soldiers and officers,
- reducing morale and efficiencythe effectiveness of enemy combat operations.
We probably experienced some of this impact during the collapse of the Soviet Union,
especially when it comes to strategic operations.
In the process of generating messages, a distinction is introduced between by topic and with the symbol.
In a roughened form, this distinction can be presented in the form of a typical
linguistic difference in content and form, since the topic is what
is reported in order to achieve psychological goals. And the symbol becomes a means
of expressing the theme. Topics are grouped in advance according
to possible vulnerabilities: one set should push the group to divide, exploiting
the difference "we - they", another-emphasizes the theme of inevitability (the inevitability of the
victory of some and the loss of others), the third - the theme of legitimacy (friends and
illegitimacy of opponents). Special importance is attached to the correct selection of themes and
symbols: "Preliminary testing of all symbols and themes should prevent
their incorrect use."
It should also emphasize a serious analysis of the target audience, which precedes
the development of the necessary messages. And here a special role is played by the ethnic
characteristics of the audience, its national picture of the world, because in a different way
interested in finding your opponent's vulnerabilities. More detailed analyses
in this area are undoubtedly provided by representatives of other sciences (see,
for example, such studies in the field of ethnology: Soldatova G. U. Psychology of
interethnic tension, Moscow, 1998; Lurie S. V. Historical Ethnology , Moscow,
1997). Message creation is also broken down into a number of clear stages:
integration, conceptualization, and development. Integration is aimed at
connecting the target audience analysis with the corresponding media type.
Here you should answer the following series of questions::
- Who is the target audience?
- What should you say with your message?
- When will it have the maximum effect?
- Where is the target audience located?
- What is the purpose of the post or promotion?
- How should I build a message or conduct a promotion?
The conceptualization stage is aimed at translating audience analysis and
media selection into a working plan. Development is the development of a
plan and interpersonal communication program. It also offers a set of specific
techniques to work with:
- attracting attention (for example, placing an attractive female
figure on a leaflet).
- creating reliability (adding elements that the consumer can
use to determine the accuracy of the report),
- creating memory (developing memorable headlines, slogans, etc.),
- arousing emotions (emotions cannot be resolved in a rational way),
- repeat the message (you should plan to repeat it multiple times to
improve the impact).
A well-developed aspect, in contrast to PR, is working at the interpersonal
level, when communicating person to person. The best speakers are Adolf
Hitler, Martin Luther King and Winston Churchill. Communication "one with
another" has a number of significant advantages:
- maximum adjustment to the listener
is possible, - repetitions are possible if necessary,
- detailed audience selection,
- focus on points that may be inaccessible to the mass media,
- increase reliability by clearly indicating the source,
- speed in the distribution of software messages For this reason, the crowd
is considered as a good object for software application- messages. By the
way, NATO regularly holds conferences on crowd behavior analysis, which
indirectly confirms the significance of this particular method of exposure.
What attracts people to the crowd? The software guide sees the following
types of motivations: - The desire to support or oppose a particular problem
- Gaining new experience of participating in such events
- Curiosity
- The social appeal of the problem
- The ability to interact with others
- Anti-social motivation
- Belief in the role of the majority
- A sense of justice

The definition of a crowd is given as follows:"The crowd is the main

element of any rally, demonstration, or civil unrest." Similar to the
classification of performances, a classification of crowd types is proposed:

*random temporary meeting of people at a location-before event

crowd opening a store

* conditional people gathered for an event, for example,

crowd sports event

* expressive
people who express themselves by singing, dancing, and playing music.
crowd

*
people who have gathered because of hostile performances in connection with
mobilised
a real or nonexistent event
crowd

Two comments that show the seriousness of the guide's authors ' intentions. On
the one hand, it emphasizes the importance of pre-planned incidents in order
to maintain the excitement of the crowd at the right level. On the other hand, we
are talking about the fact that for the real effectiveness of the impact, the rally
must look unprepared. Another
important element for working in an interpersonal situation is rumors. Here
there is a complete match between PR and software. Rumors are psychologically
aimed at relieving tension. Recall the active use of auditory
information in the post-Chernobyl situation, when official sources generated
information that was not particularly reliable. And in this situation, the more
"scary" rumors were strangely more attractive than the more
" favorable " official information. Rumors,
according to the authors of the software guide, are very powerful weapons, but
they must be well prepared and controlled. Three
characteristics of hearing are emphasized:
- The source must be attractive to the audience and enjoy their trust
- The content of the rumor must inspire confidence - The recipient of the rumor
becomes its transmitter as it is transmitted further If the previous information
about the rumor can be considered more or less known (among the latest
publications on this topic, it is worth mentioning the monograph - Dmitriev A.V. et al.
Informal political communication, Moscow, 1997), then the methods of creating a
rumor are of particular interest. Here, the features of transmission and the features
of human perception are taken as a reference point. What three operations are
used for: alignment, protrusion, and likeness. A few words about each of them:

rumors should be short and simple, as they are subject to oral communication.
alignment
sending a message
 protrusion patterns of selective perception, when from a large text
they only take key points

reflects existing stereotypes, ethnocentrism, and biases.

comparison Knowing these characteristics allows you to select the correct invoice.
for your hearing

It is important to focus on the peculiarities of information processing by

different social groups. One of the rules of this level is as follows:
"Information that is not aligned sticks out, becoming important. What is
bulged out by one group can be leveled out by another."
Emotionally, hearing feeds on emotions such as hatred, fear, and hope.
No less important part of it can be superstition people1. The guide
provides the following example of the use of rumors of a war with guerrillas
in the Philippines. It was established that the partisans are afraid of
vampires. There was a great deal of gossip about this, and then the
enemy's corpse was thrown up without blood and with two holes in the neck. As
a result, the enemy soldiers left the area. Working with rumors also includes
countering them. In this regard , the following three types of equipment are
proposed: 1. Exclusion of a motivating situation or interest in this situation,
which is not so easy to achieve. 2.
Disclosure of facts about the situation in order to satisfy the interest of the
target audience. 3. Creating
an understanding of auditory information in the target audience, creating
a sense that leaders will not ignore the auditory information and reveal
the truth to the audience. Note that this type of
technique is not a particularly strong point of the presented methodology.
There is probably still a lot left over from the pages of the text. Television
is considered as the form closest to interpersonal communication.
It is important because it may exaggerate or downplay the importance of
a particular event. Americans
date the idea of using balloons back to 1854, when a Russian emigrant
V. Engelson approached the French Minister of Defense with a proposal
to use balloons to incite Russian people against participating in the
Crimean War. The number of leaflets distributed from above is measured
by the density, which can reach a maximum of 6000 per square kilometer
if it is necessary to notify the population of an approaching flood,
for example. Grafitti (inscriptions on walls) have the advantage
of being perceived by the population as an expression of the will of
the population. They can support those who have not yet made a decision.
There is our researchnote on this type of inscription (Sednev V. Inscriptions and
drawings in public transport / / "Philosophical and sociological thought". - 1993.
- № 1). The author proposed to distinguish three types of such inscriptions:
identifying (50.3%), reflecting the desire for self-affirmation; antisocial (29.6%),
expressing various kinds of opposition; symbolic (20.1%), reflecting
hobbies for ensembles, performers, firms.
Each of the media types sets its own more effective types of techniques. So, in the
case of radio, it is recommended to use female voices to evoke
nostalgia and sexual associations in the opponent. Non-traditional types
of communication are also actively used, since it is believed that the desired
message can be placed on calendars, matches, lighters, and even shirts.
Performance is just as important in software as it is in PR. In PR, as we remember,
this is one of the painful problems. still require solutions. Therefore, the software
experience in this area is doubly interesting. In software, effectiveness is determined
by factors such as: - the type and placement of the target audience,
- the number and variety of communication channels available to the audience,
- the degree of program saturation,
- the degree to which the message meets the audience's standards.
Two types of performance indicators are proposed: direct and indirect. Direct -
assume retaliatory actions on the part of the enemy (however, keep in mind
that they can also be caused by other factors). Surveys
of prisoners of war or foreigners living in the territory are also used. Indirect indicators
refer to events in a given territory that cannot be directly linked to
operations performed.
Here is also an army tip that is also suitable for PR: "Each target audience
requires innovative approaches to influence its behavior." The target audience
itself is defined as "a collection of people who share common characteristics
and vulnerabilities that make them susceptible to software effectiveness
." The audience is also divided into final and intermediate categories. The
final one is the focus of the software, and the intermediate one acts as
a transfer mechanism leading to the final audience. The audience can also
be explicit, which was targeted, and unexpected, which
received the message randomly, because it was not initially interested
in the sender of the message. Another
classification divides the audience into three types: group, category, and aggregate.
Group it represents the most preferred type of target audience. It is a gathering
of people connected by a common activity and purpose. Groups are divided into
primary services (example, family or platoon) and secondary services (such as
parliamentarians). It is the primary groups that are most protected from external influence. Categ
it represents an association of people with common demographic characteristics
(by race, gender, and age). However, these characteristics often do not
determine the development of the uniqueness of the action. Combination - association
based on a common geographical area (such as Europeans or Egyptians).
Finally, we present a method for analyzing propaganda called SCAME
(Source - Content - Audience - Media - Effect).
The source. At this stage, we are interested in the reliability, accuracy
of the source, and its possible connection with the government, military command,
organization, or individual.
Content. Here, a specific format is suggested, according to which
the content is evaluated. The following points are emphasized: morale,
unintended information, economic risks, biographical and geographical
information, intentions.
Audience. Audience analysis requires identifying as many
different types of audience as possible to which the message
might have been directed .
Media (Me dia). I am interested in the answer to the following
question: what exactly was chosen by the enemy to transmit this
message? Effect. Possible consequences of introducing this
message into the mass consciousness.

Counter-propaganda has specific techniques for refuting the message

introduced by the enemy. Each of these techniques has its own positive
and negative consequences. Here are some of the possible techniques:
Direct rebuttal. It must be reliable and reach the audience quickly,
so as not to allow the destructive effect of the enemy's message to
manifest itself. However , this type of rebuttal simultaneously attracts
attention and serves to spread hostile information.
Indirect rebuttal. It is not aimed at repeating the message, but at its other
characteristics, for example, to combat the credibility of the opponent.
Distraction. Introduction of new topics. leading the mass consciousness
away. Silence. Sometimes it is better to keep silent, so as not to spread someone
else's message. Minimization. The emphasis is placed on the moments that
are positive in relation to yourself.
Warning. Own conversation on topics that are expected to be
raised by the enemy. The software
also serves as a support tool in the case of certain deceptive operations,
which are also divided into strategic ones. operational and tactical
issues. And also for the following two basic types:: active (aimed at
detection by the target audience) and passive (aimed at hiding from the
target audience). The US is so attentive to amlthis type of operations,
since in almost all cases of military operations, it was operations to
deceive the enemy that were used.
In general, the software solves the following types of global tasks:
1) reduces the intensity and duration of an armed conflict,
2) in some cases makes a military conflict completely unnecessary,
3) makes it possible to take advantage of the enemy due to his
psychological stress. The strength
of the presented methodology is the detailed development of all stages
of message generation, up to print types. Technologically, this process has
been brought to a certain perfection. At the same time, much attention is
paid to elementary communication tools such as leaflets or loudspeakers,
but they are likely to remain in the arsenal of means of influence for a
long time. That is, the path from the idea to its implementation looks quite
complete. Another strong point is good analytical training, as detailed
formats are provided for analyzing any country in a variety of ways.
specific items. In general, this is the same communicative discipline, only
with a much more utilitarian focus. As you can see, in many ways the goals
and methods of PR and software are located side by side. Therefore, knowledge
of these professional tools is undoubtedly important for a PR specialist.
Chapter four. Public Relations: specific strategies
§ 1. PR for power structures

In the UK, there is a very important PR axiom that applies to us-

the government should not only work effectively, but all citizens should be
convinced that it works effectively. As you can see, just good work
is not enough. An equally important parameter is the recognition of this work
by the population. It is not for nothing that the word "transparency"has started to appear
in the mouths of Russian top officials today . The population should see their leaders as
competent and honest, which is facilitated by the openness of making certain decisions.
This requires serious work. For example, the redenomination of the Russian ruble
required the release of a number of commercials revealing this event to the public.
Initially, the screen was filled with the words of politicians and economists. But a
focus group test showed that the appearance of such faces does not contribute
to the calmness of the population. As a result, videos were launched where
famous actors started talking from the screen. This campaign has reached its logical
conclusion, but it has not been able to remove people's distrust of the authorities,
although it has managed to remove the level of public concern about the denomination.
The authorities are obliged to express concern for their citizens, otherwise they will not
be needed at all. Therefore, even negative events should be responded to in the right
way. For example, in response to the unfolding mining strikes, Boris Yeltsin said
in a radio address on May 22, 1998:"Strikes are an effective means to
be heard." The war between different
branches of government has become a significant feature of post-Soviet politics, with
even the dispersal of the parliament with tanks to its credit. If one branch of government
- the executive branch - fights for a positive attitude towards itself, this is more
difficult to achieve in the case of the other branch of government - the legislative
branch, which is strongly pushed to the negative pole by both objective and positive
reasons. Professor V. Razuvaev tried in Nezavisimaya Gazeta to systematize the
causes of negativism towards the parliament (Kollektsiya NG, 1998, No. 7). They are as
follows: - general trend towards anti-parliamentarism in all post-communist countriesah
(we would like to add that it is strongly based on the fact that the presidential power
looks like "speaking with a single voice", while the parliamentary power generates
many voices, where individual voices oppose neighboring ones);
- the impact of the 1992-1993 conflict between the then-charismatic
B continues. Yeltsin and the Congress of People's Deputies, as a result of which TV
journalists, by inertia, are already transferring their stereotypes of that time to the State
Duma; - TV channels are mainly dependent on the institutions of the executive branch,
which leads to the unconditional support of the president in the event of a conflict
situation ; - it is difficult for television to make an interesting entertainment show out of
endless parliamentary sessions;
- television as a more "rich in details means" shows
sleeping and conflicting deputies. Taking into account
this influence of television on politics, as we said earlier, puts in the first place those
deputies who may be interesting to television. The interest in this plan consists not only
and not so much in an interesting idea, but in its winning presentation, in the manner
of execution, and not in the essence. Professor V. Razuvaev, calling on the State Duma
to become telegenic, says the following: "On television, especially appreciated
telegenic, ability to speak in front of an audience, and good relations with
TV journalists. These are new factors of political power in modern Russia,
giving advantages to the politician who was able to adapt to the needs of
the television era faster and better than others. It is no coincidence that the leader of a
relatively small faction is one of the most frequent guests on television. It is no less
natural that numerous attempts by television to announce a tacit boycott
of Vladimir Zhirinovsky sooner or later failed. Today, television has nothing
to replace the escapades of the LDPR" (In the same placeNaturally, such types are more
profitable for political life, since they are easier and more effective in "building up" from
other deputies, they have already taken their place in the minds of voters. Certain
rules in the history of mankind have always been applied in relation to power functions.
For the purposes of governance,the connection of kings and pharaohs with the gods
was very beneficial, because then the communication coming from them received a
different status. "The decisions, the words of the gods, and the fate they set are constantly r
as 'irrevocable', 'unchangeable', and so on." (I. S. Klochkov. Spiritual culture of Babylonia:
man, fate, time, Moscow, 1983, p. 43). This feature of communication so
elevated the personality of the Pharaoh that it was impossible to address him directly.
"To avoid direct reference to him, all sorts of circumlocutions were used:
"may your majesty hear" instead of "hear" and "it was ordered" instead of "he
ordered". From one of these periphrases, per-aa, "Great House", our word
"Pharaoh" is derived, roughly in the same way as we now say: "Today the White House annou
(G. Frankfort and others. On the threshold of philosophy, Moscow, 1984, p. 82). The kings
of the Two Rivers were born of men, but because they were chosen, they towered over
them. In this case, "...royalty has a "material character", it is embodied in
the attributes of royal power-clothing, diadem, rod, throne, etc. This makes a person
a king only as long as the kingship is "placed" on him," put on", while depriving him
of the attributes of power, royalty reduces the king to the ordinary human
condition" (I. [Link]. Man in the Culture of the ancient Near East, Moscow, 1986
, p. 119). For the same
purposes of elevation, the lack of information is advantageous, deliberate non-delivery
of it, because a person treats someone better who knows less. As a rule, they fill
in the missing information more favorably for the authorities than the real information.
The press secretary of the President of Russia S. Yastrzhembsky says so directly:
"The authorities have their own secrets "(TV-Center, 1998, June 3). A fundamentally
distant object cannot be approached at the level of everyday knowledge.
Especially in our case. By the way, the famous film director A. Konchalovsky
(TV-Center, 1998, June 2) placed the relationship between the authorities and
the population in the case of Orthodoxy exclusively vertically. Protestantism, in his
opinion, uses the horizontal. Catholicism occupies an intermediate position.
Naturally, in the first case of relationships, there may be a conscious and
unconscious lack of information.
The rise of power structures during victories takes on a special character.
Suetonius writes about Caesar: "At the end of the war, he celebrated five triumphs:
four in one month, but at intervals, after the victory over Scipio, and the fifth after
the victory over the sons of Pompey. The first and most brilliant triumph was that of Gaul,
by that of Alexandria, and finally of Spain, each with its own special luxury and
decoration" (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillusedit. The Life of theTwelve Caesars, Moscow, 1990,
20). This is always a hope for the justice of the world, because the enemy always
represents the side of someone else's, that is, the wrong norm. Victory is always
interpreted as the restoration of the correct norm, the return to the world of complete
harmony, which was absent in it earlier.
Nero created special performances aimed at elevating himself not
only in the field of social management, but also in many areas of art
(remember "Virgin Land" and "Malaya Zemlya"). "When he sang, Nicku was not allowed to
leave the theater, even if necessary. Therefore, it is said, some women gave birth in
the theater, and many, unable to listen to him any longer and praise him, climbed over the
the gates were closed, or pretended to be dead so that they were carried out on a stretche
(In the same place. - P. 159). At the same time, there were also more anecdotal cases: "It
is said that one recruit who was standing guard at the entrance saw him in this role in th
action in wreaths and chains and rushed to the stage to save him." (In the same place. - P
Caesar died because of participation in the performance: "Decimus Brutus persuaded him
not to deprive his presence of a crowded and long-awaited meeting" (In the same place. - P.
really participated in competitions, he was worried, fawned over the judges,
etc. "During the competition, he carefully observed all the rules: he did not dare to clear his
sweat from his forehead with his hands, when in some tragedy he dropped and quickly picked
baton, he trembled in fear that for this he would be excluded from the competition and calme
down only when the second actor swore to him that no one noticed for the applause
and clicks of the people. He declared himself the winner, so every time he participated
in the contest of heralds. And so that no trace or memory of the previous victors remained
, he ordered all their statues and images to be overturned, dragged with hooks
and thrown into latrines" (In the same place. - P. 160). We see that almost the same
processes are taking place today, so the design is preserved, we only
fill it with new content. The performances of any government are aimed at
exalting it in order to solve the problems of social management. Presidential
inaugurations have a special character. In general, this kind of procedure,
in our opinion, obviously, they have some strange character for our very
rational world. This is a reflection of rather distant ideas about what a
festival is. Ukrainian writer Valentin Chemeris speaks with particular enthusiasm
about the inauguration in the United States in order to indirectly elevate
the same process in the case of Leonid Kravchuk (V. Chemeris. President. - Київ,
1994. - С. 244- 247). This procedure is completely analogous to the ancient
procedures described above. Creating a positive context in this case is
especially important because positivity blocks critical thinking.
Modern leaders of the post-Soviet republics intensively place their
portraits on stamps and banknotes. And we should not treat this only from
the point of view of our norm, since a foreign norm can also be fair in
its territory. Thus, Nezavisimaya Gazeta states: "Back in 1993 , images
of Gaidar Aliyev and Nursultan Nazarbayev appeared on postage stamps of
Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan . In the same year, a portrait of Turkmenbashi
Saparmurat Niyazov also appeared on stamps. Niyazov's portrait is minted on
all Turkmen coins..." ("NG Collection", 1998, No. 7).
In order to justify its legitimacy, power must have certain
characteristics that strongly repeat each other from the most ancient
periods of human history. Since the time of ancient Egypt , the demand
for justice of power has been quite clearly put forward. A good ruler "...must be
a combination of love and fear, which the Egyptians considered complementary colors
of the same spectrum. Good government was paternal, and the principle of punishing
leadership was supported by all. <...> The Egyptian word "teach" also means
"punish", and apparently the word "teach" is also used to teach people., the position "whom Go
punishes" was close to everyone's heart. Good government consisted of God-given authority and G
-like generosity." (G. Frankfort and others. edict op. - p. 89).
If we look at the results of the 1992 US election and try to understand the
reasons for Bill Clinton's victory, we will see the same construction. Comparing
the characteristics of Bush and Clinton indicates the following preferences
of the electorate. 51% of voters considered Bush more moral, more decent,
and only 15% perceived Clinton in the same way. Bush was viewed
as a strong leader by 31% of voters and Clinton by 36%. Bush lost his popularity in
this cross-section after peaking during the Gulf War. If by the first criterion
Bush has the advantage, then by the second - both are almost equal. What gave
the advantage to Clinton? It turns out that the third criterion, which can be defined
as caring and attention to others: Bush had a 21% percentage of "admirers"on it,
while Clinton had 53% (Miller A. H. Economic, Character and Social Issues in the 1992
Presidential Election // American Behavioral Scientist. - 1993. - № 2. - Р. 322). This is
the same parameter that the authorities still pay insufficient attention to today. Bush
had bad "ratings" on him in the previous election, but in 1988 they did not pay
attention to this. At the same time, the results of sociological analysis show that
when the population does not feel attention to itself and its problems from the
authorities , when there is no control over their work on the part of the population, its reaction
is violent actions - strikes, demonstrations, etc.
: "In our country, everything related to the state structure
constantly coincides with justice" (Plato. Laws / / Platon. Essays. - In 3 vols. - Vol.
3. - part 2. - Moscow, 1972. - P. 231). Even in ancient Egypt, they demanded a fight
against what is a symbol of bureaucratic power: "An official
who is supposed to listen
to clients' complaints should do so calmly and without malice, because 'the petitioner wants
more attention to his words than the fulfillment of what he came for'" (G.
Frankfort and others. edict op. - p. 102). Perhaps, even today we can't
add anything new to such a wish for an official. Moving forward
through the centuries, we can find out the views on the same problem of Otto
von Bismarck, who says: "The lack of higher tasks led to the fact that
they did not find a sufficient amount of really necessary work and in their
official zeal went far beyond the needs of the managed, falling into
the mania of regulation" (O. Bismarck. Thoughts and memories. - Vol. 1. - Moscow, 1940. - P.
It is interesting that many characteristics of a manager practically do not change
either over time or the state structure. Analyzing the US elections,
analysts found that a pessimistic style, thinking exclusively about the negativity
of the situation, leads to depressive moods among the population. An analysis
of the US presidential election from 1948 to 1984 showed that in 9 cases out of
10, pessimistic reflections led to the defeat of the candidate. This leads to an
important conclusion: the population expects the authorities to solve their problems,
and not to talk about difficulties in solving them. Power is a symbol of solving a
problem, but not a symbol of hesitation or questioning. It follows that the interrogative
intonation in the phrase "We don't know what kind of Ukraine we are building" is
fundamentally unsuitable for the authorities. The authorities, of course, should know.
Another rule "grew out" of the Watergate scandal and a number of other similar
events: the authorities can be blamed forput only what she admits to. Everything else
can be explained, for example, by the negligence of subordinates. The truth and
because of this negligence, you have to resign, as happened with Richard
Nixon. In the same situation,NATO Secretary General Willy Klas resigned,
although he considers himself "completely innocent". A big scandal is connected with
lobbying of deputies of the ruling Conservative Party in the UK. The headline
in the newspaper Den (1997, March 25) reads:: "The dirty hands of Conservative
lobbyists are pushing John Major to defeat in the election."
Because one of the most important categories that Western politicians are fighting
for is trust, here is Cicero's opinion on this point: "Trust can
be earned in two ways: if we are recognized as far-sighted and fair. For
we feel confidence in those people who, as we think, understand more than we do,
and who, as we believe, foresee the future, and whenever something happens and
a situation becomes dangerous, are able to find a way out of it and
make a timely decision; for people consider this useful and true foresight. On the other
hand, we feel confidence in just and faithful people, that is, in honest men
, provided that they do not arouse our suspicions about their tendency to
deceive or to be illegal. That is why we think that it is quite correct to entrust them
with our welfare, wealth, and children. Of these two qualities, justice is the most powerful in
gaining confidence, since it is quite convincing even without foresight
; foresight without justice is powerless in this respect. For the more
cunning and cunning a man is, the more hatred and suspicion he
incurs after he is no longer considered a [Link] kernel. For this reason
, justice combined with discernment will have
as much power to gain confidence as it wants; justice without foresight will be very
powerful; without justice, foresight is powerless." (Cicero. On
duties / / Cicero. About old age. About friendship. On duties, Moscow, 1975). Trust
is a more optimal type of behavior than distrust, closeness,
or suspicion. After all, in this case, the person is in a calm state, and not
exposed to stress. We have again returned to the concept of justice and its variant-
caring and attention to others.
In modern state institutions, this kind of work is carried
out by PR professionals. In the United States, 40,000 people worked at various levels
of the management pyramid in 1992 . In Washington alone
, 11,000 people are employed by various federal agencies. This number of
employees reflects a large amount of communication coming from government
agencies. The basis of democracy is information, the inclusion of each individual
citizen in the life of the state. If earlier the CIS countries were characterized by
one-way communication, today we are striving for new communication chains, where the
role of the population becomes equally significant. The "Bible" of American PR
specialists defines the following tasks in this area:
1. Informing citizens about the activities of state structures.
2. Ensuring active participation of citizens in government programs (such
as voting), as well as supporting regulatory programs (such as using
seat belts, fighting smoking, etc.).
3. Encourage citizens to support policies and programs (such
as social assistance).
As you can see, all three programs are quite suitable for our conditions. Go [Link]
we should also add a fourth task: creating a favorable image of state
structures. So, the image of the FBI was formed by a specific person-journalist
Courtney Cooper, to whom Edgar Hoover opened the archives of his "firm".
As a result, Courtney Cooper has written 3 books, 4 screenplays, and many short
stories. All of this served the same purpose: to portray the FBI as an uncorrupted,
brave, and professional force. Hollywood was also actively involved in this campaign.
The FBI also sponsored the creation of radio series and even comics about
themselves. Ian Fleming and John Le Carre created the image of British intelligence.
Special services are generally interesting for creating an image, since their
closed nature allows you to fit any characteristics into their image. After all, we are
we do not have our own experience of communicating with them, so.
all we know is the result obtained through someone else's texts.

Let's remember how the first persons perform. They are always surrounded by symbols
of the power of a given state (flag, coat of arms, etc.). Politicians speak against the
background of slogans of their party and their huge portraits. For a TV screen, it is not
words that matter, but people, not thoughts, but pictures. Knowing this, all major
companies like Coca-Cola and Shell are constantly upgrading their visual symbols to
better meet the demands of the times. Image makers have applied their efforts to
everything that surrounds us , and their work is present even where, as it seems to us,
it does not exist. The Beatles were created by image-maker Brian Epstein, who pulled
these musicians out of performing in Hamburg's red quarter, turning them into
non-smokers and non-drinkers adored by parents and teenagers. The well-known
image of Boris Yeltsin was also deliberately created. When they see how tight and
tense he is, his image makers provide him with a wheeled chair for his TV appearancesand
to give it a more lively look. Boris Yeltsin's texts, facial expressions, and gestures are
carefully verified by experts. Standing on the tank, Yeltsin was fixed in the mind as a
brave leader. Bravery - an important feature that is often used by Western
leaders, but we practically do not know it. Even Chernobyl did not bring
interesting results in this regard. At the same time, members of the royal family can visit
the colony of leprosy patients, they can visit an AIDS patient, which causes
additional respect for them.
Scientific and practical interest in PR arises when the state reaches
a certain stage of its economic development. Nobel Prize
winner John Galbraith wrote that it is easy for rulers to control the rural
population, whose heavy physical labor does not allow them to raise
their heads. When the population shifts to cities, it has a new need -
be heard. If we look at PR from this point of view, we can see that
this is working with a different public than the one we are used to. This
is the public that has the right to vote, so in principle there is no way
not to inform it. It will immediately backfire on you. We still continue
to live according to the laws of totalitarian communication, when the people have only
the right to publicly approve the decision made for them. In general, the lack of trust in
government structures can be attributed to the most important problems of the period of
independence. For many reasons, the population does not feel that the entire vertical of
power is psychologically legitimate. That is why stories about dachas, apartments, cars,
etc. pop up on the pages of newspapers. This corresponds to the opinion of people that
the power structures continue to live comfortably,and this is considered to be the most
important [Link] as a violation of the rules of "tightened belts" for everyone.
Cicero defined his idea of PR for power structures in this way:
"To preserve and retain power, the most appropriate of all means is to be
loved, the most incongruous is to inspire fear towards oneself. <...> After all, no
one's power can resist the hatred of many people. <...> After all, fear is a bad guardian
for a long time; on the contrary, benevolence is a faithful guardian and always"
(Cicero. On duties / / Cicero. About old age. About friendship. On duties, Moscow,
1975, p. 105).
The PR adviser to the Hungarian Prime not concerned with what
Minister once said: "I'm
to say, but how to do it.". David Gergen, known for creating
presidential images of Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and
Ronald Reagan, invited to the White House and to work with Clinton, emphasizes
The focus is on the same thing: we need to "package" the president's proposal in such
a way that it will impress both the press and the people. But there is also a downside to
this coin: as experts complain, politicians are starting to think more about
their symbolic content rather than their actual actions, and what exactly they will mean
in a symbolic world. Speaking to students of Kiev University, one of
the vice-presidents of an American PR company
named a change in the image of the Colombian government in the eyes of Americans
as one of his orders. Having linked this government in public opinion with the drug
mafia, the Americans stopped helping it. The Colombians responded by instructing the
PR company to implement a counter-task, and as a result, the aid was resumed.
In our country, there are also some problems associated with negative
perceptions of government structures, which they are trying to remove. So, Boris
Nemtsov, in an interview with Nezavisimaya Gazeta (1998, February 25), says about
the lists of Russian "oligarchs": "I still do not include our head of state in any
such lists. He is a pure and unblemished man. What happens around him is
another story." He also revealed the story of the transfer of the president to ZIL ,which
happened after Boris Yeltsin signed a decree on the automotive
industry. When asked by a reporter if the president had [Link] there a ready
-made"ZIL" on the move, Boris Nemtsov, relying on the" tsarist image " of the
president, said: "This is not a royal matter. You can't let the president do something by
asking whether there is food or not. He gave the command: I'll drive a ZIL. And he left
the Kremlin in a ZIL . That's the whole story. Nemtsov did not commit any provocations
against the all-powerful Russian bureaucracy in the office of the president." By the
way, the operation to transfer Russian officials to their native foreign cars was beautiful
from the point of view of PR, but failed, because it did not rely on the point of view of officia
in any way. FBI Director Edgar Hoover himself actively led the creation of the image of
his organization. From the experience of his relations with the press, he made two
significant conclusions. First, it is the press that can bring
a new hero to the podium from any incident, so the FBI chief made sure that he was
credited with conducting any important operation. And secondly, the press bases its
conclusions and comments on the interpretation given to it by the first
high-ranking official, so he was always the first to meet with journalists when
an important incident occurred. By changing
the external characteristics, we can bring the politician closer to the population.
In the UK, the first large-scale experience of this kind was the work of a whole
team of image makers.b with Prime Minister Edward Heath. The audience
rated him as unpopular, pompous and cold, having an unattractive
image on the TV screen. The leader of his team, Jeffrey Tucker, formulated his task
as follows:: "I wanted the audience to think of him as Ted Heath, not
Mr. Edward Heath.". We started working with the voice of the prime minister, who
normally had a rather pleasant voice, but in public he spoke stiffly and
boringly. They secretly recorded him in an informal setting and tried
to teach him to speak in front of the camera in this pleasant and relaxed voice. He
was actively taught to answer aggressive questions from interviewers: one of the team
members modeled the actions of the journalist, and the other analyzed the mistakes
of the prime minister. To change his image as a closed bachelor, the group invited
a young woman to shoot his sailing trips. But then the case was spoiled by the
"mariner" himself, who told reporters that it was just a servant. They also failed
to take advantage of" going public", because Edward Heath could not get out of the
role of" inspector", asking people if anyone has any complaints. The result, by the way,
was still a loss in the election, but it was more likely due to shortcomings
the party's platform. But taking into account other people's experience should be the rule
for a good image maker, which is why we mention this attempt.
A special feature of the work of government PRS is the need to reach the entire
population, and not a separate segment of it, as is the case
with advertising campaigns. Today, in the CIS countries, there is also a "public apathy"
towards elections, which was previously more characteristic of the West. 50%
of Americans voted in 1986, only 36% in 1988, and the maximum number -55
% - in 1992. The population's participation in the elections is always in question. And
this is also the task of PR specialists, which is to ask the mass
consciousness the importance of going to the polls, to create the significance of each
individual vote. A very important characteristic is the accessibility of the government to
the mass media. During the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon was quite hostile to the
press. But Watergate has created a model of behavior for future generations of reporters
who dream about their hour. In turn, government agencies believe that in order to
work effectively, they, like any other organization, need to maintain
a certain level of secrecy. The "Bible" of American PR specialists notes
the fundamental impossibility on the part of journalists to cover all the activities
of government agencies. On the one hand, there are not so many journalists to
describe everything and at all levels, there are much more events taking place. On the
other hand, journalists have their own news criteria that require them to select
negative, controversial, sensational events in government agencies. But in any
case, the government needs to get used to living in an aquarium that is on public
display. And the ancient Roman historian Gaius Sallust Crispus wrote about this: "But,
gentlemen senators, not everyone has equal freedom of action. If someone, spending
his life in the darkness of obscurity, makes a mistake in the heat of the moment, very
few people will know about it: rumor about such people is as insignificant as their
position. But if someone is endowed with high power and occupies a prominent place, their
deeds are known to the whole world. It turns out that with the most brilliant position, freedom
is opened the least. Neither addiction nor hatred can be unleashed, least of all, anger.
What others call impetuosity, those in power will be considered arrogance and cruelty"
(Historians of Rome, Moscow, 1969 , pp. 59-60).
Plutarch repeats Plato's very important point: "Blissful and happy is the
state where 'mine' and 'not mine' are considered the worst words and all the zeal
that citizens have is used for the common cause" (Plutarch. Guidance to spouses //
Plutarch. Essays, Moscow, 1983, p. 351). And this is the main goal for a specialist in
the field of public procurement. On the other hand, it is quite difficult to work when
a statesman allows himself to "deviate" from the correct behavior.
Boris Yeltsin gives a lot of such examples. A typical episode is a joint
press conference with the US president in America. US Ambassador to Russia Thomas
Pickering gave the following answer to the question "Why did Clinton laugh so
contagiously?": "Our president, the ambassador explained, has a great sense of humor,
which is one of the best qualities of people moving in public circles. And it was not
only the words of the Russian President that made him laugh, but also his facial
expressions and gestures towards the American mass media. B. Yeltsin acted wisely,
and this was appreciated" (Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 1995, October 27).And here are the
opinions expressed on the same subject in one of the issues of Komsomolskaya Pravda
by two of its journalists. "The President of the United States showed an amazing
tactlessness: at a joint 40-minute press conference with the President of the Russian
Federation, he laughed ( according to information agencies) for only 36 [Link],
khokhotun made it clear that for 39 minutes and 24 seconds he defiantly did not listen to
the head of a great power! "
And here is an ironic opinion on the same topic by Vladimir Mamontov, editor-
in-chief of the Friday issue of Komsomolka, in Kolhe told the editor: "Among the personnel changes
that the top leaders are concerned about, there is no one that is overdue. We remove acting
prosecutors, we carry foreign ministers with a good mine around the battery, but we have
overlooked the enemy. Shame on you, Mr. Korzhakov! I mean the image maker (the one who is
responsible for the appearance and behavior ) of the president. That's who's ruining everything! After
all, it was he who advised the head to wear puffiness of the face to a single-breasted suit, and
haven't worn it for so long! And the ambiguity of speech? From what Brezhnev storerooms are
difficult-to-pronounce consonants and dissenting thoughts? Is Reagan's style of joking
inappropriate? It cannot be explained otherwise than by the corrupting influence of the West. A
malicious image-maker whispered to the president that stenographers should be tickled when
passing through the hall, like a gentleman-maids. He, the damned one, taught the tsar-father to roar
like a bear in the middle of a TV interview. Only at first glance , conducting an orchestra, sleepi
Shannon, and ripping out the microphone in America seem to be manifestations of the rough but
broad Russian nature. At second glance, this is Asian. Well, at least Clinton cares about the preside
, pulls on the sleeve, slaps on the shoulder-condescending, gray-haired, young, generously forgives,
understands, wiping tears through laughter - and millions of ordinary Americans
feel the [Link] millions of ordinary Russians feel ashamed of
the image-maker" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1995, October 27).
Since the Nixon presidency, the Communications Service (which is exactly
what the PR service is called there, so as not to annoy voters with commercial associations)
The White House is busy controlling the "agenda", i.e. those issues that
people and the press will discuss in the country. Nixon said that the success of the presidency
depends on the ability to control the press, but there is no way to show this explicitly to the pr
At the same time, the press secretary can sometimes check the public's reaction to a particular
future real or verbal action of the first person, since his speech
allows you to then abandon it if the development of events does not go according to the
scenario that was planned. This role is somewhat analogous
to that of a medieval royal jester. As Parkinson writes: "It was the fool who was given
the privilege and duty to give out a different point of view from the official one, but also
not similar to the point of view of the disgraced group. The king's jester
was at least as smart as other officials - that was the tradition. No
one asked me to take his advice seriously, but it was considered bad form
to take offense at him. After all, he was paid for that, so that he would let the hairpins and t
place" (Parkinson's S. N. Parkinson's Laws, Moscow, 1989, P. 188).
The leader of the state simultaneously carries both his own symbolization and the symbolization
of his environment. Hence the attention of leaders to positive personalities in the eyes of the
audience. For example, the White House actively organizes concerts, inviting
many celebrities to it. Or an example like this: "When the guest list
for President Clinton's swearing-in ceremony was compiled,
Barbra [Barbra Streisand] was in one of the first places. Washington needs
Hollywood to give black-suited politics a little sparkle" ("Elle",
reprint. in "All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1996, June 28). A natural element of such
an environment is the leader's wife, who receives no less of the
public's attention. This is often a very heavy burden. As Naina Yeltsina answers, for example, to the
question "is she burdened by the role of "first lady"?": "Of course, it is both burdensome and
embarrassing, and there are certainly inconveniences. To be honest, Sometimes I'd be better off
alone... But this is an integral part of my life" (Trud, 1996, June 28).
Norcot Parkinson writes in the image of a leader such characteristics as knowledge,
foresight, the ability to lead others ("when a person goes beyond
he needs the ability to use his own abilities and organize the work of others - for example,
conducting an orchestra or becoming the captain of a football team - he needs the ability. His
personal skill (which should be outstanding) fades into the background, here
the ability to lead others is more important) " - "Literary Review", 1989, No. 3, p. 95). T
list of qualities also includes determination, ruthlessness and attractiveness. "Experience
shows that a true leader knows no pity for the slackers, idlers and
those who do not support the cause... Without the element of fear, there is no power, the leader
must be surrounded by a halo of fear. There are leaders who are adored and admired, but
this does not mean that they are not ruthless. When no one doubts their authority
, the need to inspire fear is not so strong, but, as a rule, in their
previous career, ruthlessness played an important role" (In the same placeAn
ideal example of the latter characteristic is the figure of Alexander Lebed,
whose approach to himself saved the election of Boris Yeltsin. Recall that
the image of Yuri Andropov was perceived in the same way.
N. Parkinson also demonstrates certain models of leadership behavior designed
to attract attention to him: "the leader should be a magnet; the central figure to
which all others are attracted. Magnetism in this sense depends primarily on
the frequency of public appearances. There is... the type of power that can be exercised behind
closed doors, but it is not leadership. In the active zone, the true leader
is always in the foreground, it seems, that it is everywhere at the same time. He
becomes a legend; jokes are told about him, true or false-it doesn't
matter; he is a person" (In the same place). N. Parkinson considers. that failure to appear at an
where you are expected,or, conversely, appearing where you should not have been, causes
conversations and interest in the person of the leader. The leader's communication policy is also desig
to "earn points" again. "The leader always combines this gift of arousing curiosity about
his own person with a reluctance to talk about himself. He is clearly interested in others: he asks
people questions, encourages them to talk, remembers things. what he thinks is important. he
never leaves a meeting until he mentally fills out a mini-dossier for each person present-he will
help at the next meeting. It's not that he's too interested in other people's affairs, but he prefers
not to talk,but to listen." ( In the same placeIt should be added that a good politician should be
to others, in which case they will be perceived as a more likable person.
The population has a fairly clear idea of the top officials. The Socis-
Gellap poll prioritized the following characteristics: presidents should be
resolute-39% believe, cautious-37%, important-23%, rich-27%
(Kievskiye Vedomosti, 1998, July 17). But twice as many respondents wanted
to see their president simple and poor. 68% believe that the president's wife
should be gray and modest. Perhaps this is the result of memories of the rejection
of the behavior of R. Gorbachev, who just violated all these parameters.
Not only the first person of the state needs to form its image, this work is
necessary for any state official. Very often the negative image that is formed is simply due to the
lack of information about such work, or with the submission of this information according to the
standard kaonanms of informing the population that have been established since Soviet times
. But the citizens of the country have become different, so they require a
different type of conversation with themselves. On the one hand, they have become stronger and
more independent, which removes the possibility of administrative "pushing"
the necessary information for government agencies. On the other hand, the level of interest in
politics, which may have been artificially maintained in the Soviet era, has fallen. All
this creates serious difficulties in the field of conversation with the population. But it is still being
conducted. As an example, we will cite the work of the press center of the regional administration
of Yekaterinburg on purposeful formation of the image of the governor: "In THE MEDIA
the volume of information materials about the governor's activities is growing.
There are regular headings in the newspapers, and regular
programs are broadcast on regional television with his participation in discussing the most
pressing problems of the region. The submission of information about the governor's actions
highlights his aspirations and abilities to solve the problem. One of the last large-scale PR
actions of the governor can be called the project of revival of the historical, cultural and
religious center of the Urals-Verkhoturye. Going back to the origins of national culture and
recreating the historical relics of the nation has always been a win-win card for any politician
." - 1997. - No. 10. - p. 9). Perhaps someone may be offended by the excessive
"scale" of this work. But these are just the first steps, and then the "black hromadas"
can become quite ordinary, but an important process of communication between the
population and the authorities, in the absence of which the rejection of the population from
power increases. political cynicism. "The retinue
plays the king." - this rather ancient saying has not lost its validity. livosti and today. "These
faces are not marked with the seal of wisdom," Khoja Nasreddin said in the film of the same
name about the Emir of Bukhara's entourage. "These individuals are not marked with the
seal of integrity," he added. The reaction of the population to the authorities is also
determined by the reaction to the figures surrounding the top officials. The problem is also
the role of the environment in who is allowed/who is not allowed to see the first person. The
same applies to information that goes up. Let us recall the role of Vladimir Boldin under
Mikhail Gorbachev. Komsomolskaya Pravda (1998, May 6) gave an example of such "work"
on the part of V. Borman. So, in order to cut off the famous photographer Hoffmann (who, by
the way, introduced the Fuhrer to Eva Braun) from contacts with Hitler, V. Bormann casually
noticed that he looked bad and advised him to undergo an examination. And then he
declared him a carrier of the causative agent of paratyphoid in a particularly dangerous form.
As a result, Hoffmann was pushed away from the Fuhrer, and Bormann could control
the necessary communications himself. We conclude
our discussion with the words of Cicero: "It is quite appropriate to talk about the duties
of magistrates, private individuals, citizens and foreigners. Thus, it is the direct duty of the
magistrate to understand that he represents the city community and must maintain its dignity
and honor, observe the laws, determine the rights and remember that they are entrusted
to his loyalty. And a private citizen should live among his fellow citizens on the basis
of a just and equal right for all, not be belittled and sad, nor
arrogant, but in public affairs desire everything that is calm and
morally beautiful. It is this kind of person that we usually consider and
call an honest citizen. As for the foreigner and the settler, their duty is
to attend only to their own affairs, not to interfere in others', and least of all to be interested in
their own affairs.I live in a foreign country. Such, in general terms, will be the responsibilities
if we are asked what exactly is appropriate and what is appropriate for individuals,
circumstances and ages." (Cicero edict op. - p. 90).

§2 . PR for business

Some areas of business (for example, the activities of trust companies) are generally
impossible without working with the public. The implementation of certain new
economic transformations for the population, such as privatization, is also based on
working with public opinion. But in general, the image of business today is far from
positively assessed by the population, and this is also an area of possible work for public
relations specialists. For example, at the unification conference of Kiev entrepreneurs , the
following words were heard: "in the eyes of the public, the image of a
businessman-entrepreneur is not always, to put it mildly, positive. The prevailing stereotype of the previous
decades, ably supported by the current "left" agitation, is a very serious one.
entrepreneur inevitably as a speculator, businessman, exploiter" ("Kievskiye Vedomosti",
1997, March 27). This gave rise to the task of creating a positive image of
the entrepreneur along with broad charity events. By the way, the first nationwide
PR organization in the United States originated in Chicago in 1915, when seven
bankers founded the Financial Advertising Association, because during the First
World War, PR was seen as a high-level advertising field (Cutlip S.M. a.o. Effective
public relations. - Englewood Cliffs, 1994. - P. 115). And today, many decades later
, it is financial institutions that are leading in terms of activity and the amount of
investments. The sum of basic tasks that are solved for any organization is quite
transparent. So, A. Kondratiev, Head of the Public Relations Department of
the investment company "RINACO Plus", defines the next set for working in
the investment space ("Expert Advisor". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 13):
1. Creating the image of a professional in the securities market.
2. Positioning the company in the financial services market (finding your niche).
3. Attracting attention to all aspects of the company's activities.
4. Support high standards of service and customer awareness.
As a result, working in these areas should create an understanding among clients
that they are looking at a highly professional structure that can be trusted with their
funds. The expectation of professionalism guarantees the return on investment.
The public relations service should always be ready to provide information
to these types of audiences (Barquero Cabrero H. D. public relations in the world
of finance, Moscow, 1996, p. 68):
1. To society as a whole (through mass media).
2. To the company's shareholders, investors, securities brokers, and financial
analysts.
3. Distributors of the company's products, banks.
4. Employees of the company who work there recently.
5. State Administration.
The task of this service is also to create a corporate image of the enterprise. It is
necessary to achieve a unified understanding and presentation at each level. This
also includes the image of the first persons that society should believe. Only in this
case can the business be successful. The
image of political and business leaders is a much more serious issue than it seems
at first glance. In reality, this is a reflection of attention to your constituents, your
audience, and your customers. A person whose image does not meet expectations
cannot expect to have a long career either in politics or in business. One of
the Australian PR specialists told me that his ward was not able to do UDErzhanov
was not allowed to speak in parliament because he spoke through his nose, and
the voters felt that he looked down on them. The American experience
shows even more significant consequences of such inconsistencies.
A person wants to feel an element of personal control over events, which
is expressed in increasing attention to him and his opinion. In the absence of such
attention, a person is more likely to engage in collective protests, strikes, and other
forms of violence. And the image of a particular
businessman becomes a specific economic value. So, in an article devoted
to the collapse of Dovgan's structures (Vlast, 1998, No. 15), it is nevertheless
concluded that its promoted face is still worth 10-15 million dollars. The same ones
words can be said about the image of the business structure. The Expert
magazine (1998, No. 16) gave a number of ratings of companies. The very wording
of each of these groups reflects a component of the company's reputation.
Here is the name of the rating along with the structure that came in first place.

Ability to gain support in the business community

Moscow Railway
in an unstable situation
Attractiveness of the company as a place of work for
a specialist RAO Gazprom
Confectionery Factory
Having a clearly recognizable image
Krasny Oktyabr
Availability of highly qualified personnel in the company Confectionery Factory
guidelines Krasny Oktyabr
Distillery
Ability to set the tone, be a leader in your industry
"Crystal "

Confectionery factory
Success in conquering the Russian market
"Red October "

Attractiveness for investment RAO Gazprom

Success in conquering the foreign market RAO Gazprom

If the reputation consists of these components, then sympathies,

according to the authors of the magazine, are emotional
and tasteful. Sim RatingThe rating range from 1 (very
unfavorable opinion of the company) to 5 (very favorable) is as
follows : Twenty of the most attractive companies

Baltika Brewery 4,42

Kristall Distillery Krasny Oktyabr 4,40

Confectionery Factory 4,34

Kempinski Baltschug Hotel 4,09

Lianozovsky Dairy Plant 4,06

Babayev Confectionery Factory 4,02

RAO Gazprom 3,96

Rot Front Confectionery Factory 3,94

Inkombank 3,91

Pivzavod Tver 3,91

"Moscow cellular communication " 3,88

Lukoil Oil Company 3,86

Radisson Slavyanskaya Hotel 3,84

Menatep 3,83

Hotel "Metropol " 3,83

"Mobile telesystems" 3,83

Ochakovsky Brewery 3,83

Sberbank of the Russian Federation3.82

Cherkizovsky Meat Processing Plant 3.81
Savoy Hotel 3,75
The priority in this list of manufacturers of "delicious goods"is clear. However
, banks also took their place in it.
Image is not only and not so much a means to win attention, but rather a way
to respond to the requirements of your audience. She wants to perceive this
person as such, and not otherwise. And what's wrong if PR forces a person to be
smart, charming, and trustworthy?
Western experience also suggests that the higher the position that a firm claims,
the more significant its position in mass communication should be. After
all, we get most of our knowledge through communication, and not through direct
experience. I haven't been to Australia, for example, but I can quite imagine it,
thanks to the mass media. Thus,
the image of a person or organization is formed as if in two main directions. On the
one hand, it will be compliance with the requirements of the mass communication
channel. We talked about this above when the flow of visual information
that is characteristic of TV, it brought to the first place the leaders of consumption
who most actively use the audiovisual stream, pushing all the others aside. In line
with this direction - the manner of dressing, talking, haircut, look, posture, gestures,
facial expressions. All this will give, as we remember, 69% of the information that not
duplicated in words. It is based on this information that a person draws his main
conclusions, since it is known that the assessment of the interlocutor is formed
already in the first fifteen seconds. The second direction in image formation is those
characteristics that the audience considers important: trust, authority, and
professionalism. In each individual case, these characteristics may differ, but a
significant amount of them will coincide. Changing the image of Helmut Kohl, PR
specialists calmed down only when opinion polls showed: now the Germans believe
that Kohl can buy a used car. And this is the highest level of trust for Germany!
It is precisely for self-confidence that a Western politician fights. A businessman
should also strive for this. Let's recall how much weight the merchant's word once
had in the trading environment. Within the Western context, there is a clear maxim:
it is profitable to be honest! Sooner or later, the fraud is revealed, and the company will
suffer much greater losses than the temporary gain that it received.
A. Silantyev of Ansdell Russia says: "The brand's reputation is not so much
about advertising inserts, but rather the quality of the company's work, its image,
and stable traditions of attentive and respectful attitude to consumers"("Adviser").
- 1997. - No. 10. - p. 15). In practice, this is a transfer to the organization
of our types of assessments, which we work on simply with people. OnWe
need a predictable partner that we can trust, and these are the qualities
that consumers expect from the company they are contacting through their product.
In this regard, we can interpret a brand as communication message (by the way, with
certain restrictions in this regard, we can also consider the product itself
as a communicative message, but a material plan). We respond to the
label yogurt or kefir only at the first stage, so we are interested in matching
"words and deeds".
Typical PR goals largely coincide with business goals. This is how PR Frank Jefkins
sees the goals, and all of them are interesting for business (Jefkins F. Public relations. -
London, 1992. - P. 48-49):
1. Changing the company's image due to its new activities.
2. Improving the quality of people looking for work in the company.
3. Talk about little-known facts from the company's life and gain trust for
future development.
4. Making the company known in new markets.
5. Preparation of the market for a new issue of shares, privatization, and
nationalization of the company.
6. Improving public relations after public criticism based on
a lack of understanding of the company's goals.
7. Informing users and customers about the new product.
8. Restoring a positive attitude towards the company after the crisis,
which demonstrated a certain inefficiency of the company. 9.
Strengthening the company in terms of risk and buying it from the outside.
10. Establishing a new image of corporate identity. 11. Making
known the participation of the company's top executives in public life
12. Support for sponsorship initiatives. 13.
Informing politicians about the company's activities. 14. Informing about the
company's research activities. As the last point, you should add a change in
the image of a businessman. All countries periodically struggle with this, and
we are no exception here. The 60s and 70s in the US were also bad for
business. It turned out to be a time of revelations of government corruption,
the Watergate crisis, and general disillusionment after the Vietnam War.
According to a public opinion poll in 1972, 60% of Americans expressed a
low level of respect for business. Another study from the same time showed
that almost half of the cases of business reflection in the mass media
were related to showing its illegal activities, and two-thirds
of business leaders in television entertainment programs were shown as
greedy, limited, doing business in a criminal way (Cutlip S.M. a.o. Effective
public relations. - Englewood Cliffs, 1994. - P. 440).
PR, as we know, is characterized by indirect methods of exposure. This is not an
advertisement. Although today's newspapers, indicating that this is a press release,
publish essentially on advertising grounds materials about business. Take, for
example, Komsomolskaya Pravda (1997, March 29), which publishes an interview with
the president of Bashprombank, Ilyus Timerkhanov, under the well-conceived headline
" I am completely indifferent to money." Questions and answers are aimed at informing
readers about the power of this bank. However, often the interviewer himself tells what
the banker should have said. For example: "In 1996, Bashprombank was accredited
by the World Bank for Reconstruction and Development to participate in
the Financial institutions development program in Russia. Why did the RRDB choose
your bank?" There are also "fascinating" stories in interviews from the point of view of
the general reader. For example: "The young daughter of one of our high-ranking
employees, whose signature can "pull" hundreds of millions, suddenly meets a couple
of cute guys. What is it?walks, walks, picnics... A busy dad is still in the dark
about what kind of trouble his child, himself and all of us were saved from by the
security service of our bank - why to injure a person. And the attackers 'plan was
to" put their daughter on the needle " and then blackmail her father, force him to act in
his own interests." In parallel, we are talking about a new bank building, the
construction of which cost 170 billion rubles, which is illustrated by a photo in the
newspaper. By the way, the text provides information that "justifies" such costs. "Back
in the summer, when the construction was just nearing completion, a delegation
from Japan came to one of our clients to negotiate a loan for our production
needs. Bashprombank was offered as a bank accompanying the loan, and the
Japanese, hearing about this for the first time, asked for a time-out of several days.
days - make inquiries. But after an hour of the same day, during the tour, they
asked the guide what kind of nice building is being built in the city center... they
immediately dropped all their questions. they said yes to us just by looking at our
unfinished office!" As you can see, this is another informal fact in this press
release, which is naturally well remembered, but which is difficult
to imagine in the bank's annual report. Its place is right here when going out to the
general public. Here is another
press release from Pepsi-Cola awarding a Russian factory " (Komsomolskaya
Pravda, 1997, March 26), which is fueled by the award to a Russian factory.
The beginning of the press release reveals the global nature of Pepsi-Cola's plans:
"The history of Pepsi-Cola in Russia began in 1974, when Pepsi-Cola became
the first Western drink to appear on the territory of the USSR. Last year, the
company announcedand about their investment plans in Russia up to 2000 in the
amount of more than 500 million US dollars." At the same time, the company
unmistakably activates in our memory that period of surprise caused by the
appearance of those first unusual bottles.
A frequent task of the PR specialist is to generate exactly the types of news that
the press may be interested in. And, as a rule, in this case , the company itself, the
identity of the businessman will be viewed only indirectly. The scientist received
a medal for research, but this is indirect information about the company where he
works. Charity work - the company is back in the orbit of readers ' attention
. Moreover, there are clear examples of firms ' reorientation. So, when
television advertising of tobacco products was banned in the West, cigarette
manufacturers immediately began to invest in charity events, sports competitions,
and education. That is, almost the same communicative result was achieved when
working on a different channel. As you can see, again the channel requirements
dictate the choice of the most effective message form. An interesting example of
PR-work in the tourism business was given by a representative of the British firm
J. R. R. Tolkien. Thomas (Adviser, 1997, No. 12, p. 15): "As part of the campaign
of our client, the Jamaica Tourism Board, we agreed with the BBC program
Antique Tours (to which anyone can bring old things) to shoot a story in Jamaica.
Since Jamaica was once part of the British Empire, there were naturally some
great examples of old furniture, paintings, [Link] the island, and of course this
hour-long program included views of the island and its inhabitants. The day after
the telecast, the Tourist Board office was literally besieged with people wanting to
learn about holiday opportunities in Jamaica, and over the next few months there
was a significant increase in bookings." Here, it is the indirect way of influence
that is essential, since direct appeals such as "Vacation in Jamaica is everyone's
dream" no longer work, since they are the most common. And the second
notable point is that an ongoing "operation"was conceived and implemented,
which was not limited to just an advertising message. In the process
of implementing this complex communication product, an
increasing number of people were involved in the topic.
A specialist in PR in business,as American researchers openly admit,
is designed to create an environment in which owners and investors will
be satisfied with the return on invested capital. We see that no one here
disguises their true goals as pseudo-benevolent intentions. Another thing is that
this goal can only be achieved by keeping
the client's interests as much as possible.
The PR industry in business in the United States went through a difficult time for business
in the 60s and 70s, when society began to look down on business. Something similar
happening in our country today, when the word "merchant" causes only negative
associations among the population. Having passed this difficult period, firms today
conduct their business according to the PR models of American presidents, for whom it is
not the content of future projects that is fundamentally important, but what impression
they will make on the public. We said earlier that a change in such trends was outlined b
in the 50s, when it was established that you can be as smart as you want, but you
become significant for society only when you manage to present yourself to the
appropriate obrazom. The traditional sphere of PR in business has become charity. Its main
application is to support educational programs, but today this is not
typical for Ukraine.
Interestingly, these problems were already well known in antiquity; Cicero
speaks of charity and generosity: "After all, in relation to the needy , one
does good either with deeds or with money. The second method is easier, especially for
a wealthy man, but the first is more beautiful, more brilliant, and more
worthy of a brave and illustrious husband. Although both of them have a noble desire
to render a service, but we get money out of the chest, and deeds are connected with o
valor. < ... > Those who are charitable and generous with their deeds, that is
, valor and activity, in the first place, will have the greater number
of helpers in good deeds, the more he will benefit a large number of people;
secondly, by his habit of doing good, he will become more prepared and,so to speak,
more experienced in doing good services to many people" (Cicero. On duties / / Cicero.
About old age. About friendship. On duties, Moscow, 1975, pp. 113-114). It divides
who tend to give away into the spendthrift and the generous. The first ones are spent on
"everything that they will leave a short or no memory of" (In the same place. - P. 114
Generous - they buy prisoners from sea pirates, take on the debts of friends, and so on.
There are also modern statements, for example, by Nikita Mikhalkov, who defends
modern business in this regard: "how do you know what Savva Morozov or
Ryabushinsky thought about when he gave money for the theater? Maybe they also
"laundered" dirty money. This is now. over time, they acquired a museum touch. And
there is an image of a businessman-celestial: there is nowhere for him to put money-here
you are, Chaliapin, sing and drink. I think they had their own interests besides art. But
that's not important to me right now. It doesn't matter how the Tretyakov Gallery and
Abramtsevo were created. We can't say that there used to be angels, but today there are
businessmen... Give-thank you, for a good deed - thank God " ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti",
1996, July 2). A PR specialist, according to the authors of the American" bible " of
should be able to: - create relevant events in order to make a decisive contribution to
them; - support charity campaigns, be able to prepare printed and
audiovisual materials for them;
- lead campaigns, projects, and be able to replace senior officials at
ceremonies;
- monitor various public goals to determine the possible contribution
of the corporation;
- assist in managing, but not managing, social movements in placing
the corporation's contribution.
A separate area of PR has become corporate financial relations. Their complexity lies in
the fact that, as it was discovered, an individual investor cannot control
the fixed capital. This option is available only for large funds (investment funds).,
The difficult situation required concrete results from entrepreneurs who
began to perform the following tasks in the financial field: - determining the
attitude of depositors, financial analysts, government officials and legislators
towards the company; - recommendation of a communication strategy that takes into
account common goals; - assistance in creating text products (letters to
contributors, interim and annual reports, etc.);
- reaching agreements on meetings, preparing information materials
for meetings and presentations;
- writing financial press releases, responding to requests from financial
publications. "Financial Ukraine "(1995, 24 Oct.) cited the most popular topics
in banking advertising in Ukraine. In the first quarter of 1995, banks most
often reported: about services-20.14%, about shares-certificates-9.72%,
about image-9.72%, about mutual settlements-9.03 %, about money
transfer-9.03%, about deposit-7.64%, about working with currency-7.64%,
about loans-4.86% , congratulations - 4.17% , etc. One of the most important
characteristics for a bank is stability, so we see that banks very often turn to
either historical topics in image advertising , as if stretching their roots far into
the past, or set a sense of stability with maximum wealth in the present day.
We always see business problems in working with potential or real
clients. But business has not only external communication tasks, but also
internal ones. Among such internal tasks, American researchers identify
the following:
- creating an atmosphere of trust between the employer and the employee;
- organization of the flow of sincere information, which should develop freely
both vertically and horizontally; - ensuring
satisfaction with their status and participation in the common cause for
each employee;
- ensuring work without conflicts;
- creating a healthy environment;
- achieving success for the company;
- maintaining optimism about the future.
Such harmonious relations can be maintained, in particular, with the help
of magazines published by a particular company. For example, AT&T sends
its own magazine to each of its 250,000 employees ' families every month.
PR specialists see the goals of such journals as the following:
- inform employees about the goals and orientation of the business; - provide
information that employees need to work effectively; - help employees
improve their work, improving its efficiency; - recognize the achievements
and achievements of employees. Oral communication is similarly designed
to work. It is especially important because it helps to make management's
participation more personal, demonstrates the organization's openness,
and allows for a dialogue between the manager and staff. Meetings,
especially annual ones, require very serious preparation on the part of
PR employees.
A good image is paid for like the real thing, especially in business. So,
when buying the Swiss company Nestle, 2.55 billion pounds were paid
, of which only a fifth was the cost of real physical
objects. Everything else is the value of
the company's trademark images. Similarly, Philip Morris paid US $ 12.9
million to buy Kraft, and only one-quarter of the amount was spent on
material assets.
Lobbying it is a new branch of PR for us, but it is quite developed in the
Western world . Russia already held a conference in early 1995 to discuss
the draft law "On regulating lobbying activities in Federal government
Bodies". Both Sergei Filatov, the head of the presidential administration,
and Arkady Volsky, named in the press, took part in it. "patriarch
of Russian lobbying" (Moscow News, 1995, No. 11). In the West , lobbying
represents influencing the implementation of laws and legislative practices,
primarily through communication - through the provision of information.
And since this work has gradually evolved into a certain professional
branch, it has become subject to the procedures outlined in the laws. In the
United States, for example, in accordance with the 1946 law , this kind of
figure is engaged in:They also require registration and quarterly information
about their sources of income. Lobbyists try to support their pressure
with various kinds of demonstrations and campaigns in the press. And all
this in order to exert sufficient influence on the legislative branch. As an example
of this kind in Ukraine, we can cite the demonstration of Chernobyl
victims in front of the Supreme Council in order to put pressure on it.
PR acts in a supportive position in relation to for marketing purposes. Here,
according to American PR experts, it is necessary to perform the following
tasks: 1. Distribution of news related to the launch of new products and
services. 2. Promotion of existing products and services.
3. Creating a favorable company image.
4. Study of public opinion. 5. Providing
coverage of conferences, exhibitions, etc. In conclusion, we note the main
goal of PR in this area. According to American experts, they have long
passed the path that we have just reached. The" Bible " of the PR says
the following about this: "Public relations should help businesses create
a situation in which owners or investors will be satisfied with the return
of their invested capital" (Cutlip S.M. a.o. Effective public relations. - Englewood
Cliffs, 1994. - P. 437).

§3 . PR for a politician

The main axiom of working in the field of PR for politicians is that the population does not
have direct access to the politician, it reacts to his image, image, television picture.
Ray Price, the author of Richard Nixon's speeches, described this pattern as follows:
"The choice of the voter has nothing to do with reality, it is caused only by a special"
chemical reaction " between the voters and the image of the candidate. The choice relates
specifically to the image, not to the person, since 99 percent of voters have not had
and will not have contact with the [Link]. What counts is not what is actually there,
but what is projected on the screen, and not what the candidate himself projects, but what
the voter perceives. Therefore, we should not change the candidate, but the impression
we get from him" (Moskovskiye Novosti, 1994, No. 1). Occurs as a sharp narrowing
we now get information only for two of them - auditory and
visual), and a sharp reduction in the time for evaluation (we see the candidate, for
example, for a minute and a half a day). This drastic reduction in information
diversity is reflected in the fact that the voter is more likely to react to certain
exaggerations, to certain idealizations. He seems to compare the candidate with his
ideal idea of what the president should be like, what
the deputy should be like. Therefore, our operations to promote the policy consist of three
operations:
- selecting those characteristics that the audience considers important for the candidate
for this post;
- introducing these characteristics into the candidate's image;
- "selling" this image to voters.
Moreover, professionals use the terms "sale" and "packaging" precisely because of the
proximity of this process to the sale of the advertised product. Specific example:
if it is important for voters to feel protected from fears such as unemployment,
rising prices, etc., the candidate should become a protector from these fears However, he must
build his campaign in such a way as to show that he is the one who will protect his
voters better than others. It follows that
a very strong and sufficiently differentiated study of your audience becomes a very
important issue. For example, it is typical for Ukraine that the audience under 30
recognizes the market and everything connected with it, and the audience over 50, on the
contrary, completely rejects this new type of life. At the same time, it should also take into
account who exactly will come to the polls, and these, as a rule, are just people over 50
years old. Therefore, in this scenario, the "market" candidate will have less chance of
success if he does not think about how to "package" his market idea for an audience over
fifty years old. It should be emphasized once again that the study of the audience should,
without any doubt, be in the very first place. At the same time, our own experience in
some cases can seriously compete with the Western one, since we have not only our
own mentality, but also our own stereotypes in the field of perception of political
information. For example, quite often our voters are focused on voting "against", and not on voting
"for". He chooses not the best of the best, but the lesser evil of the available ones. G.
Zyuganov also, for example, speaks about his own positive experience from
the presidential campaign, to which he refers the following: "Isn't it important that we
managed to develop our own technologies in electoral campaigns: from house to house,
breaking through the local press, publishing programs for the regions, and cooperating in
the red belt?" (Pravda Rossii, 1997, 15 Apr.).
The image of a politician is based both on the context of the time and on the contrast with
his opponents. An interesting idea in this regard was expressed in an article about
the centenary of the RSDLP: "From Martov's later memoirs, we learn that
he was not satisfied with Lenin either by his "Plebeian rudeness" or lack of
scrupulousness in matters of morality. But it wasn't just a mismatch of character
behind this; each of them - Lenin and Martov - represented different types of culture
within the same party. Over time, however, it will be discovered that the political culture
of the Bolsheviks largely echoes the mindset of the radical [Link] intelligentsia, on the
one hand, and the poorest strata of the population, on the other. Relying on them, even
during the critical days of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks could rightly
claim that they had the majority of the people behind them" (Nezavisimaya Gazeta, March
13, 1998). As you can see, certain image characteristics were also used in
the events of 1917.
Let us now give some examples of the work
of Western specialists in PR with politicians.

Helmut Kohl. PR-men (in Kohl's case, it was one of the leaders of Austrian
television - Bacher) completely shaped the appearance of the Chancellor. They found
that the best way to do his hair, from the audience's point of view, is when he simply
combs it with his fingers. They picked out the frames of his glasses, the type of jacket that
would better suit the chancellor's imposing figure, and spared him the dialectic
of his native land of Rheeland-Palatinate. As a result,
57% of respondents are ready to buy a used car (and this is a sign of the highest
confidence for Germans) from Kohl, and only 43% from Rudolf Scharping, the chairman of
the opposition SPD. In order to strengthen this "own" image, in 1995 Helmut Kohl
published the book "Culinary Journey through the German lands", which contains three
hundred recipes of German cuisine. The proceeds from the book will be transferred to a
foundation that subsidizes medical research.
John Major. The British Prime Minister was initially distinguished by the fact that he
completely refused the services of image makers, saying that the population should see him
for what he is. But when, after his first speech, all the newspapers vied with each other
about how he looked, without mentioning anything about the content of what he said,
he completely changed his point of view. He, like Helmut Kohl, had his glasses, suit
changed, etc. Bill Clinton. Main sovetchik in his image is his wife. It was Hillary Clinton
who removed moccasins from his wardrobe, forced him to wear sweatpants instead
of shorts, etc. Clinton's morning runs are so important to him that during his
stay in Kiev, he went "on the track" an hour later, as it turned out,in order
to make it easier for TV cameramen to work when the morning fog cleared.
White House services specifically process "workers ' letters" so that
the president's messages are as rich as possible in words and topics from them.
The multidimensional image of Clinton is created, among other things, thanks to his sports
activities. He not only runs, but also plays golf. During the etmo, celebrities can be on the
field with him , which undoubtedly increases the impact. So, Jack
Nicholson and Kevin Costner played with him. Thanks to this, every type of consumer of
information can get it in combination with the image of Bill Clinton himself.
Oddly enough, even his love walks did not spoil the necessary gloss.
America was only teasing, as can be seen from the cartoon associated with
the castration of his dog. Standing with the dog Clinton, the doctor asked, so who needs
to be neutered. Mr. President.
The Pope of Rome. Karol Wojtyla's team consists of two lay people who work
on the pope's image. He is the editor-in-chief of the official Vatican newspaper and the
constant host of its press conferences. At the same time, the pope manages to preserve
an unusual combination of a representative of a very conservative institution, which is
the church, with very progressive initiatives that
are primarily associated with his figure.
Tony Blair. Tony Blair turned out to be the youngest English prime minister since 1783
: on May 6, he turned 45 years old. He bears the marks of his generation:
he played guitar in a rock band, which reflects the iconic image of youth pop culture
in the seventies. As Stolichnye Novosti writes (1998, May 5-12): "In an informal
setting, he wears jeans and sneakers, and his boyish smile, deliberate
idealism and his new cultural strategy "Cool Britannia",
which parodies the beginning of the national anthem "Rule Britannia"with its name, -
they are bribing the youngest part of the British electorate. It involves
a stylistic renewal of the country, supporting the achievements of modern British
pop culture, design, fashion, modern architecture and technical achievements."
At the same time, it is interesting that such an update project clearly harmonizes
with the image of the prime minister himself. In turn, the image of the country
abroad should also change, removing from it the usual characteristics of
traditionalism and conservatism. The new British prime minister entered politics
not only quickly and successfully, but also continues to maintain his high
positions, which is very difficult for a politician who came to power. So, 72% of
respondents are satisfied with it. while in 1952 , Churchill could only get 48%, and
Thatcher, after a year in power, had 41% satisfied. If the elections were held now, writes
the newspaper Den (1998, May 6), 54% would vote for Labor again, and
25% of voters want the Conservatives to return. Mr Blair is described by 93% of
respondents as" energetic and confident " and 77% are convinced that he can be
trusted. Analysts say that even the death of Princess Diana was for Blair his
own triumph, just as for Thatcher the Falklands war gave
a sharp jump in authority. There
are two possible strategies for building a political advertising model. According to
one of them, we are talking about the fact that "we" have achieved certain results,
and the opponent can ruin everything. This was the strategy of Leonid Kravchuk's
team when they said that the arrival of Leonid Kuchma would lead to a civil war in
Ukraine. Leonid Kravchuk took credit for the absence of serious conflict
situations in the country. The second model requires a different approach (and
it was implemented by Leonid Kuchma's team): they had all the opportunities,
and what they achieved as a result. Ronald Reagan came to victory under the
slogan "Make America great again."
Experts also offer another way to move to victory. This is not working with
your electorate, but an attempt just before the vote (7-10 days in advance)
activate undecided groups. It is known that especially in our conditions
they are quite large. "In this case, the presence of a large number of the actual
electoral group is not only unnecessary, but even harmful. The fact is that such
a group maintains in the public consciousness an inertial trace of perception
of the former image of the candidate, while to activate groups of indifferent-
apathetic orientation, a completely new and necessarily bright image
of the applicant is necessary" (Zhmyrikov A. N. How to win an election. Obninsk, 1995,
p. 99). The precise calculation made led to a huge financial cost in this case of
$ 1.5 billion, as well as the need for three dozen
high-class specialists for each of the regions. At the same time, the author
believes that in Russia there are only five specialists of this class. By the way,
according to one of the analyses ( and probably others are possible), the
presidential elections of ' 96 in Russia should cost $ 300-400 million. It follows tha
the future Ukrainian elections will "cost" at least $ 100 million, while the last ones
cost ten thousand dollars.I'll pay a tenfold lower amount.
Let's list the main principles of conducting a political campaign introduced
by Western analysts:
1. An appeal to create an image should begin long before the start of the election
campaign.
2. Emphasis should be placed on the use of simple language and on issues of concern
to ordinary citizens.
3. You can not do without experts invited from the outside. 4. Creating
an image is a supplement, not a substitute for politics.

Brendan Bruce, who was appointed Director of Communications

for the Conservative Party by Margaret Thatcher, summarized the results of his work
and formulated a number of conclusions that can be useful for us:
- because the UK has a non-presidential system, parties play a bigger role
than leaders;
- a popular leader at the head of an unpopular party tends to lose;
- an unpopular leader at the head of a popular party is more likely to win; - an image
maker can do a lot with the image of the leader, but not at the expense of showing
the advantages of the party's policies; - we
should not exaggerate the role of accompaniment (music, lighting, filming, editing),
voters make their choice based on the reality of promises. From
this we can draw the main conclusion, which is essential for the system of Ukrainian
parties: leaders should pay much more attention to their parties than they have
done so far. We only work on the image of individuals and do not deal with the image
of organizations and structures at all. And if the Supreme Soviet, for example, loses
in public sympathy to the President, then this is also a question for image makers.
Our parties are practically indistinguishable from each other in the eyes of the
population. There is nothing original in their images, except for the name. Under such
conditions, it is impossible to start an election campaign. Plus for the spare part
an essential part of their life is the search for sponsors, the search
for funding. In the figure of the leader, and this is
the highest level of symbolization of the leader, which no longer lends itself to critical
comprehension, many characteristics of the charismatic property are inscribed.
Thus, Carl Jung wrote the following, analyzing the figure of Hitler: "He is like
a man who listens attentively to the stream of suggestions whispered
by a voice from a mysterious source, and then acts according to it. In our
case, even if our unconscious becomes accessible to us through dreams, we
have too much rationality, too much cerebrum, to obey it. This
is how Chamberlain behaved, for example; Hitler listens and obeys. The true leader
is always led by" (Jung K. G. Essays on contemporary events. Psikhologiya nazizma
[Psychology of Nazism] . Psychology of politics. Political and social ideas of Carl
Gustav Jung. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 348). Very
interesting rules of communicative behavior (although for the purposes of theatrical
communication) were proposed by Pyotr Yershov. They can also be transferred to
political leadership. For example: "The weak have to
sort of smuggle what's in their hands." his for the initiative is given to him only for
the execution of what is necessary for the strong. Hence the same fussiness. The
greater the distance in strength between the weak and their partner... If the strong
person is in a hurry to take the initiative and shows fussiness, then at the moment
he has lost his independence and his ideas about his superiority in power have been
shaken" ( Yershov P. M. Directing as a practical psychology, Moscow, 1972, pp. 166-167
). In this regard, the image of Zhirinovsky is characteristic, constantly imposing certain
mini-actions on public opinion. Harakteren and Boris Yeltsin, who comes into play only
at certain moments. Mr. Yavlinsky was also brought to the position of "fussy" by the
media in the last Russian presidential elections, when he gave his proposals and put
forward demands, without having any real power behind him. This made it possible
for Chernomyrdin to say sharply at a post-election press conference in Moscow, and
who is Yavlinsky, what he did, five hundred days, so, thank God, they passed.
The declared third force (Lebed - Fyodorov - Yavlinsky) could not unite. P.
Ershov writes on this occasion: "The greater the difference in forces ,
the more significant, respectively, for the weak should be his goals, so that he entered
into a struggle for them with the strongest. To fight it, the weak unite and
compensate for the lack of strength with combinations" (In the same place. - P. 167).
Today's political technologies give quite serious chances for a candidate
to become a deputy, if you rely on the rules developed by science. In the United
States, for example, a whole industry has been created - the industry of political
campaigns. In a review article-interview, executives of a number of American
companies specializing in elections highlighted the following changes that have taken
place over the past twenty-five years: - new information technologies (such as fax
machines) have been introduced. - the number of volunteers has decreased;
- there is a very significant tendency to find an opportunity to communicate with the
voter one - on - one;
- television has provided a channel where you can communicate with the voter directly
without editing.
Thus, new technologies have emerged. For Americans, the first television
president was John F. Kennedy. The first image president was Ronald Reagan.
It was in him that the vision of those distant calm times when there were no crises was
embodied. It's like he never got old, obrHe called his wife "mommy" all over America,
which everyone liked. This was a perfect projection of what exactly
the voters wanted. George W. Bush was the same image president, and today it is
Bill Clinton. At the same time, the way the material
is presented in the mass media has gradually changed. In the United States, it is
believed that this happened in the eighties. If earlier,as in our country today,
television was focused on documentaries or news, then in the
political campaigns of the eighties,elements borrowed from commercial advertising
began to be actively used. These were specially made videos that reflect the positive
characteristics of the applicant. For example, during the last Bush-Clinton presidential
duel, the Clinton team made 30 such political ads with a total length of 16 minutes
and 45 seconds, and the Bush team made 34 ads with a total length of 32 minut
After Bush's loss, analysts stated that advertising in the form of talking heads
is good only when your position is already good, such advertising does not succeed
in promoting the applicant. An important
element of a political campaign is its implementation. strategy. What is the main idea
that can be used as a basis for it? What exactly are the voters waiting for today? In
the case of Clinton, this strategy was the display of the symbol changes. Clinton is for
change, Clinton has a plan for change, Clinton can implement these
changes, Clinton and Gore have already assembled a team for this. These were the
four stages of the team's positive strategy. There
is another important element of the campaign that has not yet been used much in
Ukraine, but has been heavily used in the presidential campaign in Russia. spreading
negative information about the enemy. 19 of Clinton's videos were purely negative. And 8
were built on a documentary basis: a quote from Bush's promises was taken, and
then there were shots that refuted it. For example, the phrase "There will be no new taxes
from the mouth of Bush was combined with the information that George W. Bush
authorized the largest tax increase in the history of the United States. By the way,
perhaps because of such aggressive tactics of Clinton, Bush had to change his team.
during the campaign. There are studies of this type of tactic in certain regions
during congressional elections, when the candidate, entering the fight in just ten
days, turned out to be the winner, because he "armed" with negative clips about his
opponent, and the latter had to rebuild his campaign on the go, mainly
dealing with responses to accusations. The presidential elections
in Russia in 1996 were again based on showing a certain negativism in the event
of the Communist Party coming to power. As journalist Sergei Parkhomenko put
it in the Vzglyad program (ORT, 1996, July 5) , the president's advertising campaign
was based on "heating up horror." Probably, it was also based on certain features
of the Russian mentality. As A. N. Lebedev and A. K. Bokovikov write, "" the modern
Russian person, unlike, for example, the Frenchman, unfortunately, always fights
with someone, fights, competes. He is always ready to argue with someone who
does not share his beliefs. The Russian person does not tolerate dissent" (Lebedev
A. N., Bokovikov A. K. Experimental Psychology in Russian Advertising, Moscow, 1995, p.
87). Maria Wolkenstein is also trying to find an explanation for the famous
Smirnoff vodka advertisement, when the world changes when viewed through a
bottle: "This move appeals to the traditional suspicion for the Russian person
that something completely different is hidden behind any phenomenon. It is natural,
wild, aggressive, so "transformed" images.s with a threat: wolf, panther, crocodile.
And all together there is a visual equivalent of the well-known thesis:"you can't figure
it out without a bottle." And Smirnoff turns out to be the bottle" (Itogi, 1998, January
27). There is another characteristic that is quite clearly expressed in the United
States and does not overlap with our context at all. This optimistic ones or
pessimistic ones candidate's orientation. In the United States, from 1948 to 1984,
calculations were made that showed that when a candidate builds his performances
in a pessimistic way, in 9 out of 10 cases he will lose. But this is not for us, our texts
are full of dark stories about both the past and the future.
Bush's defeat also had such strategic reasons: both
candidates spent about two-thirds of their money on television advertising, but
Clinton invested the lion's share of this money - 75% - in local, not national
channels. It was a step that brought the candidate closer to his voters.
And the last, also very significant characteristic. The 1992 US election provided an
opportunity to speak out in a new way and audiences she was very actively involved in
this process. Analysts even made the following conclusion: opponents quite often
communicated with the audience without the help of journalists, and this somewhat
transformed the usual information flows. It turned out that the questions that
journalists are interested in and the questions of the ordinary audience do not really
coincide. The Ukrainian elections of 1994 (Kravchuk-Kuchma) were not clearly and
definitely communicative, since the deterioration of the economic situation was
an important factor in their conduct. And Leonid Kravchuk was doomed to lose in
this regard . Our presidential campaign also relied very little on television. People
manage to see much more on television than etabout allows you to do this. We have
already mentioned the results of research, according to which 69% of the
information received from the TV screen is not duplicated by words. At the same time, there
is also a difference in memorization: half of the audience remembers 16% of verbal
news topics, but 34% of visual topics. In retelling verbal topics, 32% of respondents
make mistakes, while only 15% make mistakes when retelling visual topics.
At the same time, it is a channel that uses information more effectively, delivering
the maximum possible information to the audience. If 69% of verbal information
If less than a third of the audience notices it, then in the case of audiovisual information,
we are talking about losing only 50% of the information. Television, as it were, brings with
it a new logic- visual, mastering which, you can lead yourself to victory.
The presidential election in Russia in 1996 also became purely televised. And the victory
of Boris Yeltsin, who started with 5% in December, and the victory of Alexander Lebed,
whose union of the CRO had previously failed to overcome the five % Duma barrier.
Among others, the screenwriter Pyotr Lutsik, the author of the scripts for all ten
commercials of the second part of the "Russian Project"on ORT, also "worked" for
Lebed. In terms of timing, the campaign began in January, when the State Duma deputy
from the PDR Alexey Golovkov offered cooperation to the well-known political scientist
Leonid Radzikhovsky. The strategic campaign plan was only developed in February.
Image makers cite the following reasons for the success of the campaign: "First of all, a
strong "third" ideology of reform, non-communist, but also far from all coinciding with
Yeltsin's: economists and political scientists helped here. The second is a clear distribution
of functions between team members. And the third is the rejection of the "invention of the
bicycle": we used pre-election technologies tested in the West" (Moskovskiye Novosti,
1996, No. 25). In principle , the campaign attracted professionals, for example, Bakhyt
Kilibayev, the author of videos about Lena Golubkov, acted as a clipmaker for Grigory
Yavlinsky. However, these videos were not particularly successful for this context.
Yavlinsky immediately said that he did not watch his videos due to lack of time.
Since we live in a dynamic period of history, the types of politicians are constantly
changing. In this context of constant turnover, Leonid Ionin
made an attempt to draw a political and psychological image of Alexander Rutsky
(Ionin L. G. Fundamentals of sociocultural analysis, Moscow, 1995): "Psychologically Rutskoi
belongs to ... an adventurous personality type that is characteristic of periods
when historical continuity is disrupted and there is a massive loss
of identification. .. During four years of active political activity, Rutskoi
changed his political identity several times. First a communist in
the traditional Soviet sense, then a "democratic communist", then
a Yeltsin-style liberal democrat, and finally a national democrat-
an opponent of cosmopolitan liberalism. Rutskoi willingly demonstrated himself
to the public in a political environment, looking for the "slogan", that is, the theory and
morality with which he could have the greatest success " (pp. 147-148).
Symbolic space - various theatrical
conferences and rallies-is also actively used to create the party's image. There are
professional specialists who hold such conferences in different countries.
Large TV "walls"are used. Our specialists prepare and
manage the audience's tension, which is why they usespecially selected
music, which "warms up" the clapping, encourages joint singing. It
uses the same professionals who are involved in conducting
sports competitions. In order to further attract the attention of the public
, celebrities from the acting world are used.
This process of introducing a product to the market is called positioning options. I. L.
Vikentiev, for example, calls it among a set of five basic PR techniques, defining it as
"creating and maintaining (reproducing) an image that is understandable to Customers
, an image" (Vikentiev I. L. Advertising techniques and public relations. St. Petersburg, 1995, p.
12). In this case, the task becomes to gain knowledge about your product (and in our
case it can be a party or a leader) among the broad masses. American researchers
suggest a series of possible ways of such positioning in the market ( Larson Ch. U.
Persuasion: reception and responsibility. - Be lmont etc., 1995. - p. 293-297). The first three
clear - be the first, be the best, be less expensive. The subsequent ones already
require a more detailed explanation. The fourth way is the way - be the most expensive one.
The fact is that many luxury goods are bought by certain segments of the population
precisely because they are expensive or because it is the most expensive store. The
fifth way is a story about, what it is not this product. For example, Seven up water
was advertised as "Necola".
The sixth way is positioning by gender. Many types of products are
fundamentally male or fundamentally female. Here it should be emphasized
that many researchers have found sharp differences in general between female and
male communication (see, for example, Tannen D. You understand me! Why
women and men do not understand each other. - Moscow, 1996). For example, when
telling a story, a man will simply say that he is youngerleft-0to, and the woman will ask
to tell her friend how she was dressed, and what color was her purse and under.
Women 's communication turns out to be more detailed in this regard. We could
refer to it as "horizontal", while male communication
is "vertical", quickly moving from one event to another.
Seventh - positioning by age, that is, the ad's focus on
a specific age group. This results in the selection of communication channels, slogans,
and message structures. Leaders
are gifted to varying degrees with the ability to speak on radio and television. Ronald
Reagan and Margaret Thatcher were more successful on the radio, where they could
create the confidence effect, so necessary for a leader to communicate with
the audience. During times of stress, the muscles of the face seem to be fixed, so for
speaking on television, leaders should be taught how to relax
their muscles to create the effect of lively communication. If this is not done, there will be
no trust in the audience, which is very careful to monitor the expressiveness
of the speaker. Boris Yeltsin is not interesting in this regard, his face is a frozen mask.
There is not much variety in the appearance of Leonid Kuchma either. At the same
time, Leonid Kravchuk is recorded in our memory in a variety of situations.
Television, by the way, is the main channel that allows you to show sincerity
the leader.
Important characteristics of a leader are: competence and professionalism.
For the countries of the former USSR, the following characteristics are equally
important: non-corruption. Competence and professionalism can be introduced into
the mass consciousness by emphasizing decision-making situations in which the leader
participated. For pre-election purposesFor Leonid Kuchma, these were references
to his premiership and directorship at Yuzhmash . We know about the professionalism
of,for example, such Russian military officers as Generals Boris Gromov
and Alexander Lebed. At the same time, the Chechen war easily erased
the signs of professionalism from Pavel Grachev's image. We practically do
not have equal professional images among the Ukrainian military. The image of
an uncorrupted politician is also very scarce for us . In public opinion, it is
practically destroyed. Now the names of most politicians who worked during the
presidency of Leonid Kravchuk are constantly inclined. This is a very serious
defect in our political life. By the way, Alexander Lukashenko, who became
President of Belarus, based his election campaign on the anti-corruption
program. This was also one of the essential components of Leonid Kuchma's
election campaign. And it was repeated again in the program of Alexander
Lebed, with which he went to the presidential elections in Russia in 1996.
Psychologists have established certain parameters that attract some people to
others. Among them, there are also purely physical types of attractiveness. L. Gozman
lists the reasons why "attractiveness" can be profitable (Gozman
L. Ya. Psychology of emotional relations, Moscow, 1987). Beauty is an absolute
incentive, and people prefer it. The preference for the more beautiful
ones is justified by the fact that they have a greater development of communication skills,
since the physical attractiveness of, for example, men contributes
to the intensification of their contacts. There are certain benefits of communicating with physically
attractive people, so the physical attractiveness of a man significantly
depends on the physical attractiveness of a woman, which is his regular
partner. Beauty is associated with certain psychological
characteristics. In addition to physical characteristics, there are characteristics
attributed to a person, and among them: good luck. This is "the idea that even
in a situation that does not depend on his own will and actions, his chances of success
are higher than those of others. ... No wonder the generals spread among the soldiers the legend of
their invulnerability and military happiness" (In the same place. - P. 55).
PR specialists can give very specific recommendations on the behavior
of certain political leaders in front of the TV camera. If we take for example
Vladimir Lanovoy, who went through the path of both deputy Prime Minister and
presidential candidate and successfully copes with the role of People's Deputy today, then we can not
fail to note his rather large communicative activity. He often gives
interviews, speaks in newspapers, and is a regular guest on television. However, there are
quite strong barriers that prevent it. Vladimir Lanovoy
is characterized by a false external "I" on the screen, which blocks his emotional rapprochement with
the viewer. It is closed by the official pose, the type of communication "from the table", the type of
hairstyle, clothing, glasses. As a result, everything about him works to create distance between him and
the audience. A significant drawback should be recognized and its monotonous and
enslaved facial expressions. He's kind of fixed in one position, so we don't
know what he looks like when he's smiling or angry.
Having made such an analysis (and it is practically unchanged for many of our
politicians, who are recorded by the TV camera in only one emotional and
visual position), we can offer the following method of "treatment": you need
to dial and show the viewer a "bank" of movements, poses, intonationsai from another,
unofficial arsenal. This can be done by selecting emotional
text types that support the desired type of behavior, as well as showing
nonverbal situations from the home set. The viewer must see
his wife, children, and pets, if any. Visually familiar should be
home interiors that are close to the politician. As a result, you will be able to remove the emotional
blockage, and the person on the screen will become closer, will take the place of "your", and not
"someone else's".
Today, an overly rationalistic
type of television communication is a very significant obstacle for the viewer. There are no digressions, no "e
age. This was
not done, for example, during the last presidential election in the case of Valery
Babich. He did not like the texts about spirituality and religiosity that were important to him.
they were written. By the way, speech writers - speechwriters-have a rather prestigious
PR profession. For example, Joshua Gilder, who came to Moscow, presented himself as
"the author of a speech at Moscow University, which is considered one of the best in
Reagan's entire political career" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1992, September 9). Boris
Yeltsin's rating has significantly increased after the successful film by Eldar Ryazanov.
And the fact that with the future president all the time something aboutIt also turned out to
be a profitable behavior as a result. What is illogical at one level becomes logical at
another. Here is a quote from Wilson Kay's book Subconscious Seduction:"TV
ads look silly, clumsy, and ineffective on purpose. It is done
so at the level of awareness that it is consciously rejected and ridiculed.
Its purpose in the human brain is the unconscious. The real message, the
one that sells, is secretly implanted in the viewer's unconscious.". And then:
"Most advertising professionals will confirm that over the years, the ads that seemed
to be the worst sold the best. Effective TV advertising is deliberately
created in such a way as to offend the viewer's mind, thereby circumventing their
defenses." (Key W.B. Subliminal seduction. Ad media's manipulation of not so innocent
America. - N.Y., 1973).
The policy can set different tasks. Grigory Yavlinsky states the following:
"I don't expect anything from people. My strategic goal is to create a party of influence,
not of power, which will have 12-15-20 percent of the vote, but always " (Figures and
Faces, supplement to Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998, No. 1). Power structures today should
clearly understand that the metamorphosis of the society in which they rule has gradually
taken place. A sufficient number of people with their own opinions have appeared in this
society. And this has to be reckoned with. Because in response, they cease to take into
account the power itself. At the same time, politicians must be prepared for the blurring
of the line between the private and the public at their level. Everything in politics becomes
public sooner or later. The removal of N. Kovalev from the post of Minister of Justice of
Russia clearly demonstrated this. Or such an example. Boris Yeltsin's head of hair became the
subject of discussion in his communication on the Internet ("Komsomolskaya pravda". -1998.
- May 13). At the same time, Boris Yeltsin was told that he had a beautiful Irish head
of hair, whether he came from those parts. And in response , he said that his daughter
and wife were watching his hair. He also said that he has never smoked, and that
his friends and colleagues try not to smoke in front of him, because he does not tolerate
tobacco. By the way, it is the image that becomes the link between politicians and
the population. After all, the population is not able to follow the nuances of politics, but it
clearly reacts to certain changes in the image of its elected representatives.

§4 . PR for show business

Let's start with the statement of Alla Pugacheva, said during her tour in Rostov-
on-Don: "I do not invent scandals and do not look for them. Scandals find me by
themselves" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1998, April 30). Why do scandals find the singer
so easily? Because this is the surest way to overcome the barriers of inattention of the
mass consciousness. In this plan, certain information can be predicted, which will
undoubtedly get on the pages of the press and from there into the mass consciousness.
Starting, for example, with the singer's plane-TU-134 with the name "Alla "on board
or"Lincoln" Prima. The next level of the singer's visual image is costumes: what the correspondent
reflected: "Musicians and girls from the backing vocals came on stage all in
black. Alla also appeared in black: in a mini and a gas cape. Even during the rehearsal
, curious photographers, seeing the jacket hanging on the stage, lifted the floor. The
label read: "Valentin Yudashkin". Alla performed in this costume. People expected
her to show off extravagant outfits - well, so that there was something to talk about
talk. And tragically wrong. The only thing that pleased Alla Borisovna
was that she changed her hats several times and put on a white coat."
All images of pop stars are created by image makers. They are being corrected for
external physical problems. key data (teeth, hairstyle, posture). They teach you to
speak a literary language, sing, and ride a horse. Enter the required type of car, pet,
or friend-of-a-friend. Basically, any big name is backed by a specific image maker.
Mauritz Stiller created Greta Garbo from a Stockholm saleswoman, Joseph von
Sternberg created Marlene Dietrich, and Natasha Rambova created Rudolfo
Valentino. New biographies are written for stars, magazines are published for their
fans, and rumors are spread that are necessary for them .
Producers of stars in their interviews do not set the limits of their capabilities. So,
Aizenshpis, who worked with Tsoi and is currently working with Vlad Stashevsky,
says that today a million dollars is not enough to promote even a good product. He
describes his "bet" on Stashevsky as follows ("Top Secret." -1997 .
- No. 3): "Once I was stupid enough to say: give me a deaf, hunchbacked, blind
man, I 'll make a star out of him. I meant that I know the professional secrets of star
production. I always wanted to prove it to everyone. what is the role of a producer,
and so I conceived an unnamed project to go all the way from the bottom of the
musical Olympus to the top - to take a beginner. It had to correspond to some
invisible parameters. I've been looking. Until I met Vlad Stashevsky at one of the
night discos . For some reason, he was sitting backstage with friends and playing
songs from the repertoire of Alexander Rosenbaum and Mikhail Shufutinsky on the
piano. So I thought, what if we make this unknown guy into a star?"
Creating a star requires some work from the star itself. Princess Golitsyn,
the first lady of Christian Dior, recalls: "Dior came up with
the so-called rules of six "P" for his novice models, in which you had to completely fit
in (all these words were written in "P").va begin, of course, in the English spelling):
posture, character, beauty, punctuality, politeness and perseverance. In other
words, he demanded that his model be a person, not a tailor's pincushion
" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, March 29, 1997). Barry Alibasov, in his dispute with the
tax inspectorate ("The Trial is Underway" program, NTV, May 1998,9), emphasized
that the actor's image includes appearance, voice data, which is understandable,
but also a smart car and expensive costumes. The latter,in his opinion, should
fall under the production costs of the star. The "court" did not heed his request, but
the image department should. Because, indeed, the components mentioned by him
become the subject of discussion among the public. A star is a person who is being
talked about. Hence the fundamental difference between a star and a politician,
although often politicians also seek to go this way. A large body of information
about a star often needs to be distributed orally. The stars seem to take us back
to the old folklore version of the relationship between the viewer and the actor, when
they try to get as close as possible, and not separate, as is the case in classical
art. It's hard to imagine the audience going on stage with dances and songs during
the performance of a classical symphony. Although this is quite possible in the case
of a bandstand. It encourages these channels to capture as many faces as possible
. It models openness and proximity to the audience at all levels. Hence
the models of symbolic behavior that actors choose. Everything is determined by the answer
to the question of whether a given event is spectacularly interesting, whether
it is subject to retelling, whether it surprises. A typical example is the marriage of Alla
Pugacheva and Philip Kirkorov, which draws attention to both characters.
immediately begin to grow highread the age gap, etc. The pop singer chooses the
image that will attract the most public attention to him. So, Vlad Stashevsky
changed his role as a romantic lover to the role of Don Juan, because
we only sympathize with the romantic lover, and the image of Don Juan attracts
everyone like butterflies to the light. Alexander Malinin was a punk, then switched to
performing what we conventionally call "White Guard romance". Acting on
the above-mentioned oral communication model (it is not necessarily implemented
through the oral channel, but according to the oral channel model), it is necessary to
"charge" messages all the time so that they have the property of self-translatability.
In principle, there are two options: propaganda transmits energy to its messages as
if with all the power of its available means; pop culture, in many respects being a
counterculture in relation to the official one, is forced to "feed" its messages with its
own driving means, putting into form and content what is subject
to discussion, in itself, and not as directed from above. This model is basically
a possible goal and an unattainable pole for PR policy. However , there are certain
restrictions on this style of behavior; for example, from the point of view of politics, it
is somewhat vulgar. But even cautious politicians are still trying to get closer
to this cycle of popularity. So, for example, the deputy Irina Khakamada starred
in the video of the pop group "oaks-sorcerers" as a princess. There is nothing great
about this video, but it immediately became a reality. retold fact that is fundamentally
a pop culture phenomenon. For example, the
Rolling Stones group was constantly accompanied by a train of events, which were
then carried by the press. Then a teenage girl fell from a balcony, then a Portuguese
concert was disrupted. then the chief of Police
turns off the microphones to stop the raging crowd. As Komsomolskaya
Pravda writes (1998, May 13): "The band's image is also highly controversial in the
press. Tailor and Cetter magazine, which a few years later will name Jagger as one
of the "hot" hundreds of well-dressed men, encourages the band to wear ties to save
their manufacturers from financial ruin. And a schoolteacher denounced parents who
allowed their children to wear corduroy pants that the Stones had made fashionable.
By the way, here, as we can see, there is a purely Western axiom, according
to which it is not so important whether people speak badly or well about you, it is
important that your last name is not misrepresented. Pop culture attracts consumers
with another quality of its information: a certain connection of the consumer to
its creation. Yuri Lotman spoke about two types of communication processes. "One
is receiving from outside. In this case , the information is processed somewhere
on the side and transmitted to the recipient in a constant volume. The second
one is constructed differently: only a certain part of information is obtained from
the outside, which plays the role of an exciter that causes an increase in information
inside the recipient's consciousness. This self-growth of information, which
leads to the fact that the amorphous in the recipient's mind becomes structurally
organized, means that the addressee plays a much more active role than in
the case of a simple transfer of a certain amount of information" (Lotman Y. M..
Canonical Art as an Informational Paradox, Moscow, 1973, pp. 18-19). Therefore
, young people always sing along to pop songs, which they are deprived of in the
case of official art.
Another difference between this type of popularity generation and the political one is
that the pop artist is fully connected. We often delve, for example, into his culinary
tastes. So. Nikolai Karachentsov's wife talks about what exactly her husband
likes to eat: "Navy macaroni and cutlets. Kolechka is generally very modest in
food. The child, of course, loves "pepsi" and plentifully pours ketchup on everything.
I am, of course, lucky that Kolya is so undemanding in food and fundamentally
cheerful. When he wakes up in the morning, he always says something nice. And
immediately-as if the sun has risen..." ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, October
24). It includes the hero's eating habits. On this wave of inclusion in the life of
another , the ORT program "While everyone is at home" is also built. Here, family
characteristics are included in the news process. For example: "When ... the film
crew worked for Slava Malezhik, and his little son Vanechka was initially timid, and
then became so actively involved in the creative process (we asked him to tell us
something) that he pushed aside his mother and father, twisted the guitar pegs
and actually played solo" (All-Ukrainian Vedomosti, October 1995, 20).
The same is true in the Western world. So, Time magazine (1990, Oct 22) tells
about the addictions of David Lynch, the creator of the film "Twin Peaks". He drinks
red wine, bottled water, and coffee. Who else will we read such phrases about? "I
really love cappuccino. However, even a cup of bad coffee is better than no coffee
at all." He doesn't cook at home. "I don't allow cooking in my house. Smells. The
smell of cooking when drawing or writing can ruin my work. So I eat something that
doesn't require turning on the fire. Or I order pizza. The speed at which I eat it
keeps the smell from spreading." If the official culture represents a person in
a tuxedo or in a suit and tie, then pop culture allows it to appear in
its entirety, if only because of its oppositional nature. We
talked about the oral nature of communication. John Fiske generally considers pop
culture translational, that is, an existing one only in transmission processes. We
also talked about fully connecting a person. Now we will talk about
the following characteristics of pop culture: outrageous things. Pop culture, in order
to be self-translatable, must set such spectacular and exaggerated
characteristics that are impossible in any other version of it. Hence, from this
requirement of the self-translation task, the following arise:
- a certain vulgarity, for example, Masha Rasputina: "I'm an adventurer in my life.
I love life very much, and I am extremely adventurous in it. I like everything that
happens to me . I am a very happy person. When I go on stage, I feel
like I've broken out of some kind of shackle... No one will come near me, I am the
queen here!" ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, March 11);
- criminal connotation: here are the titles of two interviews with Mikhail Shafutinsky:
"I'm not a thug, I'm just a fraer" ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, 23 Aug.) and "
I love thug life, but I'm afraid to steal" ("Komsomolskaya Pravda", 1995, 31 March);
- certain sexuality: headlines of interviews with Vlad Stashevsky - "Girls are
like a change of scenery" ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, September 15) and
Vladimir Presnyakov Sr. - "My son is the sexiest singer" ("All-Ukrainian
Vedomosti", 1995, March 23); - some anomaly becomes
almost mandatory: "Michael Jackson:" Children jump into my bed by themselves
" (All-Ukrainian Vedomosti, 1995, September 2); Masha Rasputina (answering
a question about Philip Kirkorov): "I don't like male artists. They are all very
capricious, and they are also blue" ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, March 11);
Barry Alibasov: "For the popularity of any artist, it is better to be known as gay"
(Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1995, April 28). In general, it should be recognized
that pop culture also operates on a purely "chemical" basis, exposing exactly what can
interest the maximum number of people and attract the largest number of fans.
This is the principle of the youth environment, which, because of its openness
to contacts, is always dressed in bright, loud colors. There is another pole
- the monastic environment, which is fundamentally dressed in religious clothes.
black color, which does not require a "chemical" connection with others.
A set of such "pure" chemical reactions is recorded in the mass
consciousness. For example: "Gentlemen prefer blondes." Or an
example: Stas Namin informs that the next issue of his magazine
"Stas" will put on the cover a portrait of Joseph Kobzon without a wig,
followed by a rebuttal. Thus, following the path of increasing contact,
pop culture offers the following images for its characters. As the main
area where the action takes place, love is chosen, which presumably
can cover everyone. In Soviet times , there was also the "patriotic"
sphere, where the official song-parade (for solemn concerts) and the
mass song (such as "My address is not a house or a street, my address
is the Soviet Union") coexisted as two variants. Individual love, for
example, for forests ("I drank birch sap in the spring forest") was preferable in
films about traitors. In the field of love for the male type, two images are
offered: a romantic lover and Don Juan, noted above in the
metamorphoses of Vlad Stashevsky. Why is the transition to Don Juan
more profitable in terms of increasing contact? We can represent this
mapping in the following table:
romantic
lover: he loves he is not loved Don Juan:
he doesn't like it they love him

Oddly enough, but the position of Don Juan is beneficial for both female and
male audiences. For a female audience, it is attractive, because it is loved by
many. The same is true for the male audience, it's always nice to be among your
favorites. The female model is built in almost the same way: unrequited love is a
woman who conquers men's hearts. Unrequited love is a variant of crying.
The seductress is a variant of superiority. According to the first model, songs
of conquerors of the hearts of teenagers are built. Older youth prefer
the optimism of a vamp woman. If you
look at the letters to idols, which, for example, are printed by the Komsomolskaya
Pravda fan club, the naked emotionality of these messages is striking.
Fans seem to be out of self-control. For example:
"To Vlad Stashevsky. .. Vladik, my dream... I think about you all the time... Vlad, why don
't you perform in the nude?.. You're so sexy! Natasha, Rybinsk
Alena Apina. Alyonochka! I love you very much, and I can't live without you! I won't be
able to fall in love with any guy since my heart is occupied with you! When I
watch you on TV, I just cry! You're lovely and very sexy. I wish I was born a
boyfriend, maybe I could have been your husband. My beauty, to you with love.
Ekaterina, 12 years old, Yaroslavl" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1995, November
3-10). All these examples once again confirm the translational nature of pop
culture implementation. Even the album name generates certain translational
processes. As an example, let's quote the message of Komsomolskaya Pravda
(1997, March 28) about the release of the album Flaming Pie: "McCartney, who
was knighted by the Queen of England two weeks ago, said:, that the record is
dedicated to the memory of John Lennon. In '61, when asked about the origin of the
band's name, John Lennon said that he had a vision in which a man sitting on
a fire cake said:" From now on, you will be called the Beatles! At first , it was
assumed that the name of the record refers to the activities of Linda McCartney
for the production of semi-finished products for vegetarians". In a few sentences
there is a knighthood, and the history of the origin of the name, and even
semi-finished products for vegetarians. Everyone gets their own "quantum" for
retelling, which will then be able to pull out the rest of the information. This example
shows that the release of an album is personalized, it enters our memory with a
certain emotional aura. Moreover, the message is illustrated with a photo showing
McCartney and the Queen with the inscription (by the way, also working) "Queen
Elizabeth and her Knight Paul". Positive
symbolism of pop stars is often tried to transfer to other areas. The Beatles have
been invited to the Queen's court in the past. Stars are received by US presidents.
Celebrities have massively joined the electoral process in Russia. They participate
in various presentations. For example: "The first customers in the new store
were Leonid Yakubovich, Andrey Makarevich and Leonid Yarmolnik, who were
present at the opening" (Moskovskie Novosti, 1995, No. 67). Let's recall the yellow
jacket of futurist Vladimir Mayakovsky, who shocked the audience. The retelling of
this event continues to this day. It's just that now it's taken on a different dimension
and requires a different investment of money. But it is also used on a different level.
Pepsico's contract with Michael Jackson totaled $ 26 million. When did the
rumors about the singer's questionable behavior cross the border?Oh yes, the
company had to terminate the contract.
Based on the oral communication model, pop culture uses oral events such as
rumors and scandals. Here is the opinion of Mikhail Zadornov: "There are artists for
whom it is like a drug - when they are discussed. But behind everything, by and
large, there is money. And artists have a flair for this. After some serious gossip
about some artist passes, the fees increase. Very sharply... " (Kievskiye Vedomosti,
1995, July 22). Kristina Arbakaite gives an interview titled "I'm used to gossip":
"There is a whole system of organizing scandals. Someone does it specifically to
maintain their popularity" ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, May 20). Here's
an example of a few more headlines: "Laima Vaikule:" The most interesting gossip
about me is..." ("All-Ukrainian Vedomosti", 1995, July 2), "Stanislav Sadalsky on
how scandals are made" ("Kievskiye Vedomosti", 1995, September 21). Pop culture is
not Cinderella at all, as the official culture tries to present it. It just occupies a different
niche, with its own audience. Therefore, the laws of communication there may have
a different character. Let's also remember that in one culture it is not so common
to change names as in another. For example, the duo "Academy" lost their
surnames. The host of the MUZ-TV channel named Aurora answers questions
about this issue like this: "Why Aurora?"
- Because it's very organic for me?
- Is it something from Pushkin or something from the Great October
Revolution? "Yeah, that's the highlight! I really like this name, because it has the
ambiguity that I adore" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1997, March 26).
As you can see, the name also acts as the beginning of a new translational
process, and not just attracts attention, although this is also very important.

§5 . PR for CIS countries

We face a common problem for all CIS countries: they have firmly taken a not very
attractive place in the mass consciousness of the West, losing as a result of
positive attention, investment, and the flow of tourists. From this point of view, the
country's PR rises to the level of the country's national security problems. So, China considers
this problem as very relevant for itself, as stated in an article in the Izvestia
newspaper (1997, March 25) with a very eloquent headline: "China is concerned
about its image in Russia": " The Chinese foreign policy propaganda has now
thrown all its forces at debunking the thesis about the"threat from the West" abroad
on the Chinese side" and seeks to create an attractive image of the PRC not only
in the West, but also in Russia." For the former socialist countries, there are no
positive axioms like "Accurate and reliable as a Swiss watch" in the world yet.
What does Ukraine look like today, which we will focus on as a common example
for all CIS countries, in international information flows? In them, it
is presented rather as a third-world country.
We hear only negative information about such states all the time: accidents, strikes,
earthquakes, conspiracies, wars... Ukraine attracted the attention of foreign
journalists, for example, at the time of the "end of the world" declared by the White
Brotherhood. A typical example: a tram accident in Dneprodzerzhinsk with a large
number of victims makes Ukraine an object of attention. Even more often, it attracted
attention in the context of the transfer of nuclear weapons to Russia; by holding on to
them, having a paralyzed, non -functioning economy. And this was interpreted by the
media as fundamentally aggressive behavior. That is, the country's neglected image
was not positive. There are two or three other characteristics of Ukraine recorded in
the world, known mainly to those who have never been here. This is Chernobyl, as
well as (for older people) Dynamo Kyiv. The problem of Crimea is constantly
attracting the attention of journalists, and here again there is an aggressive coloring
in the chain of relations between Ukraine and Russia.
Thus, the negative image of Ukraine consists of the following
components:
- nuclear weapons;
- non-functioning economy;
- Chernobyl;
- conflict over the Black Sea Fleet.
To this list,
we can add the problem of the hungry winter, launched in the media in
1994 , when people in the West collected aid for Ukraine, which
then disappeared somewhere, but the corresponding image in the world was fixed.
The director of the Ukrainian service of Radio Liberty, Roman Kupchinsky
, answers the question of Ukraine's image in the world as follows (Den, March 13,
1997): "Bad, if you read the Western press. What is Ukraine doing to improve its
image? Is the global press provided with information about what we have, what
we can sell, and where we can invest? And here they tell fairy tales about how
well we are received. The US gives us money - after Israel and Egypt, we are the
biggest recipient of American aid. Why? Has anyone at the top thought that
this can't go on for long? Another two years can give, and then, if
a normal society is not built, they will put an end to Ukraine. So let's not
talk about the image of Ukraine. Even Russia has a better image. Maybe we ourselves will dr
we are better than them, that the president is a drunkard there, that gangsters sit on the
State Security Council there, that Chechnya yaps at them. But in fact, we are no
better. Although they could be. Why not?"
From the theory of propaganda from
It is known that it is almost impossible to change the stereotypical image, no matter
how much money is invested in an information campaign. You can start new
characteristics, and not deny those that are included in the stereotype. The United States
spends large sums of money to create its own propaganda centers, which fundamentally
look like centers of communication, not propaganda. They open the way for an American
film, an American book, etc. Propaganda works only when it goes to the audience in a
non-straight line. What can Ukraine show in the information arena? To begin with, let's
see what gets there in addition to the negative ones listed above.
Ukraine has a significant potential of modern technologies.
Antonov, Yuzhmash, Motorsich associations, etc. Technologies are knowledge. And
knowledge is highly valued in the modern world. Their propaganda will help Ukraine
establish feedback with the world in the form of buying our licenses, etc.
Ukraine has famous athletes who have become Olympic champions. This
is again a reference example of an interesting person from the point of view of the
Western mass media. After all, an athlete is always an individual victory, it is strength
and skills that no other person has. That is why Ukrainian athletes received
personal invitations to visit America during the visit of the President
of Ukraine. After all, the Western world is able to see Ukraine only with its own eyes,
only based on its own norms. Therefore, the systematics of news should meet
the standards of those on whose perception we rely. Western journalism has
its own canons, information is "constructed" from other components, their readers
are interested in other aspects of our life. Ukraine can get into the international
information network only when we put our information into the formats and
stereotypes that have already been developed there.
What does Ukraine really promote in the Western world? Instead of modern
technologies, we show "batkivska khata pid strikhoyu", instead
of hydrofoils - Cossack"seagulls". All this is very good, but for a modern state
, such information cannot be dominant. We turned everything back to the
past, because in that cross-section of history we had the greatest number of
discrepancies with Russia. There is also a subjective aspect. It is connected with the
fact that the" cherry orchard kolo hati " made sense from the point of view of a person
from the diaspora who really wants to touch his native land for a while. But then he
returns to his modern world, leaving us in the position of people from the reserve. The
Diaspora invites relevant choirs to join it. And Ukraine in response began
to export only the folklore version of the culture. But what is opposed
to folklore art in the modern world? Only modern, fundamentally
original art. This is what the West values, so
modern professional art (opera,
ballet, etc.) should become an important element of building the image of Ukraine. It
has, on the one hand, an individual character, and on the other, it vividly expresses the
essence of our time. In general , the disappearance of intellectual flows connecting it
with the world, which previously went through Moscow, has become dangerous for the
development of the situation in Ukraine. In the modern world, all kinds of knowledge
and intellectual activity are in the first place. Countries that sell an intelligent product
come out on top , regardless of whether they have a resource base or not2. The Swiss
conductor P. Dlyaboga also believes that showing only folklore is a manifestation
of provincialism. The question that we are currently considering, he formulates even
more harshly:
"Ukraine will not rise in the eyes of the Western world with the number of tractors, rockets, grain
or metal. These are necessary things, but, in the end, banal for information about
Ukraine. Ukraine will become significant in the world only through its culture" ("Mirror
of the Week", 1994, 8 Oct.). Moreover, this process is fundamentally manageable,
like all image phenomena. In general, it should be recognized
that the image of the country and its leaders (especially in the case of
countries in transition) must necessarily be among the priorities of the
state. Since its structure is just being laid down, such phenomena cannot
remain outside the management and control processes, otherwise the
formation of such an image goes in an unfavorable context for the country.

§6 . Lobbying

We talked about symbolizing politics earlier, but good lobbying also

relies on successfully symbolizing businesses, presenting them in ways that might
be of interest to lawmakers and the country as a whole. This is a whole set
of the most effective methods of generating communication both at the level of individuals
and the country as a whole.
Lobbying it is a new industry for us, but it is quite developed in the Western world
. Russia already held a conference in early 1995 to discuss the draft
law "On regulating lobbying activities in Federal
government Bodies". Both Sergei Filatov, then head
of the presidential administration, and Arkady Volsky, named in the press, took part in it.
"patriarch of Russian lobbying" (Moscow News, 1995, No. 11). In the
West, lobbying represents influencing the implementation of laws and
legislative practices, primarily through communication - through
the provision of information. And since this work has gradually evolved into
a certain professional branch, it has become subject to the procedures
outlined in the laws. In the United States, for example, under a 1946 law, engaging
in such activities requires registration and quarterly reporting
of the sources of one's income. According to some sources, there are more than 80
thousand lobbyists in the United States. For example, Ford has a team of 40 people.
Russian experts list such options for "civilized lobbying"
(Governors In. Business people lobby in power / / "Adviser". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 9):
- personal contacts with government representatives,
- participation in meetings of committees and commissions of the Parliament and
ministries, - work in expert groups on the preparation of draft documents of the parliament
and the government, - congresses
and meetings of entrepreneurs with the participation of government representatives,
- participation in public hearings of draft laws in
the Government of the Russian Federation. public opinion and mass media,
- reports, messages from business to the authorities,
- meetings with top state leaders.
The UK does not have the formal structure of lobbyists that the US does,
writes Peter Green (Green P. Winning PR tactics. - London, 1994. - P. 126). As a rule, this
area is occupied by those who were previously associated with the parliament, for
example, former deputies. And today's members of Parliament can act as such consultants.
In any case, members of Parliament are an interesting group for communication skills.
impacts, because they are the ones who strongly shape public
opinion on a particular issue. Lobbyists try to support their
pressure with various kinds of demonstrations and campaigns
in the press. And all this in order to exert sufficient influence
on the legislative branch. As an example of this kind in
Ukraine, we can cite the demonstration of Chernobyl victims in
front of the Supreme Council in order to put pressure on it .

Experts see the positive aspects of lobbying in the fact that it allows you to
legitimize some ways of influence, reducing the conditions for generating
corruption. "It is believed that lobbying restricts the possibility of corruption of the
apparatus, as it introduces the process of advising foreign firms and bringing
their interests to the representative and executive authorities within the
framework defined by law. According to US data, more than 7,000 foreign business lobbyists
are registered with the US Congress . Among them were dozens of former
high-ranking officials who receive fees for representing the interests of foreign
firms. There is an opinion that the actual number of lobbyists is 30-60% more"
(Shchetinin V. Training managers: moral and ethical aspects / / Problems of
management theory and practice. - 1997. - No. 2. - P. 123). Former president of
the American League of Lobbyists Howard Marlowe believes that lobbying should
be controlled fairly effectively. The reason for this, he sees, is that the population
needs to know who influences politics and how much they get for it (op. cit.
Birnbaum J.H. The lobbyists. - N.Y., 1993. - P. vi). Jeffrey Birnbaum, who writes about
the White House for The Wall Street Journal, adds such features to the lobbyist's
work. "Lobbyists work as unpaid employees of those who make decisions
that lack employees. Prev lobbyiststhey leave money for legislators,
which is necessary for those who are re-elected. And, more importantly, lobbyists
provide information about policies and processes that government
officials often find difficult to obtain from their own, often
underfunded, government agencies" (p. 6).
Professionals of this kind do not like to call themselves "lobbyists"; they prefer
to refer to themselves as "consultants"or" lawyers." This is a fairly old profession.
It dates back to 1215, when King John of England guaranteed his barons
the right to protest against the violation of their rights. In America, this kind of
right is embedded in a constitutional provision. The term "lobbyists" was originally
applied to journalists who were located in the lobbies of the House of Commons.
In the United States , the modern understanding of this word has been fixed
since 1829. Samuel Colt, a well-known arms industrialist, paid a congressman 10
thousand dollars for passing the law he needed, and his lobbyist Alexander Hay
gave the congressmen beautifully decorated revolvers. At the
same time, the attitude towards lobbyists was not always positive. Becoming
President in 1913 Woodrow Wilson demanded that the lobbyists leave the US
capital. In the 60s , the most famous lobbyist was Clark McAdams Clifford. His
biography contains a typical element: as a rule, lobbyists become after a certain
time of service in parliament or government agencies. Clifford was also a
special adviser to President Truman from 1946 to 1950. In
the sixties, he oversaw President Kennedy's rise to power, and later
served as his intelligence adviser. He helped create the law
that gave birth to the CIA.
It is interesting and significant that lobbyists representthey are such a force that they can resist
the president. We can give the following example with Lyndon Johnson's wife, Lady
Bird. "Together with her staff, she developed a draft law banning the
further distribution of landfills and billboards along federal highways.
Both of these industries had powerful lobbies in Congress, and they were
always fighting the law, especially in the West. Some advertising business bosses have started
putting up billboards that read: THE IMPEACHMENT OF LADY BIRD (Truman M. Presidents and
sex. - Book 1. - Minsk, 1997. - p. 229).
Experts distinguish two types of lobbying: corporate, related to
large organizations and their interests, and "conquest", focused on
the development of new spaces, changing statuses and regulations (Lebedeva T. Yu.
The art of seduction. Public Relations in French, Moscow, 1996, p. 40).
A division into vertical and horizontal lobbying is also proposed. The first
is aimed at the president and his advisers, and the second is aimed at public
opinion leaders.
It is also a serious national security issue when representatives
of foreign companies start lobbying. so, in the United States, there was
a scandalous situation in connection with Chinese money in the election fund of B.
Clinton. The situation was similar in the UK. In the United States in 1976, a scandal
broke out when the Washington Post reported that South Korea paid from half a
million to a million dollars a year in money and gifts to American congressmen for
creating a favorable legal climate. 115 lawyers were found guilty of
such donations, and Congressman from California Richard Hanna went straight
to prison. All this
leads to the fact that lobbying is not always evaluated unambiguously. So, President
Truman said, that 15 million citizens are represented in the congress by their
lobbyists, but the remaining 150 million have only one person elected to
represent them. This is the president. To some extent, we can interpret lobbying
as standing at the intersection of professional requirements of image science
and public relations. This again raises the problem of translating the requirements
and interests of one organization into the language of another. There is a
constant search for a combination of these interests. Both sides should see success
images in this shared object. Therefore, each solid structure conducts a targeted
propaganda campaign to protect its interests. Not only at a narrow level, such as
specific aspects of lobbying, but also at the most general level, related to protecting one's
interests in general. You can give the following example: "The U.S. Chamber of
Commerce publishes a weekly radio program," What's the problem?" (it is broadcast
by more than 90 stations) and the monthly TV program"Entrepreneurship",
which is broadcast on 100 television channels. 500 periodicals
publish weekly reviews "Voice of a Businessman" signed by the President
of the Chamber of Commerce" (Andrunas E. Ch. Business and Propaganda, Moscow, 1986
, p. 87). For articles, radio and television interviews, business associations
pay congressmen fees exceeding the legal
"ceiling" of 25 thousand dollars.
What strategy drives the dynamics of this professionalization? It turned out that
business leaders realized that no matter how reasonable their development plan is, their
product is good, today the importance of political processes and their impact on the economy
has sharply increased. The complexity of the tasks required moving away from the standard
idea of a lobbying office as purely legal. For example, the famous
firmma Hill & Knowlton has a 180-person office in Washington. In addition to
traditionally understood lobbyists, the firm employs economists, political
analysts, speechwriters, and campaign managers. There is also a studio that
produces radio and television stories. They produce their own news programs.
There is a monthly radio program "Washington Spotlight" and a daily
"Capitollink", sent to the 4.400 station five times a week via satellite. And this
is not the largest organization, since the British WPP Group PLC is even
larger. As a result,they bought or hired all the leading lobbying agencies in Washington,
including Hill & Knowlton. Critics of such purchases are afraid that
as a result, all power passes into the hands of those who are able to pay a
lot of money for such services. Jeffrey Birnbaum emphasizes another
important characteristic: lobbying structures can outplay government agencies,
because they have more opportunities. "We have an advantage" over
government officials, says forty-eight-year-old Bernard (Bob) Shapiro, who
headed the tax division of Price Waterhouse along with forty-nine-year-old
Mark mcconahue. "We can devote two months to the calculations, while they
have to do them in a week. We have the time and resources to gather
information." Birnbaum J.H. The lobbyists. - N.Y., 1993. - P. 217). Price Waterhouse
employed 123 professionals in this field, while only 48 worked on a
congressional committee. By the way, the two aforementioned lobbying
specialists left this committee. Since 1983. they have built their own structure
parallel to that of the congress, with the involvement of specialists such as
lawyers, accountants, economists, income evaluators, and AML. In conclusion,
here is the rating of Russian lobbyists, which Nezavisimaya Gazeta (1998,
May 14) divided into three groups: top officials, professionals, and regional
leaders. Most interesting is the rating of professionals for whom lobbying,
according to the newspaper, is one of the main activities. The list includes
( here are the first fifteen individuals) selected as a result of an expert survey:

1. Berezovsky B. F. Independent politician

2. Dyachenko T. B. Presidential Administration

3. Nevzlin L. B. ITAR-TASS

4. Shakhnovsky V. S. ROSPROM

5. Zverev S. A. MOST-bank

6. Resin V. I. Moscow Government

7. Surkov V. Yu. ORT

8. Aven P. O. Alfa-Bank
 9. Nemtsov B. E. Federal Government

10. Udugov M. Government of Chechnya

11. Kiselev E. A. NTV

12. Yeghiazaryan A. G. ONEXIM Group

13. Boos G. V. State Duma Deputy

14-15. Aleksashenko S. V. Central Bank of the Russian Federation

14-15. Shokhin A. N. State Duma Deputy

This list is also interesting due to a certain coincidence in some

individuals with the list of visible PR specialists. The title of the article
in Nezavisimaya Gazeta reads "Rating of domestic pushers",
illustrated with photos of Valentin Yumashev, Viktor Chernomyrdin, Tatyana
Dyachenko, Boris Berezovsky, Yegor Stroev and Yuri Luzhkov.

By the way, in the same issue of the newspaper there is an article by Mel
Sturua, who is in his current dimension a professor at the University of Minnesota (USA),
"The silent pro- NATO lobby of Russia". M. Sturua says in it that Russia did not
use the current current in the Washington elite in the United States, aimed
at achieving NATO expansion. As an example, he cites a 30-second TV ad
interview and newspaper ad text released on the eve of the Capitol vote on
the issue. The text of the newspaper advertisement read: "Let's take and expand
NATO towards the borders of RussiaI. Let's convince Russia that we are going
to it in peace. This is the sense of peace and security that Americans would feel
if Russia had a heavily armed military alliance with Canada and Mexico, to which
the United States would be denied access. How would we be able to safely
escape then, wouldn't we?" As we can see, the tasks of lobbying also exist
at the international level. Only there they are much more complex and intelligent.
 Chapter five. Communication space as a sphere
PR actions
§1 . General features of the communication space

The communicative space of modern civilization is formed by

a number of machines that generate symbols. This role is played by mass media,
art, and political communication. All of them give rise to a symbolic world that lives
according to its own laws, different from the laws of the real world. At the same
time, in some cases, not only the symbolic world begins to be built according to
the laws of the real world, causally following from it. But quite often there is an
inverse relationship, one of them is mentioned by W. Gamson, saying that the
artistic reality in the form of TV detectives can dictate the priority in municipal
policy. We have the same situation in the CIS, when even the old lady on the
bench in front of the house says. that she was afraid of racketeering. But the
probability of getting a racket on it is very small. However, the mass media dictate
priorities in reality. We do not distinguish well between the priorities of symbolic
reality and those of reality. Often, the solution to social management problems is
found in various media holdings, creating a stronger information "fist" than that of
the opponent. This is a purely administrative decision, which is not the only correct
one. After all, in some cases, one article or one speech can work more strongly
than constant informing. Here, for example, is what Moskovsky Komsomolets
writes about Yuri Luzhkov (1998, May 21-28):: "Obviously, Luzhkov will have
to come up with new moves and completely new technologies. So far, neither
TV-Center nor other informational efforts of the Mayor's office have been
particularly successful." The inability of both the authorities and other structures to
refute compromising material is particularly obvious , and it is gradually becoming
a constant sign of today.
Mass media was initially built in a chain of delays: first the event, then its
description. The first newspapers were synchronized with the stagecoach
schedule: accordingly, this time gap in this case corresponded
to a time gap in the stagecoach schedule. Then the newspapers tried
to minimize this gap (with daily issues, and sometimes morning and evening
issues), but it still remained technologically intact. The event time always precedes
the lighting time:
Time (events) > Time (of lighting)
Only TV managed to bring it to zero:
Time (events) = Time (of lighting) But even here, the
live broadcast really does not take so much time. what is the reason for this? Not
just censorship issues. In Soviet times, in order to avoid something unexpected,
reports from Red Square were carried with a slight delay in time, which the viewer
did not know about. In the event of an emergency, it was always possible to
react and not let it go on the air.
A live broadcast provides a lot of random information. Let us recall the
endless minutes of waiting during live reports on official visits. The commentator
no longer knows what to talk about. WE see unnecessary details, who from
the first persons with whom he talks, over whom the umbrella is opened and under.
That is why Western PR specialists pay special attention to TV broadcasts, even
indirect ones. Television turned out to be a channel that reports a lot of
unnecessary information that you would never have learned, for example,from a
newspaper. And here special care is required so that the viewer receives only the
information that was intended for them.
We can consider a ritual as an event that takes place as if after lighting,
since it follows long-known canons. In it, the lighting time precedes the event time -
Time (events) < Time (of lighting) Today, when we talk about freedom of speech,
we see a ferment between two poles. On the one hand, we are talking about
freedom of speech and the press, on the other-about the protection of the
information space. The first point of view is expressed by a group of, let's call it
conditionally, Westerners, the other-by a group of, again conditionally, nationalists.
They seem to be opposing each other, but in fact we are facing defenders of myths,
not realities, which are both points of view. By the way, in Soviet times we also lived
under the roof of similar myths. Let us recall how we spoke of the" venality of the bourge
press " and of its truthfulness. At the unofficial level, they disliked propaganda,
considering it unreal, but the Soviet Union's loss in the information
cold war suggests otherwise.
The media has the ability to change the proportions of a real event, making it
either more powerful or weaker. As an example, we can cite the statement of Guy
Khanov, president of the agency "Publicity PR" ("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 12. - p. 2
"During one of the pre-election campaigns, we almost artificially inflated the hype
around one situation with the lack of hot water and fromcomments. This situation
was real, we didn't come up with anything. But we organized a lot
of publications about it in all local media, forced the candidate to give up
campaigning until the problem is solved. He put on a hard hat, rubber boots, stood
at the switchboard himself, answered direct calls from the"scene of events". Thus,
the situation was resolved as soon as possible, and a few days before the election,
the candidate's rating increased, according to our estimates, by about twenty
points." Here is an example of a controlled impact on public opinion. The central
mistake of our current approach is to confuse the conditions and possibilities
of the ideal information world and the context of its material implementation. At first,
we tried to solve all the problems with idealizations, simply generating words: all
the newspapers were called independent, and the squares were called European.
Having solved the problem in this ideal context, we have not progressed to
solving it in a material context. It turned out that changing monuments and
renaming streets changes the verbal world very well, but has very
indirect consequences for the real world.
What characteristics of the real world today affect the symbolic world? We
are talking about a symbolic world, because mass media (like
fiction) generate, first of all, symbols. A television news program
is just as much a myth-generating machine as a children's fairy tale about Ivasik-
Telesik. This is actually even the norm of functioning, since out of a million
events, only dozens can get to the page or screen. Therefore, each hit already
functions as a landmark event, as a standard of a particular situation, and not as
the situation itself. The editor also selects them from a similar angle. But since the
myth of a free press dominates all of us, we must look at what prevents this myth
from becoming a reality, forgetting for the time being that myths will never change.
become a reality. Among the reasons that prevent autonomous systems press, which
makes it impossible to use it independence day, you can call the following:
1. It turned out that there can be no economically independent press, because a)
the reader is not able to support it, and today we generally have a tenfold
decrease in circulation, b) the economic state of the country does not contribute to the
development of advertising.
[Link] the economic redistribution and the redistribution of power continue. As a result,
they stop working institutions of social stabilization (or they are
not fully operational). As a result, a situation of battle is formed, the struggle of political and
economic giants, and they do not allow the press to remain neutral. Therefore
, today there is no unbiased media, everyone defends someone's point of view, everyone pecks
at the enemies of their shadowy "patrons".
3. During such periods, the reliance on mass sentiment increases. This is like,for example,
the rallies of the Perestroika period. Any major action requires preliminary
information artillery preparation. Perestroika takes the crowd outside. When the redistribution
of power is completed, the crowd is removed from the streets. Activation of mass consciousness,
manipulation of mass moods - this is more a political task than
a requirement for the media, although we are used to understanding the newspaper as a
collective agitator and propagandist. And it does not contribute to the formation of the newspaper
as an analytical newspaper, but returns us to the newspaper-agitator.
4. The inability of government agencies to enter the dialogue mode from the monologue mode,
which they got used to during the Soviet period of existence. Hence,for example,
the endless wars with the parliament both in Ukraine and in Russia, where one of these
wars ended with the shelling of the parliament.
5. Russia is also characterized by existence of several independent financial
and political centers Ukraine still lives under one roof, in one glass house,
where you can't throw stones like in Russia. Therefore, the Ukrainian version
of NTV's "Dolls" is impossible even theoretically. And not so much because
of the reaction of the first person, as in general a whole list of people in the
row of stalls. An explanation for this phenomenon can also be found in the law
of large numbers: probably, other patterns work on large arrays, so until Ukrainian
banks, economy and leaders reach a different level, Ukraine is doomed to
have semi-Soviet cycles of mass communication. In general, it should be
recognized that the press has not yet managed to raise its head proudly. But it
would be unfair to blame only the conscious actions of the authorities for this.
Objective conditions of the transition period push everyone to choose a behavior
option that is not optimal from the point of view of a stable society. M.
Mamardashvili spoke of the Soviet era as the language of a realized utopia. This
is from his 1988 lectures at the Higher Courses of Screenwriters and Directo
It says there about the law of nonconformity by deriving it from the destruction of the languag
He observes that "every ideology invariably strives for totality" and that "there is
a law of otherness, according to which every ideology tends in its
systematic development to a point where effectiveness is measured not by how much
people believe in the ideology and how many such people there are, but by what it does not all
us to think and does not allow us to think." lets say" (Mamardashvili M. The need for self, Mosco
1996, p. 316). The consequence of all this is not only the lack of a clear picture of th
newspapers should provide us with. The population is not able to choose any point
of view. Politicians act as information missionaries calling for faith in
your words and actions. The parties are indistinguishable to the naked eye. They are there,
but they are not there at the same time. There is a group of people who are already sitting in
certain chairs, and a group of people who would like to move to the chairs. This is a war of
seats, where the role of information, communication, and the media as a whole is extremely
underestimated. And this is understandable, no information can defeat the level of the legs
of a particular chair. There is an option to build strong media, where you can win quantitatively,
when everyone as one watches the same program, reads the same newspaper. However,
we have already passed this "mandatory subscription" and lost it. Another option - building
smart protection. But it requires a radical revision of the attitude to
intellectual support of the state. At the first stage of statehood, it was
adopted as if emotional support when writers and journalists celebrated
this scenario. Interestingly, this type of support
is ideal for getting people out on the streets, which was used during
the perestroika period. Then the state turned its back on these people, not because of its
negative nature, but because there is no longer any need for rally communication. Today
, the state is interested in introducing stabilizing tools (such
as absorber rods in nuclear reactors), but our writers or journalists
cannot do this. Finally,
Fukuyama wrote that the USSR suffered from a lack of legitimate channels for expressing
its negative viewspositive emotions (Fukujama F. The end of history and the last man. - London,
1992). So they accumulated. And social countries, as a result, began to fall apart from
seemingly inconspicuous events. We continue this tradition. The media could become
this legitimate channel. But purely psychoanalytically, the media pushes out of the
discussion of the "negativity" of the existing world, and pays more attention to the award
of Oscars or hostage-taking in Latin America. Similarly, prisoners in
German concentration camps never mentioned in their conversations the furnaces in which
they were burned, hoping that this cup would pass them by. In general, this is probably a
sign of saving the individual's health, but from the point of view of society, it is to some extent
a sign of ill health. There is no other way to explain the fact that the population is losing
interest in their own problems at the national level. The entire line of our politicians (
with rare exceptions) is gradually moving beyond the band of recognition.
The press should be a generator of a variety of points of view, which does not happen.
It is impossible to stand on the open road for many years, changing only slogans as they
fade: from "Perestroika is irreversible" to "There is no alternative to the chosen course".
There is always an alternative, and it is the task of the media to show it.
At the same time, one of the main characteristics of Western society is also lost, when no
significant action can take place without appropriate information
training. The United States actively worked with its population before entering the
Gulf War, only the organization "Citizens to Protect Kuwait" had a budget
of six million. As a result, the majority of the population
welcomed America's entry into the war. The war in Chechnya began and was conducted
without providing adequate support from the population. One information
war was won, the other lost.

§2 . Formation of the communicative space by public methods

relations

We often talk about the

information space. But it should rather be about
in the communication space. If information refers us to a one-way process, where the consumer
has only a passive role, then in the case of communication, speech is already used.
we are talking about a two-way process, where both the generator and the
recipient of information both have active roles that form this communication.

Today's world is strongly shaped by mass communications.

A political or economic event only becomes significant when
it is reported in the mass media.
A certain relationship must be fulfilled: the more significant this shape or structure is in the real worl
more it should occupy a place in the information flows. Today, no Western
organization can exist without appropriate communication support.
For example, the US Embassy in Moscow has eight members for
press relations. Accordingly, all Western branches of companies in the territory
automatically repeat the number of public relations employees accepted in their
native land. It is difficult for the CIS countries to enter this world
on an equal footing, because all the positive places in it are already occupied.
We are not expected to talk about new discoveries or liver transplants. A
third-world country is expected to tell stories about natural disasters, strikes,
and famines. The White Brotherhood with its end of the world was also interested
in foreign mass media. This is not someone's evil machinations. First place
becomes first only if there is someone who takes the last place, against which
you are a chorusyou look like Osho. The latest arms trade scandal with Libya
fits comfortably into the same pattern: a bad Ukraine and a good Western world. A
child country that doesn't know the rules of the adult country game. The Ukrainian
media cannot defeat this trend, because they do not have enough power. Ukraine,
moreover, does not have any media oriented towards the West or Russia. But
at the same time there is a corresponding law of propaganda: there is no point in
spending money on breaking the stereotype, since it is almost impossible to do so.
You can only try to build a new stereotype next to it. There is also the law
of selective perception: we take from the news stream only what
corresponds to our picture of the world, rejecting what is trying to disrupt it.
Thus, we maintain a certain level of psychological
comfort. Probably for this reason, we justify "corruption" by
saying that privatization is necessarily accompanied by criminalization. Moreover,
we formulate this almost as a new Newton's law. Work with negative information
is also very poorly organized. The West has a richer experience in this regard,
because, for example, in the case of election campaigns, the volume of negatives
exceeds the volume of positives. But due to the ambiguous attitude of the
population, organizing negative information requires completely different efforts
and more serious skill. The Ukrainian electoral example of 1998,when the official media
actively opposed former Prime Minister P. Lazarenko, clearly demonstrates this.
The stereotype that we have adopted: if you criticize, then you should support it, was
revealed very seriously in this situation. This leads to a clear conclusion: direct delivery
of negative information often has the opposite result.T. And this has long been
understood all over the world. The most striking example of negative advertising
in the United States - Clinton vs. Bush-just demonstrates the possibility
of indirect delivery of negative information. In these commercials, J. R. R.
Tolkien appeared on the screen. Bush, who said "Read my lips," then Bush's voice
said, for example, there will be no tax increases. And it ended with an official
report from the Department of Statistics, which stated that taxes were raised
so many times during the Bush administration. Please note that this submission
seems to lack even a hint of Clinton's point of view. For this reason, the population
very well perceived such advertising. Some of them said that this
is what Bush himself says. Another part of the voters generally believed that these ads
were ordered by official authorities such as the statistics department.
We also face negative situations not only in the pre-election
situation. Press secretaries often have to. dodging, correct ill-conceived
statements of the first persons. Here, for example, is the advice given by the General
Director of the Center for Political Technologies I. Bunin: "In my opinion, the most
powerful negative impact on Yeltsin's image was the publication of Korzhakov's book,
which finally destroyed the myth that the president is a heroic person. In
this book, he appeared before us as a person with all his strengths and weaknesses,
and his weaknesses turn out to be much more than his strengths. The memoirs of the
former presidential bodyguard have received a wide response among the population and attracted
the special attention of many political leaders who are interested in looking beyond
the veil of the Russian leader's personal life. In such a situation , Boris Nikolaevich
needs to do the following: in no case should he pay attention to the situation in which
he is being treated?try to make fun of the author in the same way as they do in the show
"Dolls", and finally take the only niche for him: abandon the image of the tsar and put
on the mask of a "grandfather", even if in some ways weak, but old and wise" ("Adviser".
- 1997. - No. 10. - p. 5). one can agree with many of these words , but one should
strongly object to the image of a "grandfather". The type of our countries does not
allow for such a leadership option, which is probably possible in some successful
and stable Western power. By the way, a little shocking were the exclamations
in one of the KVN (April 1998), where the Stavropol team shouted "Grandfather,
Grandfather" under the walls of the Kremlin, allegedly trying to get to Yeltsin.
The status of the grandfather in our culture is still the status of the "outgoing", which
should be considered, and it is possible not to consider. That's as it turns out. Guy
Khanov, president of the agency "Publicity PR", calls as a negative factor for the image
of Boris Yeltsin, in addition to the war in Chechnya, the course of his illness. "Those
who tried to hide the president's condition for a long time showed their utter contempt
for public opinion. The basic law of PR is publicity. The more people knew about Yeltsin's
illness, the more they would sympathize with the native president, and the whole
country would be waiting impatiently for news about his health. In this case, he
would really become close to many. As for various kinds of internal
Kremlin intrigues - Koch's resignation, scandals with auctions, etc., it is unlikely that all
this interests the public living outside the Garden Ring, and no PR
actions in this regard are simply not required. Another thing is that since the election
, Yeltsin's team has not conducted a single successful PR campaign, that in itself
has already affected the decline in the president's rating" (In the same placeIn opposition
to the above, it should be noted that scandals and resignations have a very serious
impact on public opinion, since they violate the basic postulate, quite clearly
formulated in the time of Hitler and successfully applied by the American
administration - the authorities should speak with a single voice. Therefore
, no quarrels or conflicting statements are allowed, since they show not just
the weakness of the authorities, but create an event that the population
will definitely react negatively to in advance. M. Kolerov, head of the Public Relations
Center of ONEXIM Bank, speaks about the new trend of working with compromising
materials: "Approximately from the spring of this year , the attitude towards "black
PR" - custom articles-began to change. Placing compromising material in the media has
become less or even counterproductive. Because now, when some
compromising article appears - not an analysis, but just a "drain" - no one
asks what is really happening, and everyone immediately begins to find out who it is.
we need to know who is behind this. And therefore, a refutation,
counter-arguments, it seems, are not always necessary, or even simply superfluous"
("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 10. - p. 10). Probably, this is a natural reaction to the
prevalence of compromising material, which has become particularly evident
recently. The communication space of any CIS country, regardless of attempts
to manage it, is formed today according to laws that are independent of anyone. On
the one hand, the media is placed in a situation of self-survival. On the other hand,
the media began to be actively used in the political struggle, opening their pages to
a strong flow of negative information, which was not the case before. This is partly
removed by a certain lack of response to the accusations made in the press,
whereas previously they would have been followed by harsh measures. That is,by
opening the "floodgates" for negativity, society has balanced its input by not
reacting to it, bringing its system back into line.
The former USSR built a highly monologue-based version of civilization.
Society built a strong hierarchy. In it, the higher a person sat, the more
correct his thoughts were. L. Brezhnev immediately published an ongoing collection
of works. This monocivilization had its own clear laws that did not allow
for dialogue. The party worker was unquestionable. We were a united Soviet
people. The people and the party were also united. Unified schemes of
interpretation of reality forced us to "VIOLENTLY APPLAUD" the general secretary
who was losing coordination. Perestroika brings elements of a dialogical society.
The old hierarchies are collapsing. The Soviet people are becoming multinational.
The party worker turns into a negative hero. Past negative heroes (dissidents)
become positive heroes. These changes were preceded by verbal heroes-writers,
journalists, directors who were professionals in influencing the mass consciousness
in the past. And they continued their work in the present.
Gorbachev said: criticize the party committees, and we will help you. That is, I
actually initiated the dialog. Mark Zakharov was destroying his party card.
demonstrating new behaviors that were virtually nonexistent before. Society, as in
the period of Peter the Great, was faced with the use of a new language. The"
translators "were verbal professionals who were once called "engineers
of human souls". The monologue
society builds and cherishes its hierarchy. Even Stalin was not Stalin, but Lenin
today. This common measure was the party hierarchy. The status of the department
was determined by the status of its head in the party hierarchy. As a result,
the USSR broke up into a certain number of new hierarchies, and dialogical
relations emerged between them. However, these hierarchies turned out to be
unequal with the past ones. Compare the existence of one party in the past and
more than forty that have announced themselves today.
When a monologue society builds a dialogical society, it inevitably
begins to repeat its old path again. In the CIS countries, too, there are clear sprouts
of building a new unified hierarchy that violate the principle of dialogism. Here
are just some examples.
- a certain TV channel is declared as a presidential channel, where
only a monologue is possible (criticism of the authorities is prohibited).
- at the level of nation building, the idea of a "titular nation" is declared, everyone
else should be imbued with one idea, all other languages should give way
one language; - parties under the government are beginning to be built,
which repeat the old merger of party and power structures. Only if earlier the
party was above the government, now, on the contrary, in the pair
"power-party" priority is given to the government; - any article in the media begins
to be considered from the point of view of who is behind it, the opinion
that no one writes just like that is firmly established in public opinion.

That is, from the first sprouts of dialogism, we have again returned to the
system of monologue. Watergate, as bad as it is, is fundamentally possible
only in a system of dialogism. In the monologue system, Watergate will be
punished for the person who tells about it, not the person who commits it.

There are certain objective factors, which push our society to generate monologues.
These are such external factors: as a certain pressure from the West,
the dependence of the CIS countries on international financial structures. Internal
factors include both economic (the ongoing redistribution of state property)
and political (the early announcement of the election campaign). But the main
factor is the common origin of all our power structures from the past, according to
the laws of a monologue, it is impossible to build a dialogue. The authorities do not
want and do not know how to talk on equal terms, emphasizing their hierarchical
position. Hence the constant conflicts with the parliament. Hence, until today , the
possibility of an open conversation with your own people has not been realized.
Each society builds its own myth with the help of its own media. Its task
is to form a unified picture of the world, which contributes to the unity of the nation.
For example, the American myth values such parameters as freedom, a certain
narcissism (all the best can only be in America), opportunities for growth
for everyone (every shoe shiner can become a millionaire). The Austrian myth
of the Habsburg Empire was defined by hedonism, a focus on enjoying
life. The Soviet myth, on the contrary, emphasized labor enthusiasm, we were in
a state of constant construction for a century. This is an internal component. The
external component of the Soviet myth emphasized the constant fight for peace. At
the same time, the Soviet people put social norms above biological norms.
Therefore , there is Pavlik Morozov, who puts social goals above family relations,
or Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya and Alexander Morozov, who give their lives for
the public good. Each civilization is characterized
by its own self-description. Therefore, the verbal cross-section becomes
very important for it, although according to researchers, for example, 69%
of the information we read from the TV screen is nonverbal. But the verbal world
is more convenient for constructing a myth, since realities may not obey
desires, while the verbal world always obeys. Therefore, public
relations come out on top in building myths, as they specialize in communications
with the mass consciousness. Thus, Russia, having lost the information
war in Chechnya, completely rebuilt its propaganda, putting a new mythology
as its basis. At the same time, the Russian government commission stated that
the mass consciousness does not work with rational arguments, that the myth of
the Chechen war has already been built up in the mass consciousness, so today
it is only possible to build it anti-myth. That is, we have a completely different
way of understanding the communicative situation.
On the territory of the CIS, political public relations take the first place. By the way,
In the West, financial, crisis and government agencies are leading the way, i.e. our
monologue reality structures its communicative content differently.
space. At the same time, crisis public relations (dealing with anticipated and
expected crises) have become an important part of the normal functioning
of the business, after such situations as oil tanker accidents or throwing poison
into medicines or chocolate bars. Having lost millions of dollars in such crises,
businesses began to treat crisis public relations differently.
All modern Western politicians are more or less the result
of the work of public relations specialists with them. The image of G. Kohl was
created by one of the former leaders of ABCthree days of television. D. Gergen has
been working with American presidents for the fourth consecutive term. J. Major
refused the services of specialists until after his first appearance on television, the
media began to discuss not the essence of his speech, but how he was dressed. At
the same time, special attention is paid to body language skills, since a person can
control verbal communication well, but in the field of nonverbal communication, our
capabilities are more limited. Western politicians are taught to speak for no more
than a minute and a half, so that they are not edited in television news. R. Nixon
generally made statements consisting of no more than a hundred words, so as not to
allow the press to reinterpret what he said. With the Polish president A. Kwasniewski
, the French "king of advertising" Jacques Segela worked, and in the list of politicians
he brings such names to power. like Mitterrand, Vranitsky, Papandreou, Havel,
Antall, Zhelev, Lech Walesa. The last
presidential campaign in Russia clearly showed the role of political public relations,
when in the public consciousness of Russians it was possible to clearly link G.
Zyuganov with the famine and terror of the distant past, leading the population away
from the shortcomings of modernity associated with Boris Yeltsin. For this purpose,
focus groups worked in every region of Russia, and the impact of all the president's
commercials on them was determined . The rapid ascent of A. Lebed also rests
on the work of professionals. The
current disastrous existence of Ukrainian parties in the public consciousness is due
to the complete lack of work in this direction. The communication space of Ukraine
should not be virgin land, only constant and fruitful work can make this virgin land
yield a harvest in the field of business protection. and in the field of politics. When we don't
do anything, the result can be easily predicted. Only work can bring results. The
image of the FBI and the image of the Roman Catholic Church are all linked to the
work of specific individuals. Cooper,a journalist, worked with the FBI , and Hoover
opened his archives to him. The image of the Pope is handled by the editor-in-chief
of the Vatican newspaper. British police officers are being lured to work by the fact
that they will have to deal with public relations in the future. So the communication
space of Ukraine can become its own, and not someone else's, only after the work
of relevant professionals. Until then, we will always create artificial
protective barriers, build hierarchies, and introduce censorship. But all these are
methods of a weaker opponent. A strong professional does not build barriers
that hinder others,but works on his own. And wins.

§3 . Communication campaigns

Recently, we have received a number of very active propaganda campaigns in

both Ukraine and Russia. This indicates a new role for the mass media in our country.
In addition to the standard slow-moving anti-presidential, anti-prime minister, and
anti-parliamentary campaigns,to which the population is so used that it doesn't actually
respond to them, new ones have also been added, including quite personal ones
All this indicates a new phenomenon for us - THE INFORMATION STATUS
OF AN ORGANIZATION OR LEADER IS NO LESS IMPORTANT THAN ITS REAL
STATUS. The leader should aim for the center of public attention, while at the same time
pretending that he is tired of the constant light of Jupiters. The leader exists only as a
function of the masses, so without the interest of the masses, there is no leader. Hence
the attention of the authorities to the mass media, which has emerged everywhere in
the world. The population wants to see peace and tranquility among their leaders, which
is associated with peace and open sourcestay in the country. Any conflict hits
everyone with a ricochet. Therefore, even within the framework of the presidential staff,
they thought about the fact that they should not constantly generate negativity around
the Supreme Council, since this not only hinders the establishment of relations, but also
creates a negative image for the very first person. Thus, it was Boris Yeltsin (according
to E. Kiselyov, Itogi, February 9, 1997) who forced former
Defense Minister I. Rodionov and then Secretary of the Defense Council Yu.
Baturina
Such work with public opinion is not our invention.
Propaganda campaigns always accompany any major actions
of the state machine. For the first time, we saw firsthand how effective they can be
during Boris Yeltsin's presidential campaign, which took place before our very eyes. At
the same time, not only B. Yeltsin was "taken away" from being tied to the current state
of Russia, but G. Zyuganov was completely associated in the mass consciousness with
the famine and terror of Stalin's time. Although with the same success it could be tied
to the Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible.
This is a global technology. The United States also had to convince
its population that it was defending democracy before entering Desert Storm. But
since Kuwait and Iraq did not differ much on this parameter, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia
were recognized as "potentially democratic countries", and the Iraqi leader was a
tyrant. To run the armed defense model, J. R. R. Tolkien Bush called the three thousand
Americans who remained in Kuwait "hostages," and at congressional hearings
, a Kuwaiti girl gave harrowing testimony about the atrocities of soldiers. As it turned out
later, in fact, this girl was the daughter of the Kuwaiti ambassador to the United States
and could not see anything. But public opinion has already authorized the deployment
of troops. The military has also been helped by two things in managing "civilian"
public opinion:
a) limited press access to actual combat,
and b) manipulation of public opinion polls in the United States itself. By the way,
the press during the military campaign, closed only in the framework of briefings, at which
the military gave out crumbs of information they needed, tried to protest. But as a result
of the TV broadcasts of these briefings, the population only felt that the reporters were
ill-mannered, and in this regard they sided with the military. Great Britain, during the
invasion of the Falklands in 1982, took advantage of the terms of the BBC's license, a
"the most objective in the world" began to generate radio broadcasts of an allegedly
Argentine radio station, where it was reported that the president of Argentina decided
to sacrifice at least forty thousand soldiers for the sake of the islands, and they also
transmitted letters from Argentine mothers
my sons alive and unharmed.
Russia was defeated in the information war, which ran parallel
to the real Chechen war. On the one hand, the army lost out to its public opinion
within the country. On the other hand, Russia has lost it in the eyes of the world's
public opinion. At the same time, the development of a special commission of the
Russian government very clearly (which indicates a different understanding of the
situation than what we have) spoke about the anti- myth in response to the existing
myth of the Chechen war. In this mythological space, it was planned (it was
developed in 1995) to take Russia out of the standard Western view of the evil empire.
And imagine the Chechen war as a Christian war against an Islamic warThis
corresponds to S. Huntington's well-known model of a future war as a war of
civilizations. The Russian-Ukrainian information wars have also become protracted. Both
sides use historical motives as their arguments. Crimea
(Black Sea Fleet) "was and will be Russian," says one side. We don't have such
memorable verbal slogans. Except for the" aphorism "of D. Korchinsky:" Crimea
will be either deserted or Ukrainian." But it is also directed against its
author. By the way, it should be noted that UNA-UNSO is clearly concerned with
methods of communicative influence, as a result of which interesting texts are
generated in form . Among the most recent examples is an appeal to the president
with the following content: since the departure of the former head of the presidential
administration D. Tabachnik deprives many political parties and movements of their
meaning of existence , it is necessary to put V. Chernovol in D. Tabachnik's place,
giving the latter military ranks, scientific degrees, a jacket and the first and patronymic
name Dmitry Vladimirovich. This text falls under such a propaganda mechanism as
"verbal innovations", which, unfortunately, does not shine in any of our political
parties. Although recently, the left has also become more active in the field of
communication. So, on January 29, 1997 , they not only opposed the right-wing rally at
the Arsenal, but also came out to support Marxist-Leninists, albeit terrorists, in front of
the Peruvian representation. And the idea of blocking "harmful" publications on Day X
is generally brilliant, although not new. It is assumed that activists will start calling on
this day, hanging up the phone an infinite number of times when answering, in the
direction of the "wrong" orientation, which will disrupt their normal work.
The media drive into our heads completely incomprehensible to the population purely
Western standards. According to the volume of advertising information that falls on us,
we should only talk about toothpaste or sanitary pads in everyday life today
. The advertising market is completely distorted in a way that is incomprehensible to
the average person. If in the Soviet past goods were advertised that should not
have been bought because they were bad, then in the post-Soviet period
goods are again advertised that are not bought, but because they are completely
unnecessary (in terms of price, etc.) for the standard buyer. At the same time, most
of the media reports are devoted to objects that are completely absent
from everyday life. This is a story about securities or the stock market.
The media is also becoming an important political force. They can take us into the
desert for forty years, or they can lead us out of the desert. Today, only two things
save us from manipulating our brains: a)
the disappearance of newspapers as an obligatory reading ritual that has not passed
from the old world to the new - the number of subscribers has decreased tenfold, and
television is generally considered more emotional than a rational way
of influencing;
b) the lack of real professionals in managing public opinion through the
media, since the higher party schools did not train them within the framework of such
specialization. Therefore, today this issue is being resolved purely bureaucratically -
the volume of appearance of the desired face increases/decreases according to UT-1,
which resembles the methods of "kremlinologists" who were able to calculate the
significance of a particular person at a given moment by his place on the mausoleum during
festive demonstration. At the same time, even a strange rollback towards the past began to
be observed, which arose due to the fight against [Link] be with an unlicensed
rental service. All the "classics"returned to the TV screens, starting with "Gadfly". But this,
oddly enough, also corresponds to the interests of the average consumer, who is hard
pressed by the dominance of foreigners with their problems and lifestyle on their home screen
All this was the result of an exchange of TV products with a stronger Western opponent, w
the symbolic world began to bend in its favor, and the internal consumer demands the creati
of a symbolic world native to him, even if the regional committee secretary or
the unforgettable Stirlitz and Muller are among the heroes. Cf. even the heading
"Kinonostalgia" on our screens. And " kinonostalgia "is just a stone's throw away
from"political nostalgia". However, the main problem is different: all the amount of
information that is brought to the population through television (and newspapers, as we
have already noticed , are left for a small handful of readers) absolutely does not coincide
with their interests. You can just as effectively talk about life on Mars. The population
is not at all interested in even such a burning issue for the elite as
the upcoming presidential election. The most terrible precedent was formed:
THE PRIORITIES OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EVENTS IN THE MASS MEDIA AND
AMONG THE POPULATION COMPLETELY DIVERGED. The press actually generates
stories about events that are interesting to a very narrow stratum of people. But since it is
these people who react positively or negatively to events, the press goes even further in
"adjusting" only to them. Everyone else went completely silent. In addition, the press today
is quite economically dependent, although not on its readers. Therefore, texts
are generated regardless of the interests of readers.
German researcher E. Noel-Neumann called a similar phenomenon
the "spiral of silence". It consists in the fact that the minority has the right to vote, and
the majority is silent, as a result, and does not feel like a majority. This
is probably one of the reasons for the current patience of the population, which
political scientists argue about, and sociologists ask questions like " are you ready for active
protest actions?" Everyone feels like they are in the minority, thinking that they are the
exception, but the rest of us are doing well.
Another characteristic of mass media clearly separates, for example,
the UT news programs and the Vremya program. Even before the election, Russian
television adopted a new type of information delivery, revealing not only the facts, but also
the undercurrents of an event. And this is not a matter of lack of funding, which we
are nodding at, although this is also important. This is a completely different intellectual
product, which we were not ready to produce. We underestimate the intellectual
level of both speakers and viewers, which is completely unacceptable in the current
dynamic environment. Let us add that the Saturday program on S. Dorenko's ORT,
modeled as an author's program, also allows itself to make critical statements
about certain government officials, creating the illusion of independent
generation of information. It is very important to be able to model independence, even
when it does not exist. UTN, in turn, generates clearly dependent texts, even proudly
declares this dependence. In such a situation, the viewer easily turns away from
the biased presentation of information.
One of the most important characteristics of the Vremya program for the viewer is that it
often criticizes what is happening. Perhaps this is due to the presence in Russian politics
several competing centers of power. We have completely fallen under
the flow of entirely positive information, it is as if there were no ten years
of perestroika. And from the theory of propaganda, it is known that people
who receive only positive information are easily persuaded when receiving
negative information, unlike people who receive both pro and con arguments.
Actually, this was one of the main reasons for the ineffectiveness of Soviet propaganda,
the results of which were easily destroyed by the effectiveness of
Western "voices"that generated negative information. The CIS countries do
not yet generate a unifying structure that would allow connecting sufficiently
heterogeneous people together. We are very different in our worldview,
in our language, in our political preferences, and in our economic situation.
For this reason, a divergence occurs instead of a connection. The State
, by its very nature, must ensure centripetal trends. If a totalitarian State
does this by force of compulsion, then a democratic state must do the same
by force of persuasion. Interestingly, you need to do the same thing, but
in a fundamentally different way. But it doesn't work out any other way yet.

4. Changes in the sphere of communication space

We live in a world that is gradually losing its rational shape. As a result

, we will soon believe the stories of mermaids in ponds, if astrologers believed so
easily . And these unanswered questions are innumerable. There are undoubtedly
strengths and weaknesses in our new world. But its loss of" intelligence "
is clearly not one of its reinforcing aspects. What is the reason for this? Any drastic
change leads to a break in the professional sphere, this is natural. We
are a state not only with a transitional type of economy, but also with a transitional
type of democracy, and no one knows what it is today. But we can see the obvious
oddities of this transitionwe read it firsthand. Let's name three of them:
- undoubtedly the level of professionalism is falling. With drastic changes
, different characteristics come out on top instead of professional ones. In
the post-revolutionary period, this was a proletarian origin. We rely
on loyalty to the first persons. In the former GDR
, university professors who were some kind of party functionaries were excluded from
universities, replacing them with weaker, but "clean" teachers from this point of view.
The assistant could replace a well-known mathematics professor. All this is like a
different kind of"patriotism". In a crisis situation, it is he who comes out on top, but not
knowledge and skills. In general, the new emerging elite pushes out the old one
because of its greater loyalty to the new regime; -
undoubtedly the level of rationality is falling. When we do not know enough about
what awaits us tomorrow, there is a detachment from global attempts to understand
what is happening. Moreover, a closure occurs in the framework of more than predictable
structures. A genuine civil society is characterized by a multiplicity
of systems of influence, where vertical and horizontal directions work, and
feedback is fully involved. In other words, society is becoming more inter-permeating
and interconnected, and the authorities are just as dependent on their voters
as the voters are on the authorities. A transitional society, at least in our version,
is characterized, on the contrary, by mutual repulsion from the system. Those
who don't rely on it survive. People are covered by the umbrella of family, business
-barter, etc. All this is aimed at slowing down the destructive effect
of the system, which, instead of helping, pulls them all to the bottom with it.
Individual survival can be considered the law of a transitional society. By the way,
when rationality falls, astrologers appear in response, who, of course,
know everything, all sorts of sects;
- undoubtedly the level of support for what is happening is falling - this is
the most dangerous, as political and economic results are clearly eroded. As a
result, it is necessary to tighten the management of the information sphere,
which was expressed both in the creation of an information monster in the
form of an appropriate ministry, and in the appointment of its head. Ukraine
has created an analog of the Ministry of Propaganda-the Ministry of
Information. A transitional democracy does not want to take public opinion into
account. Perhaps this is a certain reasonableness of the system. If it does not
act quite rationally for one set of variables, then adding additional
components to it is unlikely to increase the rationality of decisions made. Here
are some examples of such irrationality:
- incomprehensible (irrational) appointments of top officials (ministers and
AML), - too clear (transparent) appointments,
- the arrival of a person from a particular region to key positions immediately
bends the Ukrainian economy in favor of this region,where all resources,
licenses and aml begin to go.
As a law of transition, you can developing diversity, which is then
replaced by narrowing the diversity. The state structure, having lost its rigid
construction, first resolves everything. Like mushrooms, new magazines and
newspapers appear,new parties are created... The power structure begins to
flirt with public opinion in order to send it back to its old positions. Only during
this period is it possible to create something new, after which
the structure regains its rigidity. If before she allowed someone else's opinion,
then later she again does everything to neutralize it. There are several ways
to work with other people's opinions. Let's list them:
· prohibition strategy - the former Soviet Union succeeded here. But from there,
we also have a clear knowledge that it is almost impossible to close this or
that information in modern conditions;
· argumentation strategy - in the West, this strategy is called treating the situation,
turning the situation in the right direction (the corresponding specialists
are called "spin doctors"). The West is really intellectually struggling
with unprofitable coverage of events, when 50-60 people from the White
House communications Service practically outplay the US mass media , even
sometimes using methods of pressure on the media similar to the work of
the propaganda and agitation departments of the CPSU Central Committee; ·
ignore strategy - it uses a method borrowed from counter-propaganda, repeating
the arguments of the opponent, you introduce them into the mind, so it's
better to pretend that nothing happened. This start strategy can also be called
a default, non-response strategy. Today in our press you can read accusations
on any occasion, but this has no consequences. In the program"Fifth Corner "
(Alternative TV company), the former head of the control and audit Service
of the President of Ukraine, MP A. Novikov, spoke, whose words quite well
illustrate the above. He said that today is not a sin obyuvinenie " killed, stole."
It is a sin to show disloyalty to the owner. Let's give a Russian example about
the appearance in the newspaper Izvestia of a note about the five-billion-dollar
state of the then Prime Minister V. Chernomyrdin: "It is quite possible
it was necessary to limit myself to the heartfelt story of the White House press secretary about
the not at all fantastic income of the head of the cabinet. But no, we have witnessed a
multi-month war between Izvestia and big business, which ended with a complete change of power
in the newspaper. Moreover, a good half of the reports published during this battle began
with the retelling of gossip about the prime minister's wealth. Who did not know-found out,
who did not believe-believed" (Gurevich M. The first persons should keep track of the person //
"Adviser". - 1998. - No. 2. - pp. 12-13).
How can you work in our communication space? Moreover,
today it has begun to repeat the structure of the bureaucratic system. All media
outlets have become "departmental", that is, they have moved from the category of neutral to
the status of subordinates: now they print dirt only on their opponents.
There is a struggle going on against certain political players. Moreover, there is a clear
specialization in the types of political targets. Tell me who the negative article was about, and I
'll tell you who printed it.
In the Concept of National Security of Ukraine, all types of information threats
are external in nature. We are naturally afraid of the information
expansion of other states, but we understand this primarily as Russia, forgetting
about the countries of the West. And we don't worry at all about the broken
information space on our own side. We have not grown our own
authorities that could influence public opinion. Journalists were not allowed
to rise to the level of lords of thoughts. The low level of our journalism
suits the authorities to work inside the country. But in response, we can't even give out
a message that goes through the influence at the level of S. Dorenko or V. Posner. We cannot
intellectually refute Yu's voyage. Luzhkov, are not ready to fight
arguments, implementing only the fight against prohibitions. After all, Inter left
only the Vremya program out of ORT's general political programs, and everything else
disappeared. Based on this trend, we should expect the Vremya program to disappear next
year. By closing the entire information space, the authorities
solve the problem in a purely bureaucratic way. But it also forgets one
fundamental change in the situation that occurred with independence: today
the order was replaced by a conviction. No one can be ordered to love this or that anymore,
you can only try to convince your citizens to do this. And the authorities are not ready to
convince and do not know how to. Therefore, for example, it was easier for Boris Yeltsin to
shoot down his parliament than to negotiate with it.
The communication space will still remain alive. It has its own pain
points. There are hardened points where it is pointless to poke. In this space
, you can still achieve something. A clear positive development. The
need for one's own interpretations of situations began to manifest itself for the first time. We
don't have enough Western news, movies, and movies anymore. We need "interpreters" who
would show that our world also moves within reasonable grounds. Growing
"oracles" that can attract the masses requires more serious approaches than those
that exist today.
The example of Alain Delon's arrival in Krasnoyarsk on a pink plane to support A.
Lebed also demonstrates the beginning of a new era of working with the population.
According to experts, such an arrival should have cost one million dollars
(RTR news, 1998, April 23), although A. Delon said that he himself was rich enough to
be able to fly to the general's birthday. Serthe competitive games that
modern societies are entering require serious players.
 5. The model of work in the communicative space of modern society
states

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of communication and

information space. The communication space is highly dependent on both the
consumer and the sender of information, while the information
space depends only on the sender (sponsor) of information.
The communication space of the CIS countries goes through three stages of
its development. Each of them marks a clear period of history that we are
going through, and the information space in this regard is just one of the
elements of the overall system. The communication space could not become
a separate island with its own behavior. So, three periods of the information
history of the post-Soviet era are as follows:
a) stage of centralization breakdown, as a result, the rule becomes: take it, who wants it.
During this period, everyone creates the media, strong/weak, rich/poor all
rushed into this area. No one thinks about the simple question that continues
to be central to the media: whether there are material and intellectual
resources to fill this information flow;
b) sale stage: as a result, certain channels, magazines, and newspapers
that were fanned out in the first period become objects of secondary purchase
and sale, but already stronger structures. In some cases, especially in the
case of TV channels and advertising agencies, that is, really financially
interesting objects, they are hidden behind foreign capital. The "who to sell to"
stage ends with the media losing to a foreign party; from time to
time, there is a call for the media to sell to a foreign party.I'm moving on to the
third stage, which is already partially implemented. This
is in) iron Curtain stage 2. We call it "second" because it is open to the
West and closed to other CIS countries. For example, Ukraine has a TV
program "Window to America" and other programs and films, but it is
increasingly closing itself off from Russia. Objectively, it is explicable, since
the formation of one's own is always possible when repelling from a loved
one. Russia is characterized by a different version of the third stage: the
rigidity of the struggle between the media belonging to different industrial and
financial groups. However, the experience of strict control, which turned out to
be good in the case of material objects, does not give the same effective results
in the case of information objects that obey other laws. For example, as they say
in a children's song: if you have a song and I have a song, and we switch, then
you will have two songs and I will have two songs. This is possible only in the
case of an information space that is modeled as a rigidly deterministic system.
When taking into account the information consumer, it turns out that the idea
of the information space as a kind of black box, where you can control
the inputs and outputs, turns out to be fundamentally erroneous.
Moreover, today there is not just nostalgia, but also a lack of certain
"intellectual vitamins" that the CIS media do not provide. Every normal
consumer tends to "buy" the best product. If the state measures
If the "better" parameter is purely
ideological, then the ideology parameter is not a priority
for the population. Management methods

The method of controlling the information space does not consist in closing it,
which is what they first begin to strive for. This is a good fitd is the prerogative
of a weak player who creates special benefits for himself. Another option is to
use certain parameters: resonant communication technologies. In this case, it is
not the management of the entire system as a whole that takes place, but an
attempt to introduce various topics and messages that attract public opinion in a
multi-pass manner. This is the strategy of a stronger player, who speaks more
rarely, but always to the point. Verbosity is typical only for the weak, who wants
to interest others in their opinion, and therefore is inclined to give out even
unnecessary information. Verbosity in this aspect was typical of Soviet-era
propaganda, but the population responded by disconnecting from these verbal
streams offered to them. Managing public opinion
a) formation of the agenda: what exactly and in what aspect
public opinion;
b) switching public opinion from one aspect to another; c) introducing
new topics and situations into public opinion ; d) counter-propaganda
work,which consists in responding to the information actions
of another country. Under the American
model of such management, 50-60 employees are able to develop and
maintain the interest of the central media in those issues that are recognized
as significant for the country on a given day and for a given week. For
this reason, this direction has the name STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS.
Unlike tactical communications, whose functions are performed by press
services. Strategic communications define, what and IN WHAT WAY it should be
said. Tactical options - where and when it will be said. An additional specialization
in this area is spin doctor, that is, specialists in the
"treatment" of information [Link] it takes an unfavorable
turn for the country. At one time
(actually in the run-up to the elections), ORT's Vremya program was just
switched to this type of functioning: from presenting facts to presenting versions
of events and the trends behind them. Today, this is being implemented both in
the Vremya program itself and in S. Dorenko's Analytical Vremya Program. They
demonstrate the real possibilities of a different type of communication with the
audience. At the same time , typical TV news generates informational
messages that are not watched by many social groups of the population.
A new approach to information policy requires a different "intellectual
resource". Let's emphasize that we put intellectual capabilities first,
not material ones, unlike mass media managers who talk about their
small financial capabilities.
Priority problem options 1. Destroying the effect of pessimism,
which is especially important, since the pessimist blames the authorities
for his problems, and the optimist himself is looking for ways out of the crisis.
[Link] is an exhaustion of the intellectual resource, a strong repeatability
of techniques. Many TV programs clearly reflect their attachment to the previously
set model and their inability to develop further. Information
space management is a dynamic model. Public opinion is different every time, and
the same tools are not suitable for working in this area.
3. A significant problem today is the effect of "privatization", when
the population moves away from reading newspapers and watching TV news
programs, because they give an irrational set of events that can hardly be
interpreted. In response, young people switch to absorbing positive events: pop
concerts, image [Link]. 4.
There is also a "boomerang effect" where charges are returned to the person who
sent them. Several campaigns of this kind have been published recently.
5. There are no reasonable methods of communication with the population on a
number of major issues: crime, conflict, social partnership, strikes. For example,
the Ministry of Internal Affairs, reporting on the detention of a gang, does not
calm the viewer, but on the contrary, activates negative information in it.
6. The interpretation and work with the "Russian-speaking" population of
the CIS countries is incorrect. The policy of its disintegration from the processes of
social development continues, which creates another conflict-prone zone. 7. The
same applies to the intellectual stratum of the CIS countries, which is transferred
to the conditions of survival, including information, since it does not receive
intellectual products from the media and book publishers of the same volume
as before ( primarily due to the discrepancy between the salary level and the
new conditions). General conclusions
There should be a version of the state program for "promotion" opinion leaders.
The initial stage of this program should be the creation of objective characteristics
of this type of people and their subsequent search. Pop
singers who have massively flooded the TV screen should leave, essentially
taking the place of manufacturers of an intelligent product.
A separate program should analyze the phenomenon using objective, not
journalistic methods western image priorities, which
undoubtedly sets the tone today in many aspects. Find out its strengths and
weaknesses by trying to fight it in the next stage.
In principle, you should make the so-called "communication audit" all
government communications: what messages does the state send to its
citizens, why are they clearly ambiguous, why
does a person feel as if pushed out of the state's primary concerns and interests
? It is necessary to create mass media aimed at: foreign audience. Naturally,
the public opinion of these countries will not be directed in the way that the CIS
countries want, since the entry of a new member not only into the economic, but
also into the information community is a more serious task than it seems at first
glance. Many situations illustrate an important problem communication power
lag. Such a delay was also most clearly observed in the case of the well-known
funeral of the Patriarch in Kiev in 1995, when almost everyone was waiting for h
interpretations in mass communication were negative for the state. If
in the case of funerals, the problem was dynamic, then Crimea is
a persistent information problem. Crimea can be considered as
a combination of both positive communication factors (today 's regions tend to feed
more on their own internal rather than central media, i.e. there is a certain restriction
of communication flows) and negative ones(not only communicative, but also the
physical presence of sources of generating opposite information). Let's give a Russian
example: the violent reaction of the media to the phrase of the then Prime Minister o
Russia V. Chernomyrdin, who was in France at the time, that Russia would pay off t
debts of the tsarist government to France. "Well, it was worth it a few weeks before
launch a small campaign. And tell us: where did these debts come from, how much
owe, why we need to pay them back or at least promise to pay them back-otherwise
for example, the hard currency world will not accept new Russian onese
eurobonds. Alas, the government press service has lived these days in partisan
silence, not wanting to deprive the world of a surprise." (Gurevich M. The first persons
should keep track of the person // "Adviser". - 1998. - No. 2. - p. 12).
In principle, we can think of working with mass consciousness as a series
of subsequent components: what to say, who to say, and how to say it. But in ess
this is not so much a problem of what to say, but first of all, a problem of wha
to say it in (and even who to say it to, so that this message passes most
effectively).
Mass consciousness does not work with rational arguments, it works with
certain pseudo-myths. Therefore, only the same ones can be generated in response
social myths. Today, we only use them occasionally.
A good example is the televised response of former Deputy
Prime Minister Viktor Pinzenik to accusations of government corruption. I quote: "There
has always been corruption. But now Ukraine has become interesting for investors."
The first sentence does not refute, but, on the contrary, adapts itself under the expecta
of listeners . The second sentence introduces a new interpretation
of reality on this basis.
Agitation for secession from the USSR was no less successful in its time. Then
the idea of such a property was launched: "According to the German Bank, Ukraine ha
the best conditions for autonomous survival." In mass consciousness, it sounded like
that Ukraine feeds all the republics of the USSR.
Two things were positive here: a) a reference to authority, b) an explanation for
mass psychology of why it was bad before and why it will be good in the new
dimension.
Communication with the mass consciousness proceeds according to its own
laws, which are formulated quite clearly in some cases. Their name is
This was demonstrated by a lot of situations, first of all, the loss
of the Soviet Union in the Cold War as a communicative and symbolic war.
What impact patterns exist today that require our
consideration?
1. Work not with the entire population, but with opinion leaders. They make up 10
of the population. Americans are cynical in this regard: we work not with people, but
with channels. That is, with those who work with people by themselves. Before the wa
In the Persian Gulf, they determined that 10% of the population would shut down the
entire Arabic -speaking world. Working with opinion leaders is both more efficient and
more economical, as it allows you to concentrate resources on a limited area of impact. 2.
It is considered that it does not make sense to involve money in destruction a stereotype.
It won 't get you anywhere. The only option in the presence of an established
stereotype is to build a new stereotype, taking into account the existing one.
3. It is considered that if the audience receives only pros and cons, then, when receiving
arguments "against" from the opposite party, it is easily persuaded. At the same time, if
the audience (and the higher the level of education, the more necessary it is) gets both
positive and negative (with appropriate counterarguments), the harder it is to convince
them. 4. The concept adopted in the PR is important positioning options - this is building
a message from the point of view of the audience's interests. In reality, the audience is
able to respond only to those messages that supposedly have an impact on
the life of a particular person.

§6 . Different areas of PR work in the communication space

We can identify the following seven areas of PR where the application of these methods
has been most developed:: government, financial, lobbying,
electoral servicese (political), charitable, and internal audience outreach.
Let's look at them in more detail, but first let's mention one more area that
all of the listed ones can fall into. This is especially true in times of crisis.
Teams for a crisis are prepared in advance. Each manager should have
detailed instructions defining their behavior in the event of a crisis: either it turns out
to be a plane crash, or an oil pipeline explosion, or a sudden sale of shares by investors. At
the same time, it is very important to establish uninterrupted and honest communication with
the media, as we have already discussed above. You should
provide them with the most up-to-date information, otherwise, for example,
TV will play a picture of a fire, although in reality it will already be extinguished.
But there was no other information in the media. As a result, we have to switch to the most
honest ways of communicating with journalists. You should also draw sufficiently
frank conclusions from past crises to learn how to behave differently in future
situations. For example, A. Prigozhin in his article" Sociodynamics of catastrophes "makes
quite interesting conclusions about the" wrong behavior " after the earthquake in
Armenia (Prigozhin A. I. Sociodynamics of catastrophes / / Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya. -
1989. - № 3). Psychologically, the situation was as follows: there were three aftershocks. And
the third, the weakest of them, turned out to be the most psychologically terrible: as a result
of the third shock, people had a sense of continuity of the catastrophe. At
the same time, the problem of inaction of the authorities immediately arose. Civil authorities
and civil defense turned to the military after an hour and a half of inactivity, and only then
did any management situations appear. Of course, the slow mobilization and delivery of
rescue teams outside the scope of PR. In a crisis situation, they didn't thwart it.
other communication options. The crisis headquarters could not notify about the places and
rules for receiving food and clothing, and printed leaflets were mostly distributed to
managers for distribution, rather than being pasted around the city, which as a result created
a clear information vacuum. The extreme conditions immediately gave rise to rumors,
as there was no system for spreading real information. Arrests of looters
in retellings immediately turned into " shootings on the spot." "In general, the communication
"headquarters-population", - writes A. Prigozhin, - was established mainly from the top down,
the reaction of residents to the actions of the authorities to the latter almost did not reach."
Western researchers suggest the following conditions for making effective
decisions in a crisis (Heller R. The decision makers. - New York, 1991. - P. 294-295):

1. The ultimate responsibility lies with one person. 2. Leading

positions are assigned to the person who is best prepared
for work, while the characteristics of age, gender, and social
status are not taken into account. 3. There is no alternative to
success: the decisions made must be correct and must work. 4.
Nothing can be sacred: you can not cancel decisions because of
customs, rituals, or the norm accepted in a normal situation.
5. But at the same time, no one can be holy: decisions cannot
be blocked due to personal complications, and people who
interfere with the implementation of decisions must be immediately
disposed of. 6. Time is the deciding factor: it is necessary to
make and implement decisions according to a strict plan. 7.
A crisis affects everyone and requires everyone to work
selflessly beyond normal effort. 8. Positive results on overcoming
the crisis should be immediately widely disseminated in order to
show employees the results of their work. Like VeeFor example,
they try to use the crisis as one of the routine operations, which
allows us to work with less stress, since the time pressure
decreases, as we try to follow a pre-developed scenario.

State PRS

In the case of state structures, the object of influence is

the taxpayer, a citizen who wants and has the right to know about the
actions of state bodies at different levels. The Mayor's office can issue
numerous booklets for its citizens, revealing all aspects of their work. The
President speaks (on radio or television) to his fellow citizens with a certain
regularity (such as a weekly radio address). The media
describes the actions, meetings, and speeches of the first person. This
information about events that have occurred is a "reactive" slice. But there is
also a "proactive" cross-section, when an event is first prepared in public
opinion and only then implemented. This may be the introduction of a new
tax, a new system of medicine or education. In addition to reactive and
proactive communication , there is also such an aspect as spin doctor,
which is defined as correcting a problem after communication has started to
unfold in an undesirable direction. We have similar situations in our social
life, when events, when they are not given due attention, take an undesirable
turn. As a rule, the CIS countries are characterized by loud dismissals
of the closest employees of their presidents without a proper explanation
for public opinion of the events taking place. An important
point on which the work of state PRS depends is feedback modeling.
Today it is practically lost. As a consequence, if complaints to the authorities
about rampant crime are in the first place, then the second is not material
deprivation, but lack of care and attention. The authorities seem to turn away
from their citizens, while at the same time a reasonable use of feedback,
on the contrary, allows them to bring the authorities closer to the population.
The first persons symbolically act as the fathers of their nations, with all
the consequences that follow. If in the UK the Queen represents
If the prime minister is the performer, then in the case of the United States, the symbol and the
performer merge together. Hence the attention to the role played by the president. At
the same time, external, nonverbal characteristics become very significant. Researchers
have found that we read 69% of non-verbal information from the TV screen
, and only 31% give us words. This is like a return to more archaic,
verbatim methods of influence. Hence the new policy requirements.
If earlier thoughts and arguments were the main thing for him, today a
representative appearance, a pleasant timbre of voice, the ability to please
the audience, make them laugh if necessary, comes first. All these are purely acting requirements. As
it turned out, it is the actors who most optimally correspond to the television
channel, and politicians simply picked up the most effective acting
characteristics.
The role of television is also related to the fact that it is the most arbitrary channel and that it
carries not only the information that was planned, but also a large amount of unnecessary
information. If we imagine a meeting of a government delegation from another
country being broadcast live, we can see a lot of details
that are usually hidden from us when editing such an event: who is with whom stands, who is
with whom razgovarivaet, who is wearing what and under. Television provides an opportunity to show
information that is not controlled by PR employees.
Visual characteristics are better remembered by people, hence the importance of working
with them, the need to think through the visual image. Here
are some examples.
Example 1. In an application to attend an event by B. Clinton
, the relevant services must indicate, among other things: possible
titles of messages covering this event; possible types of photos
that can be taken there.
Example 2. During his visit to Kiev, Clinton went for his morning
jog an hour later than usual. As it turned out, since there was fog in Kiev, he
decided to run away when it would be more convenient for cameramen to shoot this process.
Example 3. Hitler's campaign posters against Hindenburg were an
evil satire. "They were beautiful drawings in a strikingly bright color scheme.
Hitler's enemies were the embodiment of evil, while Hitler was seen
as an avenging angel who stood up for a defiled Germany. Posters appeared everywhere - on the
walls of buildings, in kiosks, in the windows of party institutions and in the windows of everyone w
sympathized with Hitler. Their themes were uncomplicated, but they appealed to two
strong emotions: hatred and idealization" (Hertzstein R. E. The war that
Hitler won. Smolensk, 1996, p. 257).
PR-specialists are fighting for a higher level trust
management system F. Fukuyama
saw the reasons for the disappearance of the USSR from the world map in the absence of legitim
authorities, who felt that the population did not see them as the right leaders. For
this reason, even military juntas eventually relinquish power, not withstanding
such pressure from the population, as happened in Chile and Greece.
Ccabye methods are used in wartime by state organizations. So, if the war in
the Persian Gulf was won by US PR specialists, then the war in Chechnya was completely
lost by Russian PR specialists. At the same time, the Americans strongly
controlled the receipt of information from the theater of operations, focusing on
their theory of controlled access, which restricts the access
of correspondents to presidents. The Soviet Army used in the war in
there is such a tool rumors (N. Pikov Our weapons-rumors / / Soldier of fortune.
as
- 1995. - N 4). There it was found that the use of leaflets is ineffective, since
the population is illiterate, and it is forbidden to pick up leaflets from the ground
under pain of the death penalty. Therefore, all efforts were focused on spreading
rumors. And with the help of rumors, it was possible. for example, to prevent
the Mujahideen from coming to the aid of other fighters. as a rule. To increase
efficiency, such information was transmitted under the guise of messages
from the BBC, which was traditionally considered a reliable radio station.
N. Pikov writes :" One of the difficulties that arise in such cases is to create
an "organized" channel for delivering information to the right place and time. We
solved this problem by taking advantage of the chronotope phenomenon. In the
conditions of an Afghan city, we used traditional forms of chronotope: a bazaar
acquaintance, a teahouse acquaintance, a casual hitchhiker in a car going to
an opposition-controlled area. This method proved methodologically correct, but
it required regular testing of new, reliable versions covering up the behavior of
market talkers, those who liked to sit in a teahouse, those who urgently needed
to get somewhere by this particular car, and so on." (In the same place. - P. 40).
The problems of "hard" information management are quite typical for
wartime PRS. The hostage situation in Dagestan has led, for example, to the
following model: "all information on the events around Kizlyar, intended for
public distribution, through the press services of relevant ministries and
departments is concentrated in the Federal Security Service of the Russian
Federation. However, according to the source, who again "wished to remain
anonymous", the Lubyanka decides at its discretion to whom, in what form, and
when to issue it" (Izvestia, 1996, January 12). Public spending should aim to
create an image of a competent and effective Government that has strong power and is
able to address the challenges it faces. This is especially important in times like
today, when the state often has nothing to offer but words. But it is not even able
to generate the right words and at the right time, which reflects the lack
of involvement of PR specialists in public administration processes.

Financial PRS

All financial institutions are no less dependent on their real or potential investors
(shareholders) than public services are on the population. Therefore, working with
shareholders, writing annual reports, and holding meetings are all within the scope of
the PR. At the same time, it was found that the real weight of one depositor (shareholder)
on the development of events is minimal. In the management processes , the owners
of blocks of shares play a role, and working with them requires different approaches.
Another significant feature is the dynamism of this area: a few thousand shareholders,
dumping their shares, can attract the rest of them, completely destroying the company
in the market. That is why Western financial companies monitor their depositors
very seriously and conduct quite serious research in order to know them better
(age, income, what other shares they own). All this is necessary in order to stop the
"collapse", if it occurs. To do this , you should be able to reach out to the media outlets
that these investors watch during the evening and convince them of the correctness
of their positions. For example, Barchero Cabrero writes: "the greatest concern
of the company's management in the securities market is related to factors that can
cause a collapse in the exchange rate. You should not underestimate the unexpected
and rapid jumps up, which can lead to a subsequent increase in the price of the product.
the crisis. Such changes occur within just a few days or even hours.
Such situations are provoked by unusual events, for example
(and quite often) investment speculation" (Barquero Cabrero H. D. Public
relations in the world of Finance, Moscow, 1996, p. 76). Financial
advertising is located between two poles: on the one hand,
it is a purely corporate image, within which the development of
such parameters as "solidity", "serious reputation" and AML works.
The other pole is purely informational aspects.

Lobbying

For the West, lobbying, i.e. organizing assistance for the passage of certain
bills, is a completely legitimate profession, which itself
is regulated by the relevant laws. We also deal with
lobbying both in a hidden form and openly, when certain professional
and public groups unite in order to protect their interests in a more active
form. We hear about the agrarian lobby, we see demonstrations in defense
of their interests of Chernobyl victims, miners, and teachers. Frank Jeffkins
defines the main concepts in this area as follows: "The lobby consists of
groups with special interests, such as pensioners, doctors, farmers,
motorists or teachers. Lobbying this means presenting the problem to
politicians or government officials. A lobbyist it should not be confused with
a parliamentary correspondent who interviews ministers or members of
Parliament and receives copies of government documents in advance" (Jefkins
F. Public relations. - London, 1992. - P. 264). Thus, politicians and civil
servants are aware of the affairs and pains of various organizations.
At the same time, it is found that people with common interests are more
easily united, while the entire mass of the population does not have
common interests. These merged groups can, through their active actions,
"snatch" certain benefits, as a result , naturally shifting the costs for them to
the entire society, which in principle is not able to unite.
Lobbying is also developing in a certain way in the CIS countries, which
reflects the natural desire to bring together representatives of various
financial and industrial fields.

Business PR

A business is interested in constant access to the public, if it functions normally, and

not criminally. This can be the launch of a new product, moving to a new building,
"capturing" new potential customers, presenting your company in a new market,
the appearance of new names in the company's management, etc. That is, any
aspect of novelty requires further information implementation and is of interest to the
public living in an information-rich world. On the other hand, the success of a small
business also depends on the level of public trust. And trust is created both by
working in your own production area and in the area under the care of PR. For
example, there can't be a situation where the name of a successful company is
unknown to customers. By the way, according to the Japanese, the company and the
product should have the same name, so as not to waste money on advertising both.
"The brand should be an unmissable sign, but poorly advised companies like
Konika, which for years sold their films under different names (Sakura) than their own
cameras that do not fully use either the brand or the name of the corporation" (Heller R.
The decisiin maker. - New York, 1991. - P. 229).

Electoral (political) PRS

Americans, who sell presidents like any other commodity, have established the
following pattern that comes from the election campaign of R. Nixon: since the voter
does not have personal contact with the candidate, he reacts only to his television
picture. Therefore, every effort is made to ensure that this picture corresponds to
the idealized ideas of the electorate about the candidate. And then there is a professional
and cynical conclusion: it is not the candidate himself who needs to be changed,
but his television image. At the same time, it is known that a person who accepts
this or that point of view is already difficult to convince. Therefore, you can only
work with your own supporters or with those who have not yet made a decision.
Western millions of dollars are actually spent for the sake of a small number of people
who have not yet made a decision, but they are the ones who have the greatest impact
as a result, bringing the final victory. Unlike in the West, we have a very, very large
number of people who make decisions at the very last moment. In this case , the
efficiency of work is dramatically overestimated. The last Russian parliamentary
elections in 1995 showed (Izvestiaoia", 1996, 11 Jan.), that 24% made a decision in the
very last days, and 4% in general at the polling station. Why do people prefer this or
that party? "30% refer to the fact that this party expresses their interests, about
the same number indicate that they like the party leader, about 20% - that this party
has real power and can change the situation in the country, 10% - that "others are even
worse". Several percent said they didn't know any other parties" (In the same placePay
attention to the large volume of purely image-based solutions - 30% just like
the party leader. What exactly influenced the decision, and what specific types of
political communication were decisive? The survey gave the following
results::

speech of the party leaders on television 40%

pre-election videos 13%

tips from friends and family 10%

comments from famous people and journalists 9%

advertising on the radio 9%

flyers dropped in the mailbox 7%

personal meetings with party leaders 4%

none of the above, the decision was made by myself.%

Let's pay special attention to the first and last lines. Based on the first one, a
lot is done by television. The latter shows that a large number of people
still defy rational or emotional persuasion. A characteristic
feature of those elections was that attention to V. Zhirinovsky's TV appearances
was constantly growing: First 16%, then 22%, and finally 25%. Boris Fedorov, who tried
to repeat the same type of aggressive rhetoric, failed. It stopped at 4%. This is not only
due to the fact that the niche of this behavior was already occupied. The question is
also different: the electorate of Boris Fedorov did not accept these methods. We can
see this strong differentiation in the types of the winners ' electorate. Thus, the
percentage of people with lower-than-average education was: Communist Party-50 %,
Liberal Democratic Party-51%, NDR - 28%, YABL-25%. The electorate of Boris
Fedorov is located in the same place as the electorate of Yabloko, which has the highest
level of people with higher education: YABL - 30%, PDR-19%, CPRF-10%, LDPR-4%.
The type of audience that supports the Liberal Democratic Party requires different
behaviors. Fedorov tried to repeat the methods of influence that were completely alien to his
audience. V. Gaft, General Director of IMAGE-Contact, commented on
the transfer of political PR technologies to other areas: "Initially
, political projects prevailed in our country. It is there that already
well-known psychotechnologies are used and new ones are born, which later turn
out to be incredibly effective in commercial advertising, in the "promotion" of financial
structures, in building effective management systems. In my opinion, this is very
similar to conversion - when high technologies that emerged during the arms
race are transferred to the sphere of peaceful production. Working in a political
campaign is limited in time, but it allows you to hone your skills and evaluate the work
of colleagues" ("Adviser". - 1997. - No. 10. - p. 21). This is especially important because
in Russia the ratio is as follows: 60% of funds are spent on political projects, 40% - on
all other projects. So this type of transfer is also a key
to the development of the PR sector as a whole.

Charity

Charity and related finance represent an important aspect of Western

society. Every university, hospital, and so on. they are engaged in the search for
such money from their clients, for which they have an appropriate structural
unit that performs similar money search functions. Museums, theaters,
and public radio and television operate in the same way. The volume of
donations increases, for example, for the Christmas holidays. The huge sums
that have passed through this sphere in a year are revealed by the following
figures (Trud, December 1995.8): 400 American non-profit organizations
received $ 22.4 billion in donations in 1995. Among them: the Salvation
Army - $ 726 million, the Red Cross - $ 497 million, the Second Harvest
(food aid to the needy) - $ 497 million. But all this, in general, accounts
for only a sixth of what went to education, culture, sports, science, and health
promotion as charity. The head of the Public Relations Center of ONEXIM
Bank, M. Kolerov, speaks, for example, about such projects of the bank
in this area: "The Bank traditionally helps the Orthodox Church. The Russian
Orthodox University was created with his money. For such assistance,
the bank's president Vladimir Potanin was awarded three ecclesiastical
orders. We also try to support various cultural projects , such as publishing
books and good magazines. At the same time, we do not invade the content
at all. When we collaborate with a cultural project, we follow its guidelines.
We believe that we have already made our internal choice. Now we are trying
to focus our activities on large-scale social assistance.
Medical protection, children's healthcare, and educational institutions are in a
terrible situation, especially in the regions . They need help" ("Interlocutor". -1997
. - No. 10. - p. 10). Charity is
important. But it takes on a more interesting character when it becomes possible
to combine an object that is central to the organization with an object of charity. This
is not the case, for example, when ONEXIM Bank sponsors a magazine. But
it occurs in the following case. The British company for the production of paints
ICI Paints (details from the book PR: internationalrodnaya praktika, Moscow,
1997, pp. 83-85) organized a competition for organizations and individuals
who want to improve their city. The prize was paint. A special feature of the
contest was the variety of submitted applications. Among them were: signal box
of the last century, city walls, folklore house, hospital fence, etc. This campaign
is also interesting for its significant local focus, because all these objects
are quite specific and are located in the regions, which probably resulted in
an explosion of articles about the competition in the local press. S. Sychev offers
his own method for determining the feasibility of participating in sponsorship,
dividing these situations into four types ("Advertising dimension". - 1998. - No. 3)
taking into account who "listens":
1. Potential customers/large audience.
2. Potential customers/small audience.
3. Non-clients/large audience.
4. Non-clients/small audience. For example,
in the first case, it is the sponsorship of a concert. However, in this case, there
is the following set of negative characteristics: 1. There
is a "vampire image" on the stage that will capture the attention of customers.
2. A large number of competing advertising messages will be presented.
3. Usually high prices for participation are assumed.
4. Restrictions on the use of traditional advertising media. As we can see,
these processes are also subject to certain technologies. this allows for a more
streamlined decision-making process.

Internal PRS

Relationships with employees are an important part of PR. all types

of channels are also used to work with your employees: this is radito.
newspapers, magazines, live communication. it is important that
two-way communication is mandatory, so all such publications should
allow criticism, and not just be a mouthpiece for the authorities. The
result is a good relationship at work and a high level of productivity.
Internal PR also includes working with future employees - speaking
at schools, for example, and universities to attract them to work.

* * *

In conclusion, we emphasize the common elements of PR communication

strategies observed in all these cases. Any change in the situation (both
positive and negative) requires reflection in the media. And not just
reflection, but an adequate communication course for the situation.
Building a positive image, on the one hand, and any crisis situation (which can also
be represented as building a negative image), on the other, all require
adequate PR work. In most such cases, the functioning of any organization
becomes impossible without PR. As F. used to say. Jeffkins, whether you
do PR or not, they still have a place. Just in case. when all this is allowed
to take its course, the results can be the worst. PRS work effectively when
not only all recommendations are met, but also the management of this
service is represented at the highest level of the company (at the level of.
for example, the vice president, whose duties include PR). This is the only
way to solve all the necessary issues and achieve high-quality results.

7. Communication model of PR technologies

Why does the PR look so closely at communication flows? The

fact is that the PR sees its goals in the following sequence of impact::
first , changes are made to the communication flow, and then
changes in public opinion arise, which can lead to a change in
behavior. All this is schematically presented in the following form::

changes in public opinion changes in communication

changes in behavior

PR really does not have any other tools like

this or that change in communication flows.

But in order for such changes in communication to reach the goal, there
are a number of parameters that must be met. One of them is to talk to the
audience in their own language. You should use language, images, and
values that are as close to your audience as possible. For this reason, PR should
be focused not so much on giving out completely new information, but on
connecting to the stereotypes and norms already recorded in a person's head,
which the audience considers positive in advance. This leads to the desire of PR to
talk to the audience through messages with predictable reactions to them. Imagine
the difference between casual and professional conversations, something like a train
conversation as opposed to an interrogation. Professional conversation has nothing
superfluous, everything is systematic, everything is subordinated to a single goal. An
unprofessional conversation can have many random continuations that don't make
any difference. The PR cannot afford to have a casual conversation because it is
necessary to achieve a specific goal in this area at a specific time and in a specific
territory. For this reason, there is always a shortage of resources, at least time.
This is why messages leading directly to the goal are preferred.
The required message is formed in three possible ways:: verbal, visual and
event-based. Visual and event-based communication is perceived more directly,
passes the filters of mass consciousness more easily, and is better remembered.
This is due to the fact that these two planes can be considered "biological"to
a certain extent. And nowtno and humans can decode messages quite easily
in this area, and we are clearly very close here. Understanding a verbal message
requires knowledge of the code, so it is more difficult to spread it. But in any
case, for example, a politician in the case of political parties is always a public
figure and must constantly generate certain messages. Without publicity, there
will be no politics. The policy should be clear and even transparent to the public,
only then it will become predictable for them. And predictability is correct
the path to the heart of mass consciousness. So, in the program " Press Club
"(TV-Center, 1998, April 27), the opinion was expressed, for example, that S.
Dorenko is predictable in his program: it is known who he will scold and who he
will praise. The message you need to change behavior will never appear directly,
because any direct coercion causes opposition. Therefore , axioms are introduced
into the mass consciousness that it is used to, but which may just as well
not be entirely true. For example: a good family man - - - a good president.
This is how the political ad portrayed Carter as a family man against
Brother J. P. Morgan. Kennedy, who had various amorous stories. But there is no
direct transition between the family man and the president, we just used to think
that way. Or such an axiom: good at talking , good at thinking. This is also
a dubious transition, but for some reason we think so, alienating people
who do not know how to speak "smoothly". As a result, by launching a number of
such messages into the mass consciousness (a good family man, a good
speaker,etc.), we achieve that the mass consciousness suddenly realizes that the
received messages themselves are woven into the inscription "good president".
For this reason, we should not just talk about messages with a predictable
effect, but also, to a certain extent, "trigger" messages, the task of which
is to switch from one area to another. We communicate a single message at one
level , while trying to elicit a response at a completely different level.
What can a politician's verbal response achieve? It should
be noted beforehand that, in principle, it cannot do without it, since it operates in
a public field. For example, E. Kiselyov in the program" Vremyachko " (TV-Center,
1998, April 28), justifying that he pays too much attention to G. Yavlinsky in his
program , said sdedee: "Grigory A. Yavlinsky is open to the press."
Public policy also involves increasing such "transparency". At
the same time, the accumulation of information about any object of our attention
undoubtedly makes it not only closer to us, but also more native, since this object
shifts from the "alien" area to the "own"area. And purely biologically, it is already
interpreted somewhat differently. The following characteristics of using
the verbal sphere can be noted:
1. Interpretation. When a politician interprets certain events, he sets
his own attitude to them, making his position more transparent. Even before the
war , FBI Director Hoover realized that giving the first interpretation
of what is happening can always be in the center of public attention,
since all subsequent speakers or writers on this topic are forced to reckon
with the first interpretation made by an official. The first interpretation also
penetrates the media more easily, since at this point there is a lack of information;
2. Crystallization. A successful political phrase can crystallize the public
's point of view on a given issue, which creates endless quoting due
to constant references to it. In this area are the phrases "Mayo te, sho mayo"
by L. Kravchuk and "We wanted the best, but it turned out as always" by V.
Chernomyrdin. In fact, post- Soviet politicians are not very active in the verbal
sphere, which,for example, allowed them to jokingly suggest that Chernomyrdin's
face should be depicted on the sketch as a monument to the famous orator of
antiquity Demosthenes ("Capital News", 1998, № 16);
3. Designation. The use of this or that word as a designation of a phenomenon
simultaneously causes other contexts. For example, if you call the Chechens
"gangs", you can completely use force at the next stage. From here
mass use of words such as "gigantic successes", "seven-mile steps", etc.,
which were characteristic of Soviet propaganda.
S. Dorenko gave an example of his work
in CNN, when the phrase "Basayev's terrorists seized the hospital" was forced to
correct the word "terrorists "to the word"insurgents". Or an example of a "censored"
correction from the film "Put in a Word About a Poor Hussar", when "drunken officer
's face" is replaced in conversation with "the face of the defender of the fatherland";
4. Rename it. The management of communicative reality involves
the use of different words to denote the same realities when a political or
other situation changes. Thus, Petrograd becomes Leningrad, or Stalin's peak
becomes the peak of Communism. We can also consider the removal of
monuments as a renaming option, but only in the visual sphere.
5. Details. The impact is stronger not only in the case of dialectlearn
more in the audience's language, but also use more detailed references.
During the period when our official ideology dominated the former USSR, we have
partially lost our taste for real values rather than abstract ones, namely, a detail has
a direct access to a mass audience, since it gives not just a concrete picture of
reality, which is more understandable than a purely abstract representation, but also
a more emotional picture, to which a direct reaction is possible mass
consciousness. Here are two examples. One of the classics of literature, correcting
the text of a novice writer, said that you can not write "a nickel fell" when you can
write "a nickel fell, ringing and bouncing". The second example is a purely street
scene, where the seller of cockroach repellent proudly said:: "Cockroaches die in
four minutes and eleven seconds."
6. Sacralization/desacralization. The use of certain words allows you to dramatically
overestimate or underestimate the object, since the choice of words to describe
carries pre-established estimates. If the Soviet reality dramatically overestimated its
host of "gods", then the post-Soviet reality worked to destroy this pantheon. An
interesting example is given by M. Foucault: in a certain historical period, blasphemy
was no longer considered as a variant of sacrilege, but was interpreted as a certain
form of insanity. "Blasphemy has not disappeared - it has acquired a new status,
has become beyond the control of the law and is not as dangerous as before. It
has become one of the problems of disorder, a verbal extravagance-something
in between the darkening of the mind and the godlessness of the heart" (M. Foucault. A
history of madness in the classical era. St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 107). Interestingly,
even in Soviet times ,"dissidence" as a phenomenon, it was not allowed to reach the
level of political opposition, and was also interpreted as a behavior option that
required psychiatric treatment. The process of communication work as a whole can
be imagined as generating specific messages in accordance with a previously
chosen strategy. If , as an example, we take the goals of the current state of the
movement "Our Home is Russia" and the conditional goals of the CPSU (as if taken
from the May Day postcard), then the scheme of generating messages will appear
in the following form (the arrow indicates exactly the creative process, and not a
simple transition, since the specific content will be different each time, which and
allowed E. Bernays to speak of PR as "art in science"):

verbal

NDR: [political stability, reforms, support

 to regions]
the message is visual
CPSU: [peace, labor, happiness] event management

"Peace, work, happiness" were quite actively

generated, for example. May Day demonstration on all three levels.

And one more important note: criticism against A. Lebed in the case of the
Krasnoyarsk elections was based on the fact that he gives out unfulfilled promises.
But politics is basically located in the realm of promises. It is precisely this type of
rhetoric that is characteristic of the politician, since he exploits the sphere of
desires. This is especially true for a politician coming to power. From the "carrot and
stick" set , he has only "carrot" at his disposal, while his opponent can have
both. For example, before the third vote for the candidacy of S. Kiriyenko , each
member of the State Duma received "Information about the rights and guarantees
of deputies in the event of the dissolution of the State Duma" (Komsomolskaya
Pravda, 1998, April 24). This "story" significantly influenced the vote.
Successful versions of PR models consist of translation key messages created for
your company target audience, not for one, but for a number of languages, including
verbal, visual and event-based. However, the communicative object should
have an even more complex character, assuming a variety of activity on the
part of the audience. For example, this or that sponsorship activity may
involve the implementation of various contests on the part of the audience. In
other words, the presented complex communication object should be
additionally structured in terms of different responses from the audience.
Engaging the audience in the activity creates a stronger sense of ownership,
increasing the effectiveness of the impact. And this happens
in many variants of PR actions, where attention should be paid not so much
to the pure transmission of information as to generating a feedback. Even in
the case of a simple speech. For example, R. Hoff observes the following: "Most
speakers believe that when they go to the podium, they are just going
to present some facts. In reality, this is only half the story. They must establish
a certain relationship with everyone sitting in the hall" (Hoff R. I see you naked.
How to prepare for a presentation and conduct it with brilliance. - M., 1996. - p.
28). A complexly structured communication object involves not only
transmitting information through a number of channels, but also leading the
audience to a certain behavioral reaction. There may be the most elementary
activity such as collecting metal corks from bottles of this company. But in any
case, it makes the audience dependent on entering the PR situation at a certain
point in time. PR-action transcends space and time, includingintegrating people
into your own communication product. At the same time, one more important
aspect of PR technologies should be emphasized. During the processing
of this communication product, the following events must occur: transcoding from
a verbal (visual, event-based) language to a behavioral language, because we want
to get a change at the behavioral level, but in fact, we ask
for changes in a completely different area. Moreover, the feature of PR, in contrast
to advertising, is the absence of a direct call. Therefore, we are dealing rather with
modeling a precontext, a paracontext, which can be defined as a context
that is close (with varying degrees of remoteness) to the final situation, which is
the client's actual goal. For example, the use (among other options) of the
Khokhloma mural on the fuselage of British Airlines planes flying to Moscow
does not imply a call to buy tickets for this airline. However, as a PR campaign,
it achieves its results, if only because it becomes the subject of discussion
in the media. And this type of creating a positive context can already be
considered as a pre-context, ultimately leading to the choice of this particular
airline. we have a whole series of possible transitions from "entry" to "exit":

message result

verbal behavioral response

visual behavioral response

event driven behavioral response

Yu. Levada sees such a way of building advertising: the first stage is an appeal to a set
of socially significant needs (fresh breath, healthy teeth, etc.), the second
stage is a demonstration of the brand that best
meets this need. At the same time, an intermediate step is omitted: why this
particular brand is the best in this aspect. "Functional separation of advertising stagesit
is almost universal: let's say. for self-confidence, it seems that such
and such deodorants, pads, shampoos are absolutely required, and the irresistible
attractiveness is provided by the smell of a certain cologne (by the way. a purely
entomological model of sexual orientation based on smell) , etc. A similar structure
of advertising texts can be found in political campaigning: if you want... (order,
peace, victory, freedom, peace) - vote for... Naturally, no one explains
why and how the namesake or his party is able to stand up for the desired values, i.e.
the intermediate stage is replaced by an appeal to personal image or nostalgia, etc ."
(Levada Yu. Chelovek, tolpa i massa v obshchestvennom mnenii [Man, Crowd and Mass in
Public Opinion] . VCIOM Information Bulletin, 1997, No. 7, p. 11).
The advertising object is directly aimed at fulfilling your wishes. The PR object is at
the previous stage: it can only do the same thing in an indirect manner.
And the second feature, in addition to indirection, is the
recoding nature of PR communication noted above, when it is necessary to translate
visual, verbal or event messages into a new behavior option. This is a translation
between completely dissimilar languages. For this reason, PR as a type
of professional activity is quite complex. After all, the writer
(sculptor, etc.) works within the same language, and the possible variants
of transcoding into a behavioral version, if they arise ,
are sufficiently conditional. In the case of PR, there are not random processes, but
system processes. A random process is available to many, but a system process is
only possible if the appropriate technologies are available.
A random process turns into a system process when all its components
that lead to a predetermined result are strengthened. One of these components is
the emphasis on the listener. Dramatically overestimated role of the speaker, typical for
hierarchical communication, the ideal of which is an analog of the army system,
it is replaced by an equally sharply inflated role of the listener. With one note,
the role of the listener is overestimated not in general, but in the field of using its vocabulary,
relying on its basic values, in finding arguments from its context, and under.
The task can be set from the speaker's point of view. but arguments are used
from the point of view of the listener, which can be roughly depicted as follows::

point of view at the level of point of view at the level of

tasks messages

hierarchical
from the speaker's point of viewfrom the speaker's point of view
communication

PR-communication from the speaker's point of view

from the listener's point of view

And when the listener's point of view becomes predominant, not only
does the positioning of any object work in this direction, but the entire communication
system turns out to be rebuilt. If you look at the American government
programs, you are surprised by the unusual, from our point of view, strict
emphasis on the consumer. As a result, even journalists, which in our model
is a familiar option for consumers of official information at briefings and press
conferences, for example, are now treated as an interfering filter. who stands
between the "silent American majority" and the administration. As a result , we
are looking for ways to bypass the capital's journalists in order to provide
information directly to regional media outlets. In the case of elections, it was
found that during TV debates, journalists do not ask questions that are
a priority for the population, as a result of which journalists in the studio were
replaced by residents of the state where the candidate resides. Following
this path, Russia, in the run-up to the last presidential election, created a
Regional Information Agency to serve local journalists, as if completely following
the American approach. In the run-up to the new elections, OTIK was created
-an All- Russian technical information channel, the purpose of which is to provide
regional media and local authorities with operational news and information
and analytical materials ("Expert". - 1998. - № 9). Analytical groups under
the President, Government, Parliament, and local leaders are called upon to
provide training and information support. An attempt to influence regional media
is associated with a decline in the authority of central media outlets. The starting
point was the Russian version of the phrase about the role of the "American silent
majority" - the president will be chosen in the regions. By the way, the Western
version of public opinion management is based on the axiom that the press
sets the "agenda", so we should try to determine this "agenda" ourselves, that
is, influence the determination of what exactly they will talk about, and not give
the choice of priorities to the press. The White House Communications Service
outplays the mass media, first of all, intellectually (see more details Pocheptsov
G. G. Public Relations, or how to effectively manage public opinion, Moscow, 1998).
We are more likely to resort to administrative methods of pressure on the media.
The build-up of "intellectual muscles" can be explained by two factors. A more
serious role is played by the opposition, which does not let down any deviations
of the administration. And a stronger role for the press than we have. But in
In general, all this is probably explained by a different status of public opinion,
which is sharply overestimated from the point of view of our reality. The high
status of society in comparison with the state translates public opinion into the
role of an arbitrator. Hence the overestimated role of feedback modeled by
Western PRS. Dependence on the population forces all power structures to
work in a different mode.
A characteristic feature of successful PR work is overlapping
communication networks with social networks, a prime example of which is
opinion leaders. Getting the right information on existing social networks
dramatically increases its effectiveness. In fact, the USIA calls for the same
thing, for example, stating that they work not with people, but with channels,
which implies their principle that it is better to process one journalist than
ten housewives. In general, this is also true, since an effective strategy arises
when social and communication fields coincide. There is also an example
of the active use of unofficial persons to defend an official position in the
framework of American government PR. This is the use of persons who are
important for this regional information market, including a retired general, a
professor at a local university, and others. In this example , at the same time,
the removal of the well-known prejudice against an official who defends the
official point of view is laid down. It is clear that he should do this in his position,
because the level of trust in his words is underestimated. In a different
system, when an unofficial person defends an official policy, the level of trust
becomes higher. You can formulate the same principle in the following table:

who's talking what it says trust level

official person about an official map item below

unofficial person about an official map item higher

That is, in this particular case (official

these social networks come into conflict with the communicative ones, which makes
it necessary to use a new social network(unofficial person) for the same type of message
.
J. Kelly in his cognitive theory of personality speaks in this case about
personal constructs: mismatched models of the world do not make it possible to reach mutual
understanding. The main postulate of J. R. R. Tolkien Kelly says: "Personality processes
are channels laid out in the psyche, in the channel of which a person predicts events"
(quoted by Hjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 444).
A. Adler spoke about
sets of fictitious goals that govern human behavior (such
as"Honesty is the best policy", "All people are created equal","Men are above
women"). The fictitious goal of achieving excellence governs all human behavior
(Adler A. Praktika i teoriya individualnoi psikhologii [Practice and theory of individual psychology].
Therefore, based on these ideas, PR should help the predictive
nature of a person's thinking, relying precisely on his model of the world, on his
ideas about what is "good" and what is "bad".
A person also transforms reality in terms of setting a certain "heroics".
If we look at this conditional statement "heroization"then you can see that
what is recognized as heroic changes over time, but a large block of factors
remains unchanged. We can imagine that historically we are changing from the
heroization of the physical plane to the heroization of the intellectual plane. Physical
heroization it is also recorded differently in different periods: from the fabulous "
beat seven people in one fell swoop" to today's variants like "the strongest man
"so many days in space (or-without sleep, or-without water and under.)".
on the planet" or
Intellectual heroization It is defined by the image of a scientist in the modern world. For
contrast, he is sometimes modeled as a puny person (i.e., contrary to the
physical heroization), but the creator of the atomic bomb (which also returns to the
physical dimensions of heroization and success). It is also the model of the
American businessman who, for example, intellectually invents a computer,
followed by millions of devices and millions of dollars, which again is the physical
embodiment of success. I.e., it is difficult for the mass consciousness to keep
within the limits of purely intellectual success, it must be clearly materialized.
Contextual version of heroics builds on the success of the previous generation. Such
is the heroism of the royal family, the workers ' dynasty, the general secretary-a
loyal Leninist. In the latter case, there is not biological, but social procreation,
which was used in the advertising clip of B. Clinton, who in his youth shook hands
in the White House with J. R. R. Tolkien. Kennedy. In the same spirit, one can
interpret the portraits of presidents on the tables of ministers, as well as the public
presentation of his portrait by Boris Yeltsin to S. Kiriyenko after passing the State
Duma voting topics. Ideological version of heroics probably also splits into two:
intellectual (like "debunked the bourgeois theory") and physical (during
his service at the outpost, he detained so many spies"). It was the same in the
more distant past: witches had to be drowned, and
religious disputes could be held with apostates in order to ostracize them. Stalin's
" Our cause is just. We will win " as if sets the transition from the intellectual to the
physical version.
Organizational version of heroics it should present the organization as innovative,
progressive, which is an intellectual option, as well as aesthetically
pleasing, where all employees are dressed the same, which is a physical option.
Our time, however, has added to this list and the stability of salary payments.
Heroics are also somewhat dependent on the national picture
of the world. In this regard, Boris Strugatsky answers an interesting question
from a journalist about why the former Soviet state did not promote
violent literature, where heroes would mercilessly destroy class enemies. The
answer is: "Because the right to violence was declared a privilege of this State,
but not of an individual. The hero, of course, was forgiven if he killed a scoundrel,
he was given an order if he, the destroyed scoundrel, turned out to be a state
criminal - but all the same, the amateur activity of individuals was considered,
generally speaking, unacceptable. This is fundamentally different from, say,
the American approach to the same issue - it is there that the cult of a lone hero
restoring justice has developed over decades and centuries "(
Nezavisimaya Gazeta's Ex libris, 1998, May 14). PR technologies currently
have serious opportunities. Active development of the PR sphere will inevitably
strengthen this particular systemic aspect of PR, which destroys the image
of the PR specialist as a "modern shaman". As a final example
consider the PR campaign of British Airways, presented in PR: international
Practice, Moscow, 1997. Due to the war in the Persian Gulf, the company began to
incur large losses: 650 million dollars in January 1991, the forecast for February -
600 million. Some flights were canceled, employees were dismissed, unprofitable
routes are closed. In response, the airline decided to return to its experience of five
years ago, when traffic volumes were reduced due to the bombing of Libya and the
explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Then the recovery was helped by
an information campaign. By analogy with it, the campaign "The biggest offer in the
world"was launched. On March 21, 1991, it was announced that 25,000
lottery-winning passengers would be able to fly anywhere in the world on April 23,
1991 for free. After the announcement of the lottery in the New York office, the
number of calls increased by 323%. By the way, it was very difficult to announce this
event simultaneously in different time zones. "Departure Day" was celebrated at 62
airports. On 87 planes,430 journalists and photographers
who covered the airline's work flew to different points. As a result, the cost of the
program was 6 million pounds, and the "departure day" cost 10 million pounds. But
the volume of information that appeared was estimated at 60 million pounds sterling,
since 500 million people learned about the"Biggest offer" from newspapers, 200
million from radio and TV reports. And the first-time delivery market began to grow,
in April - by 14%, in May-by another 5%.
A significant point here, in our opinion, was the involvement of a large
number of people due to their interest-the total number of applications was 5 million
700 thousand, not counting 400 thousand received late. This sponsorship was
beneficial to the airline, since it did not go into another area, but was always inside
its production cycle. So any version of the information worked for her.
The extensive lottery activity kept the population in suspense
for a long time. Plus, there were almost six million people, who
actively responded to this event, and each of them has at least one
other person behind them. And the nth number of people who just read or heard
about it - a total of 700 million people. This is the active version of the PR campaign
that led to the maximum result.
The standard scheme of PR-impact consists in identifying the triad: problem, target
audience and key messages. The same scheme applies in each of the areas
where the PR methodology is applied. We just have different problems every time.
So, in the field of political PR, the task becomes to demonstrate the
competence,strength, and a certain aggressiveness of the candidate. At
the same time, the image of the opponent becomes an additional point, since these
qualities must be shown against the background of the lack of certain
characteristics of the opponent. At the same time,there is a need to demonstrate
purely human characteristics: warmth, attention to others. After all, we choose, to a
certain extent, the "solver" of our problems. In the case of financial PPS, it is necessary to
demonstrate such factors as long-term sustainability, stability, reputation and AML.
Government PR requires a different set of characteristics (efficiency, competence,
caring for ordinary people , etc.). These
are different characteristics, but even the same characteristics need to be
expressed in different ways. How can I express warmth on a TV screen, for
example, and in what events? It should be noted that the above-mentioned "triad" is
clearly divided into two levels:
- information sender level-problem,
- information recipient level - target audience and target message.

And even in this, the emphasis is on the concept of the audience-central to the entire
PR structure, which is based fundamentally on the point of view of auditorii.

§8 . Material object as a communicative message

In the framework of PR, we encounter an unusual phenomenon when a

material object begins to act as a communicative message. It can
be a leader, an airline, or any other organization, or a particular product
version. The communicative representation of these objects gets a new name
- image, brand, corporate image for the organization. What is the novelty and
complexity of such an object? The fact is that standard communicative objects
from a word to a picture are based on a slightly different organization scheme. If
we take a natural language, then it is characterized by the existence of a code (grammar)
before the message itself. we don't make up words. we do not invent grammatical
rules, but use what is already known to create a new one - the content
of the message. This is how the most effective communication tools are designed,
including natural language. Art languages are structured as if in a different
way: they are characterized by the simultaneous introduction of grammar
with a message. A movie as a message created by a particular director
carries both content and code that sets us the process of decoding what is
happening on the screen. Here, the communication process involves
simultaneously submitting a code suitable for reading this type of message. This
code can then also become common (and still exist) in the case of a number
of works by a given director or in the case of works by a number of artists
belonging to the same school, for example, Impressionist works. Since these
types of languages are analyzed by semiotics as the science of sign systems
we will call these two types of languages semiotic with the following properties:

type of semiotic language features example

semiotic language 1 code before the messageresearch
naturalinstitute
language
semiotic language 2 code at the same time as the message the language of art

However, in these cases, the message is a special material object created

for communication purposes: from a word to a movie. PR also deals simply
with a material object created for other purposes, but which begins to act as a
communicative message. You should also separate the symbol variant (such as a
banner or scepter) from this type of communication object. These are also material
objects, but they are created specifically for communication purposes and
because of their exclusivity, which is specially modeled, they do not have a different
type of application. This can be clearly seen by comparing, for example, yogurt
and a regimental banner. Yogurt, modulates its exclusivity only in contrast to
others. It is always presented in thousands of copies. There is only one regimental
banner. Let us recall how the loss of the banner leads to the disbandment of a
military unit. The leader, yogurt, and airplane function not only communicatively.
On the contrary, communicative functioning is an optional component for them.
For the word, it is the communicative functioning that is the main one. From this
point of view, PR can also be considered as a variant of grammar for such
material objects, since it is here that both the laws of their interpretation and
the laws of "writing" are set,with the help of which non-verbal "texts" are written.
The peculiarity of the wording of such messages, which follow from the indirect
nature of the impact within the PR, is their ambiguous nature. The desired type of
message is quite often hidden from consciousness. It is transmitted on a clearly
unconscious level. A leader conveys confidence,
competence, and confidence. self-awareness. The bank must convey its solidity
and credibility through the entire system of its [Link] deviations from
the standard begin to be interpreted as a serious violation, and any component of
the leader's image, such as family, can cast a shadow on the leader. For example,
Boris Yeltsin, in a conversation on the Internet on May 12 , 1998, specifically
had to refute the very possibility of nominating his daughter as a candidate
for the highest post in the country. The detention of Berezovsky's daughter
with drugs provoked the following comment from Komsomolskaya Pravda (1998,
May 13): "Berezovsky's image has probably been dealt a serious blow. It is well
known that he does not like it when the press speaks about some of the addictions
of his offspring." When we talk about a brand as a communicative unit, we
can place it on a scale between just a word and a symbol, because it combines,
on the one hand, the possibilities of referring to many objects, which is
characteristic of a word, with the possibilities of referring to one unique object, which
makes a symbol, which gives us next view:

Type Features
a word refers to an infinite
number of referencing
objects a a brand
finite a set of objects
symbol refers to a unique object

In this case, in the latter case, there is a clear possibility to have a material
object as a pointer to a unique thing. From this point of view, the brand
also falls within (or is approaching) such opportunities. You can build
the following set of properties that characterize the selected objects. The
standard word has the property of detailing, but at the same time the brand
refers to unique characteristics. "Water "is a detail that distinguishes this indication
from references to" ice "and" flame", for example. "Coca-Cola" is an indication of
its unique [Link] that distinguish adjacent words. We say,
describing it, that it is water, but with such properties... If the content structure of a
word consists of two components, where the first part consists of characteristics
that occur in other words (= semantic multipliers), then the second component
reflects the "remainder", which is not found anywhere else. In the case of
a word, the main emphasis is on the first part, in the case of a brand - on the
second. Positioning always relies heavily on properties that are not repeated
(supposedly not repeated) in another product. When divided into
communicative characteristics and material characteristics, the word represents
purely communicative characteristics, brand -a combination of communicative
and material characteristics (hence the desire for brand designations
such as "Coca-Cola" or "Kodak" that are not found anywhere else). A symbol
in general can destroy purely verbal haarkteristics, creating uniqueness even
at the level of material characteristics (coat of arms, scepter, etc.). In principle,
it is possible to assign a communicative message to non-traditional types
of communication in other ways. In the NTV news (1998, May 13), it was said
that perfume manufacturers were offered a fragrance under a conditional name.
called "dirt". Such a fragrance could presumably be of interest to "gardeners"
(this is probably a broader category than a purely professional occupation). But
in general, the task is to find an individual version of the smell that would
be associated with success. Using the abstract
/ concrete relation, we can represent our three objects in the following form.
A word is characterized by the combination abstract/ abstract both in its form
and in its content. The form of the word "fish" is also interpreted by us as an
abstract designation, since it has no reasonable connection with this content.
In semiotics, this is called an arbitrary relationship between form and content.
In the case of a brand, you can talk about a specific/ specific combination.
On the one hand, the brand refers to a specific set of objects. On the other hand,
it tends to make something reasonable out of its form - like understanding
"kodak" as the click of a camera. The symbol appears as a combination of
the abstract from the point of view of content (since it refers to the ideal reality
of the"freedom" symbol type) and the concrete from the point of view of form.
An essential aspect of PR work is the creation of a complex communication
product, where the material component plays the same significant role as the
communicative component. This communication product is a combination
of a number of factors, among which the following are in the first place:
1) multichannel (the message must be duplicated in
verbal, visual and event-based versions), 2) the
message must be built from the point of view of the recipient, not the sender,
based on his vocabulary, values, advantages from his positions, 3) the scenario
plan must include moves for the other side (in the best versions PR programs
can be traced to the involvement of the audience in the action, and not
the pure processing of the received verbal information). These characteristics
fully clarify the reluctance of E. Bernays to associate PR with philology
and journalism. This is a more complex communication product than its
purely verbal component. It is dialogical, not monologue-like, even on nonverbal
levels. He is both rational and emotional, at least at the level of complicity
in the problem. In the case of charismatirationality is completely erased,
as is the case in the relationship between a pop singer and his fans. This is a
tool for influencing the group consciousness, and not the individual one, which
we are used to in other areas. And once again,
we should switch from purely verbal tools to visual and event-based ones,
which are better integrated into the mass consciousness. For example, deputies
from the Green Party came to the opening of the Ukrainian parliament on ...
bicycles. It is difficult to imagine a journalist who could avoid
covering such a fact. Or: Vladimir Zhirinovsky took the initiative to create a prize
named after himself for "the best article that will contain all the worst" about
him, stating: "I will be frank: my relations with journalists are always
bad" (Figures and Faces, supplement to Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998, No. 1).

9. The leader as a sign object

The leader must vary his image to meet the changing context conditions. Hence the
serious success of the leaders-actors. This list includes not only leaders who were
originally actors (R. Reagan or the Pope), but also leaders who are potential actors
(for example, M. Thatcher or M. Gorbachev). All of them not only "perform" well, but also
feel the audience well, need it, and feel feedback.
There are two possible ways to relate the object to the context:
a) the context changes the object,
b) the object changes the context.
We can understand the first option as connecting other positively colored objects to the
positive characterization of an [Link] the sum of those that form its context. Thus, in the
election campaign in Krasnoyarsk in 1998, not only A. Lebed attracted A. Delon to his side,
but also V. Zubov, who came to help Yu. Luzhkov in the first round, and A. Pugacheva
and L. Zykina in the second. Or an example like this: In connection with the death
of Frank Sinatra, ORT news (1998, May 15) quoted a phrase that reflected the singer's
peak success in 1944: "If Roosevelt is our president, then Sinatra is our king." Another
option is associated with a sharp discrepancy between the attracted image, when it
turns out to be stronger than what it should support - such as the arrival of a particular
celebrity at the opening of a club (bar, etc.) - the so-called "vampire image". In particular,
the arrival of A. Delon was stronger than the image of A. Lebed, although the phrase
voiced after the election from the mouth of the new governor that Delon called with
congratulations was no longer such.
The context / object (what is what) can change depending on the point of view. Moskovsky
Komsomolets (1998, April 23-30) presented a photograph of Hitler surrounded by children,
including Bormann's son, with whom an interview was published in this issue of the newspaper.
Hitler was traditionally photographed with children before 1942-this is a transfer
of the well-known positive attitude that people feel towards children and animals. Today
's perception of this photo is based on Nazeta's interlocutor, but the vampire image,
which is Hitler, still "attracts" attention. The context can not only help the object, but also
destroy it. This is often the reason why leaders don't like too many smart people around
them. But their costumes can also interfere with them, as Alexander Igmand, the head
of the Kuznetsky Most Fashion House, gave examples of this in Komsomolskaya Pravda
(1998, May 6) . Thus, B. Nemtsov, in his
opinion, put on a dark blue club jacket and light trousers for the meeting of the
international delegation, which is absolutely unacceptable. A. Chubais had no right to wear
brown suits, because they enhanced his red hair. In principle, he emphasizes
that the choice of color and cut can emphasize the plainness of the leader. The context
can set the negativity of perception. So, A. Karpov recalled that V. Zhirinovsky
wrote him a LDPR membership card, which he refused.
We can convey the positive / negative aspects of the context in the following form::

map item <--------------------> context

-

The iconic character of a leader stems from the fundamental inability to

convey all its characteristics by any technology. Modern mass media are
even physically able to set only a few essential features, leaving it up to the
audience to speculate on the rest of the characteristics. In this regard, the remaining
"white spot" is even beneficial, since everyone can add to it what they
think is more suitable for this image. At the same time, the leader always
has a balance that can work against the necessary image characteristics.
As a contextual factor, the family of the first person begins to work, which, as
it were, gives information of a different, more domestic nature. Mstislav Rostropovich
, for example, describes Naina Yeltsin in the following way: "Naina Iosifovna,
like me, has a terrible nostalgia for Orenburg. You know, of all the wives of presidents - and I
know them all - she is an outstanding example as a wife of the head of state. And
how modestly he behaves! It is immediately clear: Yeltsin is the president, but she is not the
president. Many high-ranking wives harm their husbands. For the Yeltsins, it's different"
(Komsomolskaya Pravda, June 11, 1998). This information allows
you to influence your audience based on its usual parameters. This kind
of text is more understandable to anyone than many other problems that the first
person is engaged in. Let us also recall that the results of the first election of President
Yeltsin were significantly influenced by the film about his family, shot by Eldar Ryazanov,
where the famous director even managed to tear up the film.b trousers because of a nail on
the chair from the president's kitchen. At the same time, the image of a leader is more
relative than absolute. It has a strict dependence on the context. For example, different
images of a leader are needed in times of war and in times of peace. It has the same rigid
dependence on the opponent. For example, a strong Reagan comes to power against the
background of a weak Carter. I. Bunin among the reasons for the loss of V. Zubov to A.
Lebed says in the program "Results" (NTV, 1998, May 17): "He was indecisive." It is clear
that A. Lebed is modeled in a completely different way. Dynamic changes in the image of A.
Lebed in the elections in Krasnoyarsk can also be seen in his positives, also named by I.
Bunin: the appearance of civil features in the image; proved that he is not quite an outsider
in Krasnoyarsk; announced that he will not run for president. It is interesting that all this lies in
the area of those characteristics that were clearly negative, and A. Lebed managed to muffle
the existing negativity with these steps during the election
campaign. A. Lebed is seen through the image of Boris Yeltsin's opponent in the
future presidential elections. So, against this background, A. Lebed won again, as
the same I. Bunin says: "The people are tired of Boris Nikolaevich. This is already rality."
It should also be noted that influencing a mass audience requires a leader to
exaggerate their characteristics. To go on stage requires a completely
different energy, so as not to look sluggish from the point of view of the audience. To
describe this situation, we can use the words of G. Shpet about the theater:
"A theatrical action is necessarily some kind of conditional, symbolic action,
it is a sign of something, and not the actual something itself..." (Shpet City Theater as art //
Questions of philosophy. - 1988. - No. 11. - P. 77). By the way, this is probably a g
characteristic of public behavior. In the post-Chernobyl days, for example, V. Shcherbitsky
demanded that all well-known people in the city be on the street
as much as possible, and he himself went to the May Day demonstration with his grandson.
It is these external requirements from the leader's point of view that significantly
change the pattern of his behavior. They also really brought the types of behavior
of the leader and the actor (singer or other representatives of pop culture) closer together.
Central to this type of behavior is a certain relapse to it on
an ongoing basis. Here the following principle applies, which can
be formulated in such words: a pulsating stimulus is more effective than
a stable stimulus. Changing pictures turns out to be better than any even strong, but
permanent picture. A live pop performer (and in reality a politician begins
to act according to his model), unlike, for example, Homer, is forced to act in
an alternative environment, where others are constantly trying to displace him. Homer for
today's consumer of information clearly occupies his niche, while the
modern pop singer is fighting for his niche. He must overcome the phenomenon
forgetting things, specific to this environment. For this reason, there is also another one
a new type of task is to win not only at a given time point, but at a number
of subsequent ones, i.e. the "victory" over attention should be distributed over time.
From here we come to the ripple model (J. Fiske talks about the circulatory basis
of Madonna's popularity). What characteristics
of a pop singer are significant? There is a changing composition of the audience,
which requires both an actor and a politician. capture more and more supporters.
Old fans, as a result of "pulsating communication", should receiveyou keep getting
new messages. As a result, the singer is "pushed out" to change songs. The
politician also has his own "songs". He responds to the change of context with his "
songs " - statements, interviews and reports. A singer remains in the memory of a
generation with only a few songs, but within this time period, he must
constantly generate new messages. A striking example of responding to the context
is V. Zhirinovsky, who, as it were, becomes part of this context himself due to the
strong variability of his image. The pulsating nature is manifested in the
delivery of information of a very diverse nature on the part of the leader. This multilayering
allows you to attract a wide variety of segments of the population to the
leader. Here are just a few examples. Tony Blair read from the stage of the Globe
Theater a list of his favorite books (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1998, May 16). Among
them were the biography of Tolstoy, Conan Doyle, Sinclair Lewis, Tolkien. Dickens,
Scott. Naturally, this information will primarily interest those who read books
themselves. In America , Matthew Pierce, a theology student from Texas, is named
as the boyfriend of the Clintons ' daughter Chelsea (Komsomolskaya Pravda,
May 13, 1998). This information is accessible to the majority, since everyone has
children. The story that Jennifer Flowers not only met with Clinton, but even became
pregnant by the president and was forced to have an abortion will attract the
attention of the next group (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1998, May 13). That is, there is
a constant flow of information, no different from the flow of information that
is"prepared" by managers of pop singers for their fans.
Moreover, the presidents even get into the artistic reality, becoming
an element of the world of fiction, as it happened with the love stories of Clinton in
the film "Black ColorTime magazine cited the following elements of coincidence
of events (Komsomolskaya Pravda, May 13, 1998):

Events of 1992 (real) Events of 1998 (movie)

Singer Jennifer Flowers Announces Hair stylist Kashmir

McLeod Announces Ties to Bill Clinton, loses ties to Jack Stanton, loses
record phone conversations as forged phone records
certificate. conversations.
Betsy Wright gets an assignment to stop Lesbian Libby Holden stops
stories about Wild Bill. Wild Jack rumors.
Former Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas Senator Lawrence Harris has
has an advantage over Clinton in advantage in New York, but gets
New York, but cancer is getting in the way heart attack during an argument with
him. By Stanton.
Former Florida Governor Fred
Millionaire Ross Perot Picker Enters the Race as a White Knight,
enters the race as the white Knight. Puts Moral Standards to the Test
the foundations of Stanton.
There is no doubt that this is a serious disadvantage for a
career, but the equally important law of attracting attention is
maintained, which we have defined as the need for "pulsation".

The painfulness of this situation is more typical for our world, where in the past
there was a system of non-alternative information. This allowed us to positively
"inflate" any figures. A film in the BBC series Beyond Myth, about former Romanian
leader Nicolae Ceausescu, said it was forbidden to shoot it next to taller people. Only
the images where the leaders were sitting were shown on the screen and in the
newspapers. His speech got rid of mistakes and stuttering before the broadcast.
Ceausescu's wife Elena, who did not have a higher education, became an
academician and director of the institute, where any work was always published in co-authorsyelling
at her. During negotiations with foreigners, as the translator said, not only
Elena spoke in response, but also one of the employees. The translator was forbidden
to translate Ceausescu's wife's answers. As a result, the desired positive image
was created. The totalitarian system created artificial variants of ripples (such as
those written in Orwell), when a person is forcibly placed under the influence of media
with no alternative direction. This is an external type of ripple. Mass culture is
characterized by the internal type, which can be depicted in the following form::

type of communication ripple type

external causes totalitarian
characteristic of mass culture internal causes

External causes are most often expressed in the repetition of the same stimulus,
which is also typical for totalitarian sects. Internal causes are expressed
in the change of stimuli and in the constant raising of the threshold of irritation.
The "soap opera" also looks interesting, where the change of situations reaches
its maximum. at the same time, the selected situations are oriented towards melodramatic
development, which affects most of the female audience. And then
a fantastic transfer of events from completely exotic countries to our soil turned
out to be possible: from Indian films of the fifties to the Latin American "soap"
of today. In this regard, PR also works, based on the translation of external
compulsion to internal persuasion. In this case, an important psychological
phenomenon occurs: the loss of the source of this behavioral change. Under
external compulsion, this source, on the contrary, is maximally protruding.

PR-communication the source is hidden

hierarchical communication (order and sub-order) the source is protruding

It may be the same scale, but PR and order occupy different poles
of this scalealy. At the same time, an essential parameter is the coincidence
of certain personal characteristics of the leader with the norms of the
communication channel. In this respect , a TV Brezhnev would lose out to a TV
Gorbachev. The same can be said about the TV Stalin, with smallpox marks,
a flawed arm and a small stature (on the Mausoleum for him, a footstool
was placed under his feet so that he looked taller than his height). Lebed is
unsympathetic on television, and he is interesting to voters for his opposition.
It is characterized by a lack of facial expressions, to be more precise
only one facial expression is involved. Zhirinovsky is interesting on television, but
discredited politically. Mass consciousness
also needs hints from the leader, which makes it easier to interpret his texts
(including behavioral ones). Compare A. Lebed's statement on the day after the
election: "I have not yet seen people who would make me a wedding general" (NTV,
1998, May 18). The singer also generates pre-set interpretations, saying things like "
He (I) is a sex symbol of modernity." Often these functions are performed by the
leader's entourage or criticism in the case of a pop singer. Critical arrows to a positive
image of a leader are just as iconic as that image itself. State Duma deputy Dmitry Rogozin said
in the Pros and Cons program (RenTV, 1998, May 15) that " criticizing our president
is an ocean of opportunities." At the same time, he immediately outlines the principle
of reverse work, according to which all critics are given the reputation of "partial
schizophrenic". Criticism is neutralized, as it were, by understating the image of the
critic himself. In fact, this is how the Soviet system worked, translating the problems
of criticism into psychiatric problems. But it is also interesting that the processes
of understating the Soviet reality also took the form of an anecdote. They are
quite accuratebut they reflect the processes of mass consciousness that resist external
influence. The powerful propaganda mechanism did not allow the "steam output",
which was given by an anecdote or anecdotal statements such as "Russia is the
birthplace of elephants". Thus, critical communication occurs in two types: criticism
coming from the speaker, and criticism coming from the listeners, which can be
imagined in the following form::

type source of negativity

UNDERSTATING SOMEONE ELSE'S IMAGE
talking
WORKING IN AN AGGRESSIVE ENVIRONMENT
listening

Even the anonymous delivery of negative information becomes a significant

factor in the political struggle. Thus, information appeared on the Internet
about the future publication in the newspaper "Bulvar" of a story about the
non-traditional sexual orientation of the leader of the Ukrainian communists,
to which he responded with a lawsuit against the newspaper. The newspaper,
in turn, publishes a refutation, emphasizing its non-involvement. But a
precedent has been set for pulsing negative information. In Soviet
times, dissidence served as a source of critical information in the public
arena, which was almost impossible in a non-alternative system.
Psychological experiments to provide this kind of oppositional information have
significant consequences that communicatively overestimate the real role of
the minority in relation to the minority. P. Shikhirev wrote the following about
such experiments at the group level: "The consistency of minority behavior
has a noticeable impact, since the fact of sustained opposition undermines
agreement (in the group) in two ways. The minority,firstly, suggests a norm
that contradicts the norm of the majority, and secondly, clearly demonstrates
that the group opinion is not absolute, what undermines its authority"
(P. N. Shikhirev Modern Social Psychology in Western Europe, Moscow, 1985, p.
96).
It should also be emphasized here that if the former Soviet Union fought on
a verbal level, its opponent acted on a different one. The main messages
received by the society from the West were non-verbal: visual (movies
they gave pictures of a typical film life, which were read as a variant of a really
typical life), eventful (the non-production cross-section of life was poorly reflected
by the Soviet ideology), material (jeans affected on an equal footing with tom
"Capital" of Marx on the other hand, but they did not require rational,
mental effort-related understanding). Naturally, such reports
could not even be refuted verbally in principle, since the impact
was based on other grounds. The diversity of impact was countered by the
monotony of counteraction, which could not but affect the results. Therefore,
personal attempts to save the situation by taking on the behavior patterns of a
Western leader, as Mikhail Gorbachev did, still could not change the situation.
Society has already been reoriented to the Western paradigm. But in the
post-Soviet period, Soviet-era models were again actively developed, especially in
the Central Asian republics.
The diversity of impact involves the work of professionals. Only they can
really help the captains of political ships. This is especially true for individual
politicians, since in principle a real assessment of the situation is possible only
from the outside. In confirmation, we give the following [Link] about Yabloko:" Rasputin
under Grigory Yavlinsky " many have already begun to call Vyacheslav Igrunov.
Weekly closed seminars of the director in factThe Institute for Humanitarian
and Political Studies and Yabloko's general Manager already allow us to talk
about the Vyacheslav Igrunov Higher Secondary School (Nezavisimaya Gazeta,
March 13, 1998 ). In conclusion,
let's see what characteristics of the image of G. Yavlinsky were emphasized
in S. Mulin's article " A Nugget from the Beatles Generation "("Figures and Faces",
appendix to Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998, No. 1). Even the title of the article clearly
defines such a characteristic of Yavlinsky as his young age, which implies his
unconventionality and opposition to the authorities. Even in its specifics, this
is an important characteristic, since " the Beatles generation has a clear temporal
correspondence. The article also indicates a good knowledge of English. And
these are like Western policy guidelines, especially important for young voters, the
number of which increases every year. The subtitle of the article, on the other hand,
refers to the Russian mythology of this image, since it reads as follows:"Grigory
Yavlinsky as the Lomonosov of Russian politics." Accompanying our usual image of
an intellectual are his quotes: "From the facts of the children's and youth biography
of Yavlinsky, they usually isolate his two-time Ukrainian boxing championship.
They say that it is since then that he drops his head to one side when talking to
the interlocutor, and they suspect a traumatic brain injury in this connection. This is
not so: classes in gloves were for Garik (this is the school, Lviv nickname of Grigory
Alexandrovich) just a tribute to the then fashionable model of behavior "good should
be with fists", which means it had no clinical consequences for the individual."
True, the author's arguments somehow do not refute the trauma, but they do set
the image of an intellectual, at least not of a humanitarian sense. Yavlinsky is the
first child in the family, and from political psychology, it is known that, for example,
American presidents mostly consist of first-born children.

§10. Information Wars

Current global trends in communication are showing completely new results

that were not available in the past. The amount of information that citizens
receive outside the control of their national Governments has increased
dramatically. Paul Kennedy states :" To the governments of authoritarian states
it is becoming increasingly difficult to keep your peoples in the dark. Chernobyl was quickly
photographed by a French commercial satellite, and the images quickly transmitted
to the whole world, including the Soviet Union itself. The Chinese government
's crackdown on student demonstrations in Tiananmen Square and the worldwide shock of
the event, at once China was also shaken by radio, television,and telefax.
When the communist regimes in Eastern Europe collapsed in late 1989,
reports and videos of the fall of one of them stimulated similar processes
in neighboring states." (Kennedy P. Entering the twenty-first Century, Moscow, 1997, p. 71).
Information begins to carry both creative and destructive power, but
to a much stronger extent than it was before. Because time has changed not
so much the essence of information as it has changed the intensity of impact, it has changed
the contexts of application (for example, the personal has become public, as is the case in
the case of pop stars or statesmen).
At the same time, the role of public information in political decision-making has increased
, making the political sphere much more public and much more
manageable. As the US Army Colonel K writes: Ellard: "In the case of Somalia
, TV images really motivated the international community to actand
little children with their bellies swollen with hunger" (Allard K. Co- operation, command
and control // Co-operation, command and control in UN peace-keeping operations. A pilot
study from the Swedish War College. - Stockholm, 1996. - P.100). In the same area lies
concept of the "CNN effect", when information becomes simultaneously available to both presidents
and ordinary viewers. CNN is accused of manipulating public opinion, for example,
by the defenders of the White House in October 1993: "At approximately 2.00 - 2.30,
broadcast Khasbulatov's nightly interview and the text of the Appeal against the background
of live footage of maneuvers in the vicinity of the "White House" and preparations for an
attack by the troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation (of course, on
Russian channels TV didn't pass this material). After a short pause, shortly after 3.00, CNN
commented on Khasbulatov's interview as paranoid delirium and showed night shots
taken, apparently, in the previous day, of the surroundings of the "White House" without
internal troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, who by this time were still standing ready for
an attack around the House of Soviets" (I. Ivanov. Anathema. Chronicle of the coup d'etat.
Notes of a scout, Moscow, 1995, p. 106).
This is not so typical of the past, for example, in the Second World War, the issues
of strategic deception of the enemy were not so relevant, since more attention
was paid to military force, rather than rumors. As V. Lacker writes: "Deception rarely brings
complete success, even in times of war-a Trojan Horse (if the story about it is true)
this is an exception. Usually, the most expected outcome is
the spread of doubt, rather than the opponent's acceptance of a certain untruth"
(Laqueur W. World of secrets. The use and limits of intelligence. - London, 1985. - Р. 287)
favor of such deception of the enemy in our time, the fact that, in principle
, decisions have to be understood as a load of uncertainty, giving preference
to those siltsand other, but still incomplete or ambiguous facts. Therefore, V. Lacker
allows himself to note that in intelligence, the possibilities for mistakes are almost
unlimited. Recent
times have shown increased opportunities for information impact on mass consciousness.
Among the most striking examples of information warfare is the cold war between the USSR
and the United States, which led to the collapse of the USSR; before that, the same example
of aggressive communicative influence was the management of the situation in Chile,
which ended with the overthrow of S. Allende. The CIS countries added to this list the war in
Chechnya, which was initially lost in the information field. "Komsomolskaya
Pravda" (1997, September 10) puts on the front page even the heading "Informational".
voynushki", which reports, among other things, the following: "a group of
specialists on "active measures", who previously worked in the domestic special
services, recently finished working out a scenario to discredit the two first deputy
prime ministers of the Russian government - Nemtsov and Chubais, as well as"
joined them". A. Koch. According to some leaders of the Russian media ,the
"fighters for truth" have already turned to them with proposals to give out
something sentsasional. Enemies of Berezovsky and Gusinsky expect a lot of
revelations-from making public juicy details of their personal lives to accusations of
corruption." In some cases, we have unpredictable results resulting from the
increasing volume of "foreign" information. In the past, countries lived by
consuming the information produced in them, so it could not be fundamentally
destructive. Modern information technologies have introduced completely new
messages to which the mass consciousness has not been able to adapt. Paul
Kennedy notes: " The desire of the world's poorest
four-fifths to emulate the prosperous West that they constantly see on TV also has
mixed consequences. If the internal obstacles to reform are insurmountable - and
this is exactly what is observed in many developing societies - then the reaction
to new information may be, on the one hand, mass migration to rich regions
of the world, and on the other, a shift to fundamentalism and rejection of Western
values (especially mass consumerism" (In the same place. - P. 83).
It is also necessary to recognize the fact that modern man, considering himself a
completely rational being, was not ready to manage emotional
communication as effectively as he did with rational communication. In the case
of advertising and propaganda influence, under the guise of rational arguments,
it is emotional information that falls on a person. For example, furniture is
advertised as a symbol of success. Rationally, this argument does not hold water,
but it begins to operate at the level of feelings, supported by visual
communication, where other symbols of success are inserted in the form of a car
or a beautiful girl. The essence of relying on emotional communication is probably
as follows: we have learned to adequately control the flow of rational communication,
this is even taught in schools, but in processing sensory information, we continue
to remain at the same level as in the past. We still believe
feelings more than arguments. The impact is carried
out not only at the level of individual consciousness, but also at the mass level, not
only within the country, but also at the international level. For example, 1996/1997.
They demonstrated the intensification of efforts in the field of international
information influence in the Balkan countries, where there were obvious variants
of controlled unrest that led to a change of power (full or partial). This is the
situation in Bulgaria, Albania and Yugoslavia. In the case of Albania, for example,
analysts note the strange fact that an army of depositors gained access to
weapons depots, including captured submarines (!), but they did not receive
the modern weapons with which Albania participated in the NATO military
exercises "Partnership for Peace". "Some analysts conclude such arguments with
the conclusion that a new Balkan scenario is being played out in the general
program of world reconstruction, initiated by some superpower, bloc, or even a
lodge" (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1997, March 26). In all these cases, as during the
war in Yugoslavia, the world's news agencies are clearly focused
on one of the parties to the conflict. The example of May 1998 in Indonesia
shows the development of the conflict according to the same model: from
student unrest to social unrest of all segments of the population. Students like
more dynamic and less norm-bound societies act as a sign
of change, which is indirectly and directly supported by all other social
groups. A particularly painful factor is the crackdown on such
demonstrations by the authorities, as exemplified by the actions of the OMON in
Yekaterinburg in relation to a student demonstration. The use of the same
technologies within the CIS countries can be seen in Belarus, where , for example,
ORT actively created one point of view on the current events in the event of a conflict
with sobkor P. Sheremet. But even the opinion of A. Lukashenko's opponents shows
that the picture of what is happening in Belarus is not the samel is simple. President
of the Belarusian Association of Journalists Zh. Litvina says the following: "His
[Lukashenka's] fool - City Hall] is portrayed completely in vain: this is a smart, strong,
fighting man, but at the same time a very dangerous person. The President
is the leader in all ratings, and the republic loves him. He is his own, he is
understandable to the "common man", speaks his language, expresses his aspirations -
he is idolized by many. There are more educated people in the opposition, but it is
helpless. Lukashenka is a winner in terms of his internal structure, for him there are no
rules of the game- laws, constitutional norms. And the worst thing is that people take it
for granted. During the referendum, Belarusians answered "no" to the question of
whether transparency is needed in the financing of all branches of government
(Obshchaya Gazeta, 1997, April 10-16). By the way, this is confirmed by the law of
Homophilia of communication,which states that the best influence on a group is
someone who is similar in many ways to it. These arguments no longer provide such a
simple picture, which we are used to build with the help of media reports. In Ukraine,
it was possible to observe this situation in a model form in the case of the student
hunger strike in 1990, which led, although undoubtedly indirectly, to the resignation of
the Government of V. Masol. By the way, the West went through the student unrest of
1968, having studied them well. Today, the Western media has a certain
information campaign about Ukraine (cf. a series of articles accusing
the authorities of corruption). Even if it is recognized as spontaneous
rather than organized, it clearly demonstrates the possibilities of external influence
on internal problems. At the same time, power structures do not know how to build
response actions in the same mode. Ukraine's reaction also turned out to be "sagging"
, for example, on the visit to the Crimea of Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov.
Intensive information impact on the country for several months is
quite capable of leading to a change of power in it, and the population will not even feel
the existence of external control over these processes. External management can
be quite remote, creating a significant impact on the user experience. specific system
conditions that favor certain exposure options. Thus,
researchers note the special conditions that led to the emergence of fascism:
"The First World War, the post-war trials of this generation had a decisive
traumatic impact on the formation of the personality of young Germans and
contributed to the formation of such psychological qualities in future "Nazis" as
a weak personality, increased aggressiveness, anger, which
ultimately led to submission to the totalitarian leader"(Bobrova E. Yu. Fundamentals of
historical psychology. St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 57). But a difficult situation is also typical
for modern CIS countries. Here is an opinion on the Russian Federation: "Currently,
from 75% to 85% of the population of various regions of the Russian Federation
is in socio-psychological and psychological depression. The result is a demotivation
of activity in all spheres of life, which causes irreparable damage to the country
and its development prospects" (Russia at the critical line: Revival or Catastrophe,
Moscow, 1997, p. 104). Accordingly, in the framework of political relations with Russia
certain thresholds have been crossed. Thus, with the maximum value of 40% of
the share of citizens who support a radical change in the political system, Russia
shows 43%, and with the maximum norm of 25% of the level of public confidence in
the central authorities, Russia has 14% (In the same place. - With. 146). In the first case
, the consequence is the delegitimization of power, in the second-the rejection of
power by the people.
By information warfare, we mean a slightly different type of impact than the one
that has been called information warfare for many decades. psychological warfare defined as
"using all possible forms of communication to destroy the enemy's
desire to fight" (Padover S.K. Psychological warfare and foreign policy // The theory and
practice of international relations. Englewood Cliffs, 1960. - P. 238). And even at that
time, this author said that American propaganda is very negative: against
of communism, against sovietism, against dictators. But you should install for what her?
As we can see, psychological warfare is, in fact, propaganda of destruction, but not propaganda
of creation. The Cold War also followed a model of destruction. It also took
into account another parameter that was already worked out in the public relations
model :words should go in parallel with deeds. In the mouth of propagandists, this
sounds like "Propaganda by action has more power than propaganda by word, and the
effectiveness of propaganda by word is directly proportional to the deeds that it is
intended to promote" (White R.K. The new resistance to international propaganda // Ibid. - P.
247).
Information warfare (we do not consider in this regard computer wars
related to the problem of protecting information and information networks) is
mainly based on a positive action, which, however, is destructive for the system.
For example, a Ukrainian student hunger strike demanded the departure of Prime
Minister V. Masol from the arena. Trust unrest is reduced to a demand for a refund.
L. Wojtasik considers propaganda communication as the dissemination
of a propaganda message, meaning by the latter "singular value propagandiste
action (lecture, report, leaflet, slogan, newspaper article, radio speech, etc
.)" (Wojtasik L. Psychology of Political Propaganda, Moscow, 1981, p. 47). In an interview
from the time of socialist Poland, he talks about the information war of the West
against his country, highlighting three main directions (Sobesednik, 1987, No. 26).
The first is the reorientation of public opinion by introducing a new scale
of values. Since public opinion is formed by the intelligentsia, new
criteria of truth are introduced through it. The second is economic misinformation, as a
result of which the country has become dependent on the Western economy. The third
is the dissemination and consolidation in the public consciousness of consumer
models of life through cinematic and other versions of messages.
Paul Kennedy, in his famous study "Entering the Twenty-first Century," also
focuses on the lessons of the two world wars of this century. "During both
conflicts, Governments gradually increased their control over information. Even
great works of art have been used to promote national
interests and resolve, as exemplified by Laurence Olivier's patriotic interpretation of
Shakespeare's Henry V and Shostakovich's Eighth Symphony
(Kennedy P. Entering the twenty-first Century, Moscow, 1997, p. 152). Two other models
of the future presented by F. Fukuyama (Fukuyama F. The end of history and the last man. -
London, 1992) and S. Huntington, emphasize the information confrontation. In
one case, this is a movement to other countries of the liberal model, in the other -
a clash of civilizational models, which in each case implies
a significant information component.
In our opinion, the main difference between information warfare is the reliance on
the concept of communication resonance, when the level of exposure is
dramatically lower than the resulting effect. Communicative resonance allows you
to significantly increase the reach of the population, because they want to hear
exactly this at the moment . Rumor researchers note social and political unrest as
the most favorable environment for their subject. "Participants in such events
are overwhelmed with emotions: they are excited, dissatisfied, angry and
irritated. The reason for this is the inability of people to meet significant
needs within the established political or social structure"
(Dmitriev A.V. et al. Informal Political Communication, Moscow, 1997, p. 98).
The second important difference between information warfare is that it is
the image war. For example, the Cold War produced cinematic
images of a different life, the realities of which the residents of the CIS countries
still did not receive, continuing to be content with image messages. Perestroika
looked like a struggle between the images of, for example, a party worker of that
time and a factory director, a specialist. Image warfare is of particular interest for
two reasons:
a) the image is strongly based on the existing stereotypical representations
of the situation in a person, which is why it is so easily perceived by the audience;
b) the image is actually formulated indirectly, so
it is difficult to refute the message at this level in a rational way.
The image is a symbolic correlate of the object, but it has a special power,
since we live not only in the real world, but also in the symbolic world. But this
symbolic dimension has a very real material content. For example,
the trademark "Dodge "was acquired by the automobile company"Chrysler"
for 74 million dollars. Image characteristics become the object of competitive
struggle. R. Reagan in his election campaign against J. R. R. Tolkien. Carter was
modeled as a strong leader against a weak one. The image of Churchill with a cigar
was maintained even when he had not smoked at all for a decade. But when
Churchill was photographed or appeared in public, he took a
dead cigar out of his pocket. Stronger image characteristics displace weaker ones:
For this reason, Ukraine cannot yet overcome the image of Chernobyl as
defining for its representation in the international arena.
Internal information campaigns conducted in Russia show
a variety of methods used. Such examples include
the following: - publication of the transcript of the
conversation between A. Chubais and others. regarding the removal of the box of
dollars from the White House.
Note. It is significant that this discussion focused on the problem
of withholding information for several days, and TV, as follows from
the conversation, was already under complete control;
- the scandal with Berezovsky's Israeli passport;
- coverage of Boris Yeltsin's illness.
Note. American Professor Debakey said about relations with the press: "The
inexperience of [Akchurin - City of P.] in the treatment of journalists led to the fact that,
that in conversations with them he over-dramatized the risk associated with the
operation" (Moskovsky Komsomolets, 1996, November 14); - information campaigns in
the media with rather general goals. For example: " We knew from sources in the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation that Yeltsin's analytical groups (which widely
use officers of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation who are
specialists in ideological operations) developed and launched a new program in the
[Link] for going "to the people" are several propaganda installations-cliches that
shape the mass consciousness in favor of Yeltsin. Only one of them worked-the win-win
"Chechen" card. Yeltsin's outspoken claims to establish a regime of personal and
unaccountable power were first cleverly replaced and masked by the problem of opposing
two unpleasant personalities, and then with flashy grace justified by the seemingly
lack of alternatives to the choice:"Better the Russian Yeltsin than the Chechen
Khasbulatov!" (I. Ivanov. Anathema. Chronicle of the coup d'etat. Notes of a scout, Moscow,
1995, p. 71); - A. Lebed's
information breakthrough (as analysts write: "Having received the support of a team
of professional image makers, he transformed like a greyhound who heard the sound
of a horn "(Moskovsky Komsomolets, 1996, November 28). Pavel Gusev, editor-in-chief
of the Moskovsky Komsomolets newspaper, in an interview with the Russian
edition of Playboy magazine, says quite clearly about this: "As
the editor-in-chief of an influential newspaper, I can say with confidence:" Not a single
high-profile article goes unnoticed." Remember the story of Pavel Grachev. We
thoroughly and purposefully undermined this political figure in order for the
president to make a decision. And I categorically disagree with the point of view that
newspapers have no influence - I know that this is not so" (Business, 1997, June 23).
The well-known problem of the role of the leader's environment in building information
flows also lies in this plane. O. Poptsov answers the question of what exactly paralyzes
the leader in the following way. "The information blockade, fertilized by an abundance
of disinformation. Our President should know everything. Already in 1988-1989, it was
noticed that the President likes to be informed. One leader
collects carsfor example, another grows corn in his own dacha,
the third - enemies of the people. Gorbachev never failed to repeat, " As you can see, I
have enough information." This was quickly sensed by the immediate surroundings.
If the President wants to feel informed, we will not disappoint him. He needs to
know what everyone else doesn't. It should know exactly the opposite of what is publicly
available. The reaction is plotting, it's being talked about in the streets. The environment
makes it clear to the president that panic has become a fashion. "The intelligentsia
has always been prone to hysteria. We will give you information of a different property.
The plot is indeed being prepared, but it is being prepared by the left, led by the leaders
of the interregional group. Their program: crush the government, then the Congress, then
the President. So, the weakness of the reformer, noticed in time by the apparatus, helps
the apparatus to get its hands on power, which the President does not even suspect.
A formula is born - they are eager for power" (Poptsov O. Chronicle of the times of "Tsar Boris".
Russia, the Kremlin. 1991-1995. - Moscow, 1996. - P. 124).
All these examples indicate the new role of information support for top officials
and the media, which determines the priority of certain topics for mass consciousness.
At one time, R. Nixon said that the success of the presidency depends on the
ability to manipulate the press, but God forbid you show the press that you manipulate it.
The West has already introduced a new specialty, called spin doctor, whose
tasks are:: a) preparation of event expectations, b) correction of the information situation
in the media when it does not develop according to a favorable scenario. Russia also
actively uses this type of situation management. So, when V. Isakov
criticized B. Yeltsin, saying that during a meeting in Tashkent, B. Yeltsinn was drunk,
and the Kremlin requested a critical tape. It was viewed by presidential aides
Ilyushin and Kostikov:
"- What are we going to do? Ilyushin asked.
"I don't think the press is going to cover this episode," I said. "
The newspapermen hate Isakov. Except for the newspaper Pravda...
"What do you suggest?"
- I think it's better not to react in any way. If we respond, refute, only
harm, attract unnecessary attention to the episode.
"Perhaps you're right," Ilyushin agreed.
Just in case, I called several editors-in-chief and talked carefully"
(Kostikov V. An affair with the President, Moscow, 1997, p. 48). Examples
of successful information wars in the post-Soviet world are based on models
of transferring economic instability to political instability. Actually, the collapse of the USSR
itself was built on this model, when economic dissatisfaction was
transferred to political dissatisfaction. Today, the CIS countries have once again
found themselves in a similar situation of a non-functioning economy. At the same
time, certain critical thresholds are set, including in the field of economics, which
cannot be crossed without a significant change in the system (see, for example,
Russia at the critical line: revival or catastrophe, Moscow, 1997). But paradoxically,
the "off scale" of such thresholds has not yet led to drastic changes in
the CIS countries. Along
with the political and economic tasks, the tasks of changing mass consciousness
are probably being solved in parallel. This began with the construction
of Mikhail Gorbachev's" pan-European house". The appeal of such slogans
is obvious. It is less obvious that both "communism" and" capitalism", which we have
gradually begun to build, are essentially mythological structures to a certain extent
, which do not have the same obvious reality behind them. At
the same time, some analysts critically assess the changes taking place today. "The technologie
of influencing mass consciousness used by neoliberal reformers are dominated
by destructive schemes, they are implemented according to sociodrama algorithms.
Meanwhile, there are reliable technologies of "mind-building" that allow, on the
one hand, not to destroy the already developed positive elements, and on the other,
to solve the problems facing society of reorienting the consciousness of individual
social groups to new values" (Russia at the critical line: revival or catastrophe,
Moscow, 1997, p. 105).. The authors note that there is an "informational
and cultural aggression against the basic culture of Russians. [ ... ] Today,
the object of the expansion of the "reformers" is the linguistic and symbolic system
of the Russian superethnos, and it is precisely on it that the entire information
vector of destruction is directed" (In the same place In another
case, we are talking about mind control through the selection of informational
messages for the media. "Russian society is under the pressure of socially
insignificant, distracting information (who gave birth to Madonna or what 's new
with Princess Diana), and at the same time there is a shortage of information about
what is happening in Samara,Vologda, Tver or Eastern Siberia. Mass consciousness
is being cut off from all-Russian interests" (In the same place. - P. 115). Perhaps this i
simply the result of entering a different type of information, which was clearly lacking
in Soviet times. At the same time, it turned out to be more competitive, displacing
information from Russian regions. It should also be taken into account that today
's media news has become more personal. "Celebrity is always news," writes
Dorothy Doty (Doty D. Publicity and Public Relations, Moscow, 1996, p. 226). And
celebrities also tend to live in capitals.
Schematically information warfare model it should probably be based on
the following components:
1. Multi-purpose object for subsequent communication resonance A: it should
involve different segments of the population, for example, trusts in Albania, Russia
and Ukraine, elections in Yugoslavia; other examples may include non-payment
of wages, corruption and AML. as objects in which the interests of a large
number of diverse social groups are affected, which as a result creates an
opportunity for their unification.
2. As a "dynamics" for mass consciousness a homogeneous group of the population
is used that does not have a clear dependence on the existing government,
for example, students, miners, pensioners; Ukrainian students in 1990 showed
that society can see them as their children, public attention was gradually
reoriented in this direction , but at first mass consciousness was outside this
interpretation; Serbia also spent the whole winter 1996/97 saw student protests. Note
that young people as an impact group have their own characteristics. Researchers,
for example, note the following characteristics of the perception of headlines: "If
the main role in assessing interest in the youth group was played by the originality
and plot of language structures, i.e. the form of message expression, then in
the older group the center of gravity in assessing interest moves to the importance
and relevance of the content" (Volovik A. F., Nevelsky P. B. Conditions for involuntary
memorization of visual agitation elements // Speech impact. Problems
of Applied Psycholinguistics, Moscow, 1972, p. 30). The youth audience
is also of particular interest because of its lack of [Link] their interests,
which is why they are more actively absorbing information than any other audience.
According to research data, the cognitive peak occurs at the age of 14-15 years,
and after twenty years it decreases sharply (Russia at the critical line: revival or
catastrophe, Moscow, 1997, p. 123). In principle, research conducted by the Center
for Social Forecasting and Marketing (Russia) after the Russian presidential
election showed that 66.2% of the population is more or less susceptible
to political advertising. "This indicator is particularly high among the youngest,
is stable at the level of the average among those under 60 years of age, and
decreases in the age group over 60 years" (In the same place. - P. 210). Translated
a public language, this can be understood as the fact that the audience over 60
years old did not succumb to the option of an aggressive campaign conducted
during the Russian presidential election.
As part of this impact on the youth audience, we have another
Ukrainian example, when "Maria Devi Hristo" prepared 800 young people
aged 15 to 25 for death (figure from Komsomolskaya Pravda, 1997, July 4). Even
today, these people who have been subjected to psychological treatment cannot be
brought out of the state of addiction.
Miners also belong to the type of professions, the very nature of which
develops a variant of psychological dependence on each other. No type
of professional work has such consequences. Although all sorts of unusual
events can cement some professional group on a temporary basis.
for example, the funeral of a taxi driver killed by bandits unites all
taxi drivers into a single whole.
A homogeneous population group is more strongly influenced by conformism, that is,
changes in behavior or beliefs under the influence of the group. It is established that
groups of five people have the highest level of conformism,
which then does not change significantly (Myers D. Social psychology. St. Petersburg,
1997, p. 293). The influence of people from other groups on us is not as
opinion of people who belong to our group.
Normative and informational sources of conformism are noted. Normative
conformism is a repetition of mass behavior patterns, since it is difficult
to implement behavior that would run counter to the expectations of the environment.
Information conformism is realized in an ambiguous situation when a person
tries to get an interpretation of reality from others: "Conformism
is more often manifested when a person feels incompetent, when the task
is quite difficult, or when the subject tries to avoid mistakes" (In the same place. - P.
3. Goal indirection: as a rule, the barrage of criticism is not directed directly at the
authorities, but only indirectly, for this reason, the authorities cannot but support the
people's will, which as a result is directed to a different goal.
4. Oral channel A: due to the blocking of official communication channels in some ca
, information is distributed through oral channels, as was
the case, for example, in 1986 in the case of Chernobyl.
Note. The oral canal is more important for small states such as Albania and Bulgaria.
Russia, for example, located in a space in different time zones, cannot resonate
in this way. Probably, this can also serve as a protective barrier in the case of
Ukraine, where in any case the support of the media is being sought. Completely
different parameters of impact start working within the oral channel, for which the
authorities are poorly prepared. This area includes such phenomena as the differentiation
of formal / informal leaders, the category of personal contacts, etc. Let's also
call the phenomenon of "fast speech" (the speech rate of 140-150 words per m
can be doubled without losing meaning). "John F. Kennedy, known as an exceptional
speaker, sometimes sped up to 300 words per minute. For Americans (but not
Koreans), fast speech means influence and competence." (Myers D. Edict op. - p. 31
A typical Soviet-era oral text was an anecdote that mocked
the key parameters of that system. Lenin, Chapaev and pod.
In
this regard, T. Cherednichenko also analyzes the texts of cartoons as constructed in
contrast to the pioneer song, i.e. the same ideological text, but
designed for a different age (Cherednichenko T. V. Between "Brezhnev" and "Pugacheva".
Typology of Soviet Mass Culture, Moscow, 1993).
The oral element is interesting because it never lags behind with the reaction, while
the written (official) text is so delayed that an attempt to build a
refutation on it is almost doomed to failure.
5. Stimulating discussion: the task also becomes to select such key messages
that would stimulate discussion of the situation in the target population groups.
There is also a variant of the type of anecdote or rumor, which are themselves
displayed for further distribution. At the same time, the discussion is beneficial for
As a result, the phenomenon of group polarization occurs
. This phenomenon consists in strengthening the initial attitudes that
are common to all members of the group. A number of studies see sources the
image of terrorism is in a similar group polarization, which "occurs among people
who are united by their grievances. As they interact in isolation from
restraining influences, their moods gradually become more
extreme. A powerful signal is generated at the output of the social amplifier.
The result is acts of violence that individuals in isolation from the group
might never have committed." (Myers D. Social psychology. St. Petersburg, 1997
, p. 379).
6. Multichannel exposure: the audience receives messages of the same type across
multiple channels. American researchers note the following advantages
of this approach (cit. by: Windahl S., Signitzer B. a. o. Using communication theory. An
introduction to planned communication. London etc., 1992. - p. 109):
- fewer conflicting messages start circulating in the environment.
- the same message will be heard from different sources.
- the characteristics of each channel can be maximized.
- a certain channel has access to those audience members that
the other channel does not have access to.
For example, the 1990 student strike was discussed in the domestic and foreign
media, as well as in the course of oral communication. Multichannel communication should
also be perceived as the transmission of a message simultaneously through verbal
and nonverbal channels. For example, a declared hunger strike is accompanied
by white headbands. In the same area lies the most famous example,
which has already become a textbook example, of Nixon's loss to Kennedy
in a televised debate at this very level. "In the debate between Nixon and Kennedy
(1960), it is generally believed that Nixon lost the debate itself, and therefore
the very close election, for the following reasons: because of his appearance
(the postures he assumed), because of the manner of his behavior (eyes,
nervessweat on his forehead), because of the sound of his voice (nervous),
and not at all because of the arguments he gave. As experts later noted,
the television camera ruthlessly recorded all of Nixon's shortcomings. Experts
also reported that Kennedy had highly qualified specialists who helped him create
a more favorable image. Indeed, while radio
listeners preferred Nixon, TV viewers could not help but notice significant flaws
in all three aspects - appearance, demeanor, and voice - and this prevented
them from focusing on the content of his speeches. And as a result
, they preferred Kennedy." (Sarah J. Smith Business etiquette. Public Relations, Moscow,
1997, pp. 181-182).
7. Building on existing networks: a homogeneous group (students, miners,
pensioners) is also interesting because it has pre-existing
social and information networks, which include its representatives. In principle
, a homogeneous group of" peers " has a greater power of influence than even
the mass media. At the same time, this oral channel is usually underestimated.
More important are psychological reasons these processes. So, today researchers
write about identity crisis which took place in the working environment in the
period before the revolution of the seventeenth year (Bobrova E. Yu. Fundamentals of
historical psychology. - SPb., 1997). The rural worker was marginalized in the city,
and a new social force offered him a dominant position in the new social order.
all right. We could also observe the identity crisis in the case of the collapse
of the USSR, when there was a clear lack of use of the capabilities of each
person. Today we also have an identity crisis, when large groups of the
population are "lost" in a new social situation. And this is an essential
version of the task - to have opportunities for further growth, for example, B.
Clinton constantly declares that it is the duty of every American to grow
above himself. Thus , individual tasks are socialized, as it were, and as a
result, the social climate becomes more positive for both the leader and the
individual. It is interesting that the main social groups capable of spreading
a communicative resonance-students, pensioners, miners-are now
characterized by an identity crisis. Students face it in any
society, because entering the adult world, which is perceived as unfair and
wrong, is stressful in any case. The first version of the protest during the
perestroika period was just student-these were students of Almaty
universities in December 1986. Pensioners are experiencing an identity
crisis due to the transition to an inactive state, the loss of the corresponding
positives that their work gave them. Miners today have lost the moral and
material advantages that they had in the previous system, and they do not
want to accept their new position.
Social protests also have a certain time dependence. So, the CIS countries
felt as their regularity the autumn rally activity. O. Poptsov calls a different
reference: "According to tradition, the days of mass marches and riots were
considered non-working days-Saturday and Sunday" (Poptsov O. Chronicle of
the times of "Tsar
Boris". Russia, the Kremlin. 1991-1995. - Moscow, 1996
334). It is also important that these days the press does not function properly,
and these events do not receive proper coverage. The loop turns out to be open.
American stylee researchers (cit. by: Windahl S., Signitzer B. a. o. Using communication
theory. An introduction to planned communication. London etc., 1992)
suggest a typology of the audience based on the following parameters:
1. Face a homogeneous problem;
2. Recognize that the problem is significant;
3. Organize to do something about the problem.
This creates four types of audience:
1. Non-public (when none of the parameters are applicable);
2. Latent public (using the first parameter);
3. Sensing public (using parameters 1 and 2);
[Link] public (using all three parameters). As a variant
of a homogeneous audience, we can also consider certain generations.
E. Y. Bobrova formulates the following laws as the "law of generation":
"Representatives of the generation for which the historical
situation is unfavorable become agents of social change. The historical
behavior of the generation is aimed at changing the social system, optimally
corresponding to the self-realization of representatives of this generation" (Bobrova E. Yu.,
edict. op. - p. 97).
An unfavorable historical situation influences the creation of a mass morbid
phenomenon - historical neurosis. Thus, E. Y. Bobrova cites as an example
the epidemic of suicides in Russia in 1906-1910 among students and high school students (p. 10
"The period of mass mental epidemics often precedes the comprehension
of typical psychological problems and conflicts in journalism, fiction, art, and politics
" (p. 191).
Power structures do not take into account the fact discovered in psychology that a person, in
fact, moves within the framework of his own fictitious goals (Adler A. Praktika i teoriya individualnoi psikhologii
theory of individual psychology]. These goals include
the following:: "Honesty is the best policy", " All people of popsgiven as equals", "Men
are above women". "Although fictitious goals have no parallel in reality, they
often help us solve life's problems more effectively." (Hjell L.,
Ziegler D. Theories of personality. St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 181). These fictitious goals lead us through
life, and we are painfully aware of their withdrawal. This is precisely the case in recent
times, when the value system of the former Soviet man has been
destroyed.
The systematics of goals have been continuously introduced into humans in the past. So, there
was a "Moral code of the builder of communism", there were rules of the pioneer (such as "The Pioneer
is an example to all children"). Based on Adler's theory, the discrepancy between these axioms and reality,
as it turns out, does not matter at all. A particular pioneer could violate this
commandment, but in general it created a communicative field, the fulfillment of the commandments
of which helped a person to make decisions in specific life situations.
By saying "girls don't do that", we are educating the accepted
behavior in society.
G. S. Melnik lists a similar set of modern stereotypes: "The West
will save us", "Capitalism is the best of all worlds", "The farmer will feed us", "Russia is sold in
parts", "Russia is turning into a colonial country", "All members of the government
have an account in a Swiss bank, and in Greece - a villa", "All the police work for the
mafia", "All deputies are bribe takers" (Melnik G. S. Mass-media: psychological
processes and effects. St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 91). Unlike the previous examples, which
can be designated as individual stereotypes, these are social stereotypes,
since they describe the functioning of a different level. But their essence is that they
set the interpretation of reality, within which we see all our
realities. The introduced stereotypes are almost impossible to change.
The mass consciousness of any society must be exposed to conscious analysis. For
example, having crossed a certain threshold in the degree of pessimism, Ukrainian society
will cease to be capable, which is due to the observations of American analysts
about the fact that the optimist himself is looking for a way out of the situation, and the pessimist no lo
does anything, but only blames the authorities. Optimism/pessimism is also a factor that
selective technologies should take into account. Thus, optimists prevailed among those who voted for Boris Yelts
; in the case of G. Zyuganov, they were pessimists. By the way,
V. Kostikov also emphasizes the need to introduce optimism in his speech: "In an effort
to maintain optimism in society and prevent the Democrats from turning sour under the onslaught
of the opposition, B. N. Yeltsin has developed a vigorous propaganda offensive these days"
(Kostikov V. An affair with the President, Moscow, 1997, p. 140).
Information impact in intensive mode Today it is an essential part of the professional work of a number of
Ministry of Emergency Situations, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the Securit
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mininform. But no one deals with the methodology of
working out information work, as a result of which, for example, Ukraine loses its
"information wars" with Russia. In principle,
the information component has become an important aspect of government work, the
results of which are still far from perfect, since the population is brought to the position
of viewers, not participants in events, which significantly hinders the development of
any reforms. O. Poptsov emphasizes that during the transition period,everyone gets tired of negative
emotions. "But the government gets tired first. This is addressed to the press: "You
denigrate reality, you sow national discord, you undermine the credibility of reforms."
At this point, the government forgets, that the information mirror does not capture
what is desired, but reflects only the actual. The disease of reformers of all times:
if there are no results , you need to come up with them. For the benefit of the reforms
themselves. Hence the desire to have a new, presidential television. And the parliament
has a parliamentary name. The government has a government name. Then we
will talk about ourselves, which should be considered true from this day on. No need
to speculate for us, finish writing. And no one asks the question: "Where can I get such
a viewer, listener, reader who will believe you-presidential,
parliamentary, government?" (Poptsov O. Chronicle of the times of "Tsar Boris".
Russia, the Kremlin. 1991-1995. - Moscow, 1996. - P. 120). The element of irony given
by the author should not underestimate the importance of what is being considered.
Since creating a controlled channel does not solve the trust problem, it is the decision
of a weak participant in a communication duel rather than a strong one.
Miners ' strikes they are also an example of the inept work of government agencies
to prevent conflict situations. Western methodologies in this case
recommend conflict resolution at the lowest level, so as not to bring them to
the resolution of the conflict at the level of force. Conflicts should be resolved at other
levels: the level of interest or the level of entitlement (Ury W.L. a.o. Getting disputes
resolved. Designing systems to cut the costs of conflict. - Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
Examples of other intensive campaigns on Ukrainian soil (
the 1990 student hunger strike or the 1995 Patriarch's funeral) have shown state failure
effectively manage the information situation both in the context of a momentary
response, and in the context of a gradual increase in the information shaft.
It is interesting that the student hunger strike at the level of oral communication was not
supported by the population. The support came only after active participation in the
discussion of mass media that spoke in favor of students.
The degree of readiness of the population (and its various groups) for
various types of social protest also plays a role here. Thus, in 1996, the population
expressed readiness for the following types of social protest (Politichny portrait of
Ukraine. - Вип. 17. - Київ, 1996. - С. 90):

Participation in election campaigns 13,7

Collecting signatures for collective letters 12,7

Legal meetings and demonstrations 15,2

Strike threat 7 ,4

Boycott (refusal to comply with the decisions of the administration, authorities) 6 ,6

Unauthorized meetings and demonstrations 2 ,2

Illegal strikes 1 ,9

Hunger strikes of protest 2 ,9

 Picketing of state institutions 5 ,9

Capturing buildings 0 ,9

Creation of independent armed groups 1 ,6

Other 0 ,7

None of these methods seems to me effective or acceptable enough to make me feel that I am not goi
I took part in it 33,5

Hard to answer 33,3

It should also be noted that the content of messages in the information war
largely coincides with rumors. This is somewhat a response to the anxiety of the
population (for example, the population of Albania, naturally alarmed by the
money lost in trusts ). However, as in the case of rumors, anxiety in this case
does not decrease, but, on the contrary, increases. It is the resonant swing of
events in Yugoslavia that confirms the lack of influence of the category of "defrauded
depositors" on the elections. Surveys conducted by Russian sociologists
have shown that the results are:.. they were minimal, and the issue was removed
from discussion. On May 24, 1996, 1,500 people were interviewed. Question:
If the presidential election were held next Sunday, who would you most likely
vote for? (Izvestia, 1996, May 30): Last name Non-depositors Defrauded
candidates % depositors, %
_________________________________________________Eltsin
21.4 25,3

Zyuganov 20.4 20.7

Zhirinovsky 8.7 10.5
Yavlinsky 7.8 9.1
Lebed 5.5 6.4
The rest 11.6 13.5
Would not participate 9.9 5.3
I can't answer 10,8 13,1
_________________________________________________
Information warfare, like psychological warfare, is to a certain extent
hidden in nature, in which the real sender of the message and
the real "recipient" of it are "confused". L. Shebarshin, for example, recalling the work
of the corresponding service " A
"Several dozens of experienced and intelligent people specializing in
political, military or economic problems identify vulnerabilities in
the position of international opponents of the Soviet Union, find out or invent
facts (they invent very plausibly), the disclosure of which puts
the opponent in difficulty, forces him to justify himself, to look for the culprits on your
side, lose confidence in negotiations. The opponent feels that his problems
hardly arise by chance, that the KGB is behind this, but everything looks completely
natural, there is no evidence - the public, the press, and lawmakers are losing
confidence in politicians; the third world countries are getting more and more
evidence of the treachery of Western imperialists; European allies are worried
about rearmament West Germany; the public is agitated
by American plans to deploy neutron weapons in Europe" (Shebarshin L. V. From
the life of the intelligence chief, Moscow, 1994, pp. 61-62). By the way, as follows
from the text of the book, the KGB at one time supported N. Ryzhkov against B.
Yeltsin in the elections, which also can hardly be attributed to open actions.
It's like a process that is [Link] to the situation of event
sponsorship, when all possible efforts are made to indicate their presence in the
event. This series also reflects the processes of lobbying of his department, for
example, L. Shebarshin recalls summing up the results of one of the perestroika
meetings: "We should not expect a general stabilization of the situation in the country
in the foreseeable future . The country's top leadership, i.e. Gorbachev, is interested
in supporting the committee, but will not support it itself. We need to work energetically
in the parliamentary and journalistic corps, and reach out to public organizations.
The action plan should be prepared by Service " A "(it has experience in conducting
active events abroad) and Department "P". We will not count on the KGB press
bureau , it is not able to work effectively, and journalists run away from it. We nee
to speed up the creation of the association of foreign intelligence veterans and find
a smart, presentable employee for public relations" (In the same place. - P. 49).
It should also be recognized that the audience is not particularly eager to receive new
information, to change their behavior under the influence of an information
campaign. American researchers note the following reasons for this negative
cross-section of the information campaign (cit. by: Windahl S., Signitzer B. a. o. Using
communication theory. An introduction to planned communication. London etc., 1992.
- p . 113):
1. Information campaigns should be based on realistic goals,
since the public is not particularly interested in the message; 2. It is not
particularly effective to simply provide information through the media, it is necessary
to use supportive interpersonal communication systems;
3. It should be borne in mind that each type of target audience has its own
preferences in the field of mass media, life goals, values, dedemographic and
psychological characteristics.
In the same area lies the theory of diffusion of ideas by E. Rogers, in which
the model of distribution of any new information is considered. It is based on the
classification of the audience according to the degree of receptivity to the new. This
distribution is as follows (cit. by: Windahl S., Signitzer B. a. o. Using
communication theory. An introduction to planned communication. - London etc.,
1992. - p . 62):
"Innovators" make up 2.5%, they are more outward-oriented than members of other
categories, in our old dimension they are a certain kind of cosmopolitans;
"First-timers " make up 13.5%, they are respected local
residents who are asked for advice;
"The "early majority" is 34%, they weigh it for a long time before making
a decision.
"The "majority" is also 34%, they need a certain amount of pressure
from the environment in order to join the new one;
the "Bumblebees" are 16%, they are suspicious of everything new.
At the same time,the first categories are characterized by a high level of education,
social status, and mobility; they are able to operate with abstract
entities.
Note that when an idea passes through a certain level of audience reach, it
is almost impossible to suspend it.
Here, each previous group serves as a bridge for the next one, setting it a less
risky behavior model. Finally, what is the difference
between information warfare and conventional warfare ? We can name a
number of significant differences that require special attention to this new type
of communication for us. First, conventional warfare has a well-known and
clear arsenal of impact. Because of this predictability, it is possible to build a
certain kind of defense measures in response. The situation becomes different
in the case of information wars. Aresenal effects in them are characterized
by a sufficient degree of flexibility and unpredictability. For this reason, it is not
so easy to build certain defense options. Although some experiments are being
conducted in this area. According to them , a certain "vaccination" of thinking
against the introduction of an alternative point of view is possible. Having
received and discussed it in advance, a person behaves differently in the case
of a real counterargument. Similarly, D. Myers discusses the
impact within modern religious sects: "For the same reason
, religious preachers should be careful not to create a" sterile ideological
environment " in their churches and schools. An attack that has been repelled
can strengthen a person's position rather than intimidate them, especially if
the attacks can be discussed with like-minded people. In sects, this principle
is used to prevent possible attacks on the new faith by family
members of converts or their old friends. When the expected attack begins,
the cultist is already armed with counterarguments." (Myers D. Social psychology. St.
Petersburg, 1997, p. 352). However, in most cases, which we are talking about when
we talk about information warfare, there is no way to predict the direction and
tools of a possible attack.
Secondly, in the case of an ordinary war, the territory is completely captured; in
the case of an information war, a phased capture is possible. Separate
work with opinion leaders, young people, and others is likely, i.e. if the general norm
is maintained, individual polling stations may be excluded from influence. The
information war in this regard looks like a "peace war", since it can go against the
background of universal peace and prosperity.
Third, one more thingthe main feature of information warfare is the possibility
of multiple capture of the same people. Within the framework of an ordinary war
, the "yes-no" logic operates. In the case of an information war, there is a variant of
fuzzy logic, when estimates can be given with a certain probability (by 40%, by 60%,
etc.). Moreover, at the same time, different "opponents" can act on a person, in fact
capturing different thematic zones of his consciousness.
Fourth, in an ordinary war, those who capture territory and those who then
develop it are different people and perform different social roles. In the event
of a war, all these positions coincide. The information war largely erases
another clear distinction - "friend/enemy". You can consider someone an ally, but in
reality they are an enemy. In humans, however, some of their characteristics may be
subject to capture ,while other outward-facing characteristics turn out
to be quite normal.
Fifth, a person is not able to respond to invisible effects like
radiation. Moreover, this influence, in fact, can be clothed in a benevolent form.
a form that even a purely biological person is not ready to respond aggressively to.

Sixth, unlike a bomb that destroys everyone, information warfare acts

selectively, covering different segments of the population in different ways.
For example, the abundance of products in stores causes a positive
reaction among a part of the population, while those who do not have
money may have a negative reaction. Conventional weapons work the
same for any part of the population. Seventh, the main danger of information
warfare should be recognized as the absence of visible destruction
typical of conventional wars. The population doesn't even feel that
they are being affected. To the resulte the company does not activate the
protective mechanisms at its disposal. The sense of danger that was
developed to function properly in other situations is no longer triggered.
 Chapter six. Sciences of the communicative cycle, significant
for PR
Our task is to maximize the use of the accumulated experience of humanity
in the field of influence: from ancient religions to the data of modern sciences. The
same ideas often appear in the arsenal of professionals, constantly passing through
the centuries. That is why we strive to be fully prepared by studying the experience
of all countries and all times. This is to a strong degree the science of the future,
when both the most advanced tasks and methods for solving them can be compared
in level. "PR is a social science, not a philological one, " said Edward Bernays,
speaking out against the transfer of PR courses to the journalism departments of
American universities. This is probably due to the fact that philological sciences are
focused on the unit of communication - text or utterance, but not on the communication
process. For PR, it is not just the communication process that matters,
but also the presence of feedback in it. That is, for the PR, both the addressee
and the addressee (or the speaker and the listener) are equal participants in the
process, along with the communication unit. We will consider the most significant
results of the communication cycle sciences, which can be applied in PR.

§1 . Communication theory

Communication theory is the basic science for PR. Each scientific field should
have substantial foundations from which to build and on which to
build. This is especially true for applied areas, such as PR or advertising.
Communication theory has developed a broader view of the communication
process, which involves, at least ten different codes: 1.
Contact Information - touch communication. It is expressed, for example, in the
framework of European culture by shaking hands. People often record how
actively they are greeted. For example, to prove Boris Yeltsin's ability to
work, Viktor Chernomyrdin mentioned the strength of his handshake (ORT,
1996, July 2). We have a bad attitude towards personal touch in public, other
cultures are more free in this regard. The parting kisses of Politburo members
became a byword. The modern world blocks a large amount of information
through this channel, although in the past we clearly used it much more often.
2. Proxemics - communication, which is expressed in the distance that we are
removed from someone. At the same time, public, personal and intimate zones
are distinguished. However, the transport conditions of a modern city bring
complete strangers closer to the intimate zone. Think of a trolleybus or an
elevator. To symbolically return to the "right" distance, people try to pretend
that they do not notice each other, although this is impossible to do physically.
Proxemics marks a special distance that is kept by the leader, whose personal
area,in addition, is additionally guarded by bodyguards. In different cultures,
the norms of distance in a normal conversation are different: a Latin American
will tend to get closer, while a European will retreat to his distance. At the
same time, each of them will perceive their interlocutor differently: the European
will look at the Latin American as an "aggressor", because he wants to enter his
intimate zone; the Latin American, in turn, will consider the European as
an unfriendly person. According to the laws of proxemics, we try not to sit down
close to your superiors. ststudents occupy the farthest positions in relation to
the teacher in the classroom.
3. Orientation - the angle at which we are located in relation to the object
of communication also carries information. So, as it turned out, viewers rate as more
reliable the speech of the speaker, shown not in full-face, but at an angle, since this
is the position not of the commentator, but of a witness to the event, as it is usually
shown on television. The full-face / profile system was used in medieval painting to
mark the villain/good man. In the portraits, members of the Politburo were depicted
as formally as possible - only in full face.
4. Appearance - this is a characteristic that includes immutable and changeable
parameters. The former include weight, height, and so on. Certain social groups
(for example, punks) model their protest in this cross-section. Dictators
of small stature (Stalin, Hitler, Mussolini) tried to change their nondescript
appearance with paramilitary costumes. The beard can be a symbol of artistic nature
(among the members of the Politburo of the last "convocation" there was no one with
a beard), the beard can express "revolutionary", as in the followers of Fidel Castro.
The audience reacts quite clearly to changes in appearance, compare the reaction to
the wrong hairstyle of Boris Yeltsin.
5. Head nods they express conversation controls: the desire to speak, passing
a word to another, and so on. This is quite a serious element of managing a
communication situation.
6. Facial expression - communication with eyes, facial expressions, corners of the mouth. It
has a significant weight in the overall system of communication, so
leaders with a lifeless mask on their face, which nothing can be read, look bad on TV
. From the literature, we remember a frozen facial expression, for example, in the
Indians. 7. Gestures
are studied by a separate science - kinesics. Some nations (for example, Italians)
use gestures more actively. Gestures always help the speaker engage his
audience. Leaders ' gestures can express calmness and aggressiveness, so
experts try to "read" them. As we mentioned above, the Americans
judged that Boris Yeltsin buttoned up his jacket before the military performance
that he was afraid of the military.
8. Pose it can convey friendliness or aggressiveness. Even when people fight
verbally, they still adopt a posture of unfriendly behavior. There are typical
poses of the summoning leader: Lenin on an armored car, Yeltsin on a tank-such
poses symbolically reflect the ideology of the moment. Police pose, Kremlin
sentry pose, official or unofficial pose. 9.
Communication through the eyes. Threatening eyes: an intimidating look, for example. We also
say "shoots eyes". Leaders are taught to look at the bridge of the interviewer's nose,
which creates a sense of sincerity. In our culture, looking into the eyes ("don't look
away") is fixed as an expression of sincerity. And in African cultures, on the
contrary, it is forbidden to look at the elder (teacher), eye contact is considered a
manifestation of impoliteness there. Eyes can also convey disapproval of what was
said. 10. Nonverbal speech components - this is the tone, timbre, intonation. Experiments
were conducted when the actor pronounced the phrase "Tonight" with forty different
intonations. And the listeners deciphered the meaning of each intonation: an order, a
request, a question, etc. Nonverbal components of speech can convey falsehood. So,
Americans, analyzing the speech of one of the Chinese politicians in the
US Congress, came to the conclusion that he was not telling the truth.

We have a good command of the verbal languagecom, but weakly - the above
codes, so PR specialists teach leaders, for example, not to convey their excitement
with gestures or facial expressions. A person's nervousness can be transmitted
by hand and foot movements. Brendan Bruce, who was the Conservative Party's
communications director at the time of Margaret Thatcher, writes: "Because image
makers understand that clothing conveys an incredible amount of information
about who is wearing it, they are able to select what information about their
client they want to convey using a specific clothing choice. Class, status, style,
fashion sense, profession, nationality, level-everything can be conveyed with a
simple choice of clothes" (Bruce B. Images of power. - London, 1992. - P. 55).
Of particular importance for PR are the results of communication theory concerning
the processes of information dissemination in the real human environment.
Experiments have identified a much more complex structure than what is assumed
based on simple models. Here I would like to emphasize such "mini-discoveries":
the role of opinion leaders, stereotypical (frame) representation, diffuse theory and
theory of opinion change.
Opinion leaders.
We have already talked about them above, now we will add a few facts.
Experiments have shown that people do not change their ideas immediately after
receiving a message, but for some reason they change them a few weeks later. As
it turned out, these changes occur after discussing the message with those who
are called opinion leaders. They have a higher social status and are better
informed. At the same time, different thematic content is characterized by its own
opinion leaders. For example, for domestic politics - one, for international politics -
another. A changing set of categories leads to leadership. As Erwin Bettinghouse
writes, "within a group , variables of education, social status, media usage,
awareness level, and opinion intensity can help identify
opinion leaders" (Bettinghaus E. Persuasive communication. - N. Y. etc., 1968. - Р.
113).This leads to an important conclusion for PR: when reaching out to the
population, you should focus on opinion leaders, who in turn can convince
everyone else. In other words, communication theory has moved from a "one-step"
to a "two-step" model of communication that takes into account the role of opinion
leaders. American experts take this factor into account when planning campaigns:
"Opinion leaders are the target of American propaganda abroad. In the Middle
East, for example, mass audiences can be reached indirectly by processing
the cultural elite that makes up 10 % of the population." (Jowett G. S., O"Donell V.
Propaganda and persuasion. - Newbury Park etc., 1992. - p. 218).
Frame (stereotyped) representation.
The representation of reality through stereotypical situations first appeared in
the framework of research on artificial intelligence. However, it turned out that
we perceive political reality not as a separate process, but in
a package with others, that is, it is structured and organized. For example, William
Gamson describes a package of ideas related to nuclear
weapons and preventing nuclear war in the following way, calling it "Peace by
force": "The question is how best to behave with a bully so that he eventually
learns and, possibly, changes his behavior. The United States will never be the first
to start a fight, but it will also not allow itself to be pushed around. The best way
Doing business with a bully like the Soviet Union means being strong, but not provoking.
The danger arises when we show ourselves weak and give the opportunity
tolet the bully take advantage of this, and then you can't avoid a retaliatory attack."
(Gamson W. The 1987 distinguished lecture: a constructionist approach to mass media
and public opinion // Symbolic Interaction. - 1988. - N 2. - Р. 166). Such a pac
full of symbols, which in turn can also be expanded into a new frame (stereotype)
behind it. Journalists and politicians conduct their polemics within the framework of
such stereotypical representations of reality.
Diffuse theory
In the thirties, Everett Rogers proposed a diffuse theory of
idea propagation, which identifies clear roles that are characteristic of communicative
transmission. They are as follows: a conscious person is a person who discovers an
idea; an interested person is a person who tries to get as much information
about it as possible; an trying person is a person who tries to test the idea on
others; an evaluator is a person who checks whether the idea meets his interests; an
assimilator is a person who integrates the idea into his own opinion. This later led to
the division of the audience: the passive audience is at the first stage, and the active
audience is at the second stage of diffuse distribution (cited by Wilcox D. L. a. o. Public
Relations writing and media techniques. - N. Y., 1995). According to the
degree of acceptance of new ideas, Everett Rogers proposed dividing the public into
the following five types: innovators (2.5 % of the audience) are mobile, easily grasp
new things before they are recognized by everyone; early adopters (13.5 % of the
audience), they are more integrated into the local social system, among them - the
largest number of opinion leaders; early majority (34 % of the audience) - adopt a
new idea just before the average citizen does, most of their information comes
from the mouth of the previous group; later, the majority (34% of the audience) are
skeptics, they accept a new idea after the average person accepts it.
e those who have learned (16 % of the audience) are conservatives who
are suspicious of anything new, and they are the last to reach a new idea (see Сenter
A. a. o. Public Relations practices. - Englewood Cliffs, 1990. - P. 268).
From all of the above, an important conclusion follows: in order for the idea to "walk
on the planet", it is necessary to convince the critical mass-5 %. However, it is really
necessary to process 50 % of the population so that a tenth of them actually accept
this idea. And, as it turns out, when 20% of the population accepts an idea, it can no
longer be stopped.
Changing opinions
A study of the influence of mass media during election campaigns, conducted by P.
Lazarsfeld in the presidential campaign of 1940 and then 1948, showed that in the
first case, 53% of voters retained their opinion as a result of the campaign,
it became even stronger. 26% shifted from a neutral position to support one
of the parties, and only 5% switched from one candidate to another. In the 1960
campaign Kennedy vs. Nixon only 2% changed their original view of voting for
Nixon to favor Kennedy. However, in this case (and not in others), these two
percentages were decisive, since Kennedy wins by the gap.
which was even less than two percent.
A possible explanation for this phenomenon is the fact that selective
perception when supporters of a particular candidate or a particular
direction actually take from the mass media stream only opinions that confirm them
a point of view. For example, programs about tolerance towards minorities are watched
by representatives of these minorities. Supports these processes and the
phenomenon selective memorization when individuals better remember those messages
that correspond to their ideas. The phenomenon of selective perception
makes it difficult to influence any other information campaigns, not only
political ones. For example, in one of the experiments that tested the impact
of articles about the link between smoking and lung cancer, it was found that
54% of non-smokers agreed with the argument, but only 28% of smokers agreed.
As you can see, a person defends himself from a radical change in his worldview,
which is brought to him by contradictory information.

Berkeley Literature-Alain M. The forgotten art of listening. - SPb., 1997

Birkenbil V. The language of intonation, facial expressions, and gestures. - SPb., 1997
Borev V. Yu., Kovalenko A. V.. Kul'tura i massovaya kommunikatsiya [Culture and Mass
Communication], Moscow, 1986 Borisov A. Yu. Luxury of human communication,
Moscow, 1998 Brinkman R., Kershner R. A communication genius. - SPb., 1997
Dunkel J., Parnham E. Public speaking is the way to success. - SPb., 1997
Zaretskaya E. N. Logic of speech for the manager, Moscow, 1997
Zemlyanova L. M. Sovremennaya amerikanskaya kommunikativistika [Modern
American Communication Studies], Moscow, 1995 Kolshansky GV. Paralinguistics ,
Moscow, 1974 Konetskaya V. P. Sociology of Communication, Moscow, 1997
Leontiev A. A. Psychology of communication. - Tartu, 1974; second additional ed. - Moscow, 1997
Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and practice of communication. - Moscow, 1998
Pocheptsov G. G.. Теорія комунікації. - Київ, 1996
Rogers E. et al. Communications in organizations, Moscow, 1980
Roshchin S. K. Psychology and Journalism , Moscow, 1973
Freuming R., Lakom J. Interaction for the sake of results. Business communication
workshop. - Rostov-on-Don, 1997
Sherkovin Yu. A.. Psychological problems of mass information processes, Moscow,
1973
Barker L. Communication. - Englewood Cliffs, 1984
Bettinghaus E.P. Persuasive communication. - New York, 1068
Fiske J. Introduction to communication studies. - London etc., 1990
Mortensen C.D. Communication. The study of human interaction. - New York etc., 1972
Myers G.E. a. o. The dynamics of human communication. - New York etc., 1980

§2 . Studying rumors

Oral dissemination of information through unofficial channels plays

a much larger role in a person's life than it seems at first [Link],
for example, surveys conducted after the Kennedy assassination
showed that 50 % of respondents learned about the incident from
other people, and not from media reports. Rumors accompany
humanity all the time, as the lack of information inevitably repeats
itself. Vladislav Khodasevich cites in his notebooks the rumors of
his time (Novy Mir. - 1990. - No. 3. - P. 182): "Whisperer: In 1915:
"You know, Rasputin and the tsarina go to the bathhouse and from
there send radio messages to Berlin. And Nikolai at the same time."..
and so on. In 1917: "You know, Kerensky moved Tima to the
Winter Palace and bathes with her in a marble bath.".. and so on.
In 1919: "You know, Lenin saw Hermogenes in a dream" ... and so on. " As we ca
see, even in these examples, such characteristics of hearing are clearly visible: a)
hearing is presented as information that corresponds to reality, b) hearing is
emotionally colored information, since only this type of message can serve
as a powerful tool impacts. At the same time,
such a powerful channel of influence could not go unnoticed by professionals. For
example, the Japanese found that advertising for certain products ( such as medicines
and medical services) is more effective when it is distributed by word of mouth.
We often believe more in a verbal recommendation than an official ad. This oral type
of communication is tried to be implemented on our screens in advertising Bitner's
balm, when the first name, last name and age of each of the speakers are known.
A. Makarov suggested the following set of possible use of rumors for advertising
purposes (Makarov A. Not a single rumor? Anatomiya slukha [Anatomy of hearing] /
/ "Advertising dimension". - 1998. - № 3):
1. The Demonpaid purchase of airtime or space in a newspaper.
2. Create a customer flow with the help of their relatives and friends
3. Increase your rating. The Soviet Army
has accumulated experience in using rumors during the war in Afghanistan (Pikov
N. Our weapons-rumors / / Soldiers of fortune. - 1995. - No. 4). At the same time,
quite specific tasks were set. For example:"In the course of discrediting the leader
of the armed detachments of the Jadran Jalaluddin tribe, it was decided to deepen the
contradictions between him and the subordinate leadership of small groups. For this
purpose, rumors of various degrees of plausibility were spread" (In the same placeIn
another case, rumors were "forged" to match the BBC's reports, since this channel
was considered the most popular in the warring tribes: "Our assistants began
to spread information with a link to this radio station" (In the same placeAt the same time,
the leaflets did not work in principle, since the population was mostly
illiterate, and there was also a ban on picking them up from the ground.
We identified the places where communication is most intense, and therefore the
spread of rumor is most justified. The following types of communication were identified
as the most effective communication: communication at the bazaar, in a teahouse,
talking with a random fellow traveler in a car that is moving towards an area controlled
by the opposition. Since one-time exposure was problematic, entire blocks of rumors
were prepared. According to the time of hearing functioning , the figure was set
at 12-15 days, after which the hearing is "erased" or replaced. But the position formed
by him still continues to operate. The rumor block included multidirectional messages:
in addition to discrediting, also glorifying, protecting, and sympathetic rumors.
Some of the rumors were traced from beginning to end with sufficient accuracy.I'll
stay here. For example, based on the fact that a certain number of Afghans
go to violate the bans if they know that they are not the first, a rumor was started
that more than one hundred million Afghani were delivered to pay for the handed-over
Stringer missiles and that more than 20 people have already changed their Stringers
for a million Afghani. And a week later, there were those who wanted to sell their
rockets. Thus, we see that rumors are of particular interest to the PR,
since they allow us to transmit all types of information (see the section on combating
rumors within the PR). Black S. Public relations. what is that? - M., 1990).
Now let's move on from practice to scientific ideas about hearing as a special
communicative unit. Such a communicative unit as hearing, being
It is a fairly common element of mass communication, and it is much less
often used in scientific communication. The prevalence of this phenomenon is
evidenced by the data of sociological studies. So, answering the question " Do you
often have to deal with rumors?" the answer "sometimes" was chosen by 65 % of respondents
in Leningrad, and among employees with higher education, this figure
was even higher - 71 % (Losenkov A. Social information in the life of the urban
population. - L., 1983). The nature of the independent spread of rumors is
of some interest from a purely theoretical point of view and the fact that
the mass media, being more organized, more powerful, at the same time
can not quickly enough suspend the distribution of this type of mass
[Link] of the definitions of rumor, according to T. Shibutani, states: it
is"a circulating form of communication, through which people, being in
an ambiguous situation, unite, creating a reasonable interpretation of it.",
together using their intellectual potencies" (Shibutani T. Improvised news.
A sociological study of rumor. - Indianopolis etc., 1966. - Р . 17). What are the
communicative characteristics of hearing? According to the classification of Yuri
Rozhdestvensky (Rozhdestvensky Yu. Introduction to General Philology, Moscow, 1979),
hearing is characterized by a single reproducibility in front of a given listener.
This rumor is not repeated a second time to the same person.
An important difference between hearing is that it is necessarily subject to further
transmission. The listener, later becoming a speaker, transmits this rumor
to the new listener. This type of message can be called self-translational.
You need to create auxiliary external conditions for it. And even more than that:
counteracting situations may not always prevent the spread of a rumor.
Thus, this type of message can be characterized by the property
of self-translatability. Such messages also include jokes. At the other
extreme of this scale are difficult-to-broadcast messages. Difficulties in
broadcasting can be caused both by content aspects (imagine an article on
quantum physics in the mass press) and by special restrictions regulated
by society (for example, the "Top Secret" stamp or the procedure for special
storage in a library or archive). In the latter case, we can also deal with a
self-translated message, but formal constraints are created to stop this translation
. Sometimes they are temporary (for example, access to documents
is prohibited for fifty years).
The self-translated message is such that it is difficult to keep it to yourself. In any
case, a person tries to pass it on, and having passed it on, he feels psychological
relief. This feature of this type of informatia is also reflected in
folklore. Recall: the barber could not rest until he uttered the terrible secret
- "King Midas has donkey ears" just into the pit, that is, to a fictitious listener. And
having spoken out, he became an ordinary person.
Thus, the main property of hearing is its self-transliteration. We can
offer several explanations for this characteristic. First, quite often
a rumor contains information that is fundamentally suppressed by the mass
media. Naturally, many people are interested in such information and therefore
it is easily transmitted. The opposite is also true: the rumor never repeats what
the mass media say. That is, we have the following correspondences:
mass communication silence zone = hearing speaking zone
, mass communication speaking zone = hearing silent zone.
Second, and more broadly, it should be noted that hearing is probably an
indirect manifestation of the collective unconscious, certain archetypal manifestations
(Jung K. G. Archetype and Symbol, Moscow, 1991). This is a response to the
collective anxious expectations that everyone has. It is interesting that a whole
layer of phenomena of mass culture is based on the exploitation of this property of
human nature . As N. Carroll writes, "horror has blossomed as the main source
of mass aesthetic excitement" (Carrol N. The nature of horror // The journal of
aesthetics and art criticism. - 1987. - N 1. - Р. 51). This can even
be confirmed by the names of the types according to which rumors are classified by
researchers: rumor- desire, rumor-scarecrow, aggressive rumor (see Sherkovin Yu.
A. Spontaneous processes of information transfer / / Social Psychology. - Moscow,
1975). Hearing as a communicative unit is always based on certain, sometimes
obscured, communicative intentions. Oneit materializes from the outside,
manifests, fixes (A. Bogdanov denoted such fixations by the term
"degression": "Mental and social life is characterized by the greatest plasticity of
forms, and therefore they are especially in need of degressions. They are developed,
for example, in the form of diverse symbols, norms, etc. So, the word fixes
the system of mental associations that form the content of the concept by its stability;
without this symbol , they would constantly be blurred in the uncertainty of a
changeable mental environment" (Bogdanov A. A. Universal Organizational Science
(tectology). - Part III. - M.-L., 1929. - P. 141). Third, a rumor is a
response to a public desire, an idea. It is not a matter of individual interest. And if so,
then our standards developed in the analysis of individual communication are poorly
transferable to this qualitatively different type of communication. In reality, hearing
is the communication of a crowd. Elements of strict logic are practically inapplicable
here. V. M. Bekhterev wrote:: "The crowd is connected in one whole, mainly by
mood, and therefore it is necessary to speak with the crowd, not so much convincing,
but hoping to win it with hot words. And when this is achieved, all that remains
is to command, command, and give an example to all, for the latter acts
like a suggestion, which is usually used by all famous military leaders."
(Bekhterev V. M. Collective reflexology. - P., 1921. - p. 76). And in the same place: "Every
individual who is absorbed by a crowd loses in inhibitory influences and gains in
the revival of copulatory reflexes of an imitative nature. In the crowd, the individual
loses, thanks to the action of suggestion, a significant share of criticism, with
the weakening and blunting of moral principles, with increased impressionability
and amazing suggestibility." (Bosmajian H. A. Hitler's twenty five point
program / / The Dalhoisie review. - Vol. 49. - No. 2), in turn, shows how
the functioning of absolutely opposite statements does
not contradict the effectiveness of influencing the crowd in the framework of
Hitler 's propaganda. An important communicative
component of hearing is its verbality. Hearing fundamentally belongs
to non-written communication. It spreads in the oral environment and loses
many of its qualities, getting, for example, on the pages of newspapers. There
, it can only serve as a reason for refutation or confirmation, but
it is no longer an independent unit. The
oral type of communication is underestimated today due to the all-consuming
nature of written communication. A. N. Gilyarov wrote: "Our modern culture is
largely paper-based. Stopping paper production would change lives in a
variety of ways." And further: "The fate of our 'immortal' thought in the future".
largely depends on the quality of "perishable " paper" (Gilyarov A. N.. Philosophy and its
essence, salvation and history. - Kiev, 1918. - Part I.-P. 77).
Moreover, from the semiotic point of view (by the way, actively supported
by psychologists - L. Vygotsky, S. Amonashvili), it is necessary to recognize the written
and oral elements as separate from each other as, for example, oral speech and music.
However, we always want to combine them, see only what is common, forgetting about
the significant differences. Although, as J. R. R. Tolkien rightly points out. Kittay (Kittay J.
On octo / / Romanic review. - 1987. - No. 3), not all types of oral speech can
adequately recorded in writing, and society has not developed these methods of fixation
consciously. Therefore, we should talk about the autonomy of these semiotic languages,
then the problem of translatability/untranslatability, the problem of the remainder,
naturally arises. To such otathe exact phenomena that are characteristic only of oral
forms, J. Kittey refers hesitation, corrections, grammatical violations, repetitions. These
are really the elements that are especially carefully edited and
corrected in writing.
Rumors are oral in their functioning. However, oral language as a semiotic
category is a more comprehensive structure and requires more
serious attention. This type of message conventionalization (Kitteya's term)
the quality is different from what we are used to in the context
of written communication.
We will try to determine these other parameters, since they will simultaneously
characterize hearing as a unit of the oral rather than written sphere. Verbality is focused
on the recipient of the message. Only what is interesting can be transmitted, resisting the
natural process of attenuation. K. Burke (Burke K. Counter-Statement. - Chicago, 1957)
distinguishes the psychology of information characteristic of the perceiving audience,
in contrast to the psychology of form characteristic of the position of the creator
of the message. The psychology of information, for example, can be driven by surprise
and mystery. Similarly, these components were distinguished by A. P. Skaftymov
(Skaftymov A. P. Poetics and genesis of epics. - Saratov, 1924). Let us also recall
similar observations about the synchronization of the impressions of the characters and
the audience in a horror film (Carrol N. edict. op.).
Mass culture differs from a truly artistic culture by using precisely
these aspects of oral communication. Culture as a whole performs communicative
functions. This, according to A. Mol (Mol A. Artistic futurology. To the role of kitsch and
copy in social and aesthetic development // Borev V. Yu., Kovalenko A.V. Kul'tura i
massovaya kommunikatsiya [Culture and Mass communication], Moscow, 1986, pp.
259-260), " akt kommunikatsii s iznamennymi addressees, their sphere of consciousness
undergoes certain changes, and to such an extent that they feel either deep satisfaction
or unpleasant feelings, but in any case they experience their attitude to semantic
significance and gain aesthetic experience." Mass culture is strictly oriented
to the typical interests of the viewer/reader. And it is strongly characterized not by the
influence of "author (book) - reader", but by the opposite influence of "reader- author".
A similar influence can be traced in the works of W. Ivf (Eco U. The role of reader. -
Bloomington etc., 1979). Yuri Lotman considers in this way the behavior
of the folklore audience in contrast to the audience of today (Lotman Y. M.. Blok i narodnay
kul'tura goroda [Blok and folk Culture of the city]. - Issue IV. - Tartu, 1981). Thus, we
faced with a cycle of fundamentally different communicative behavior. It is so excellent
that it is often rated lower, considered less expensive, and considered less expensive.
as being outside the norm's aisles. Hearing is also an element of this foreign norm.
This is a variant of an unofficial media outlet. Its
special character is also contained in its own subject matter. Events that fall within
this scope usually have a certain terminality. Typical examples
are the death of a famous singer, the prediction of a terrible earthquake. You can
call such events terminal, because they can be considered as
a certain completion, ending. Popular personalities appear as actors in them
: "The rumor usually tends to personify and concentrate
around famous people - writers, scientists, artists, athletes" (Mendeleev A. The
intrigues of "Madame rumor" / / "Literaturnaya gazeta", 1969, 3 Dec.). A certain
brightness of the hearing content is achieved both by terminating the events
presented in it, so is the popularity of the heroes of these events. The brightness
of hearing can be compared with a similar characteristic of the entertainment of
the theater, melodrama. It is clear that a non-fading message should be
fundamentally higher in brightness, just as a theatrical event should differ from a domestic one
This is clearly noticed by theater theorists G. Shpet, N. Evreinov. "A theatrical
action is necessarily some kind of conditional, symbolic action," writes Mr. Shpet,
"it is a sign of something, and not the actual something itself, produced, as well as
not just a copy- artless, technically, photographically accurate-reproducing
reality" (Shpet G. Theater as art / / Mastery of the theater. - 1922. - No. 1. - p
. 31). Certain
literary trends such as romanticism also exploit this means of attracting attention,
where an exotic background is luxuriantly colored, on which the action takes place
with the participation of extraordinary personalities. As a result, there is a much
greater focus of the audience's attention. : "For a romantic, a
decoration is necessary, and at the same time written out in all its brightness and
individual diversity (hence romantic exoticism, nationalism, universalism,
etc.). Therefore, the background of the action sometimes takes on an almost
self-sufficient meaning. It becomes possible to create works that consist of a single
set, against which we will not see anyone but the author" (Beletsky A. I.
The next questions of studying Russian Romanticism / / Russian Romanticism. -
L., 1927. - p . 13).
But unlike the loudness of the theater, literature, the rumor can be told
in whispers. Very few things can be said in a low voice (for example, a
declaration of love, the same rumor, but not the weather forecast). All such things
belong to the sphere of oral communication.
Thus, from the point of view of semioticsand, we can characterize hearing as
a self-translated message that circulates due to: 1) the reflection of certain
collective representations, probably rooted in the collective
unconscious; 2)verbality as an inosemiotic environment of functioning; 3) the
terminality of the presented events, the popularity of their characters, reflected in
the brightness of hearing. The events that are pushed
from the newspaper page to the auditory broadcast are different in different
periods. What used to pass only at the level of hearing, today is quite
real and on the newspaper page. Let's quote one of the works of Yuri Tynyanov
(together with B. Kazansky): "Literary fact - from epoch to epoch-
is a variable concept: what is" literature "for one epoch was not it for
the previous one and may not be it again for the next" (Tynyanov Yu., Kazansky B. From
Feuilleton, L., 1927, p. 6). Similarly, one can say about a rumor: what was in
the category of rumors in one era becomes a newspaper message in another. This
information cycle is probably connected with the fact that rumors are like a piece of text
deliberately lost in the official culture. This text is the opposite
of it, and therefore does not express itself openly.
N. Smelser speaks about hearing as the most common type of communication in a crowd, and
the crowd is just distinguished by a sense of anonymity (Smelser N. Sotsiologiya, Moscow, 1994, p.
585). If the official texts have authorship, then the rumors are basically anonymous.
This is a kind of exaggerated version of a conversation with yourself. Only if the diary is a conversation
of the individual consciousness, then the hearing is a conversation of the collective
consciousness with the collective consciousness. This is a special way of talking to yourself; for
example, one of the followers of Zh. Lacana described communication as a return to a person
from the interlocutor of his own thoughts, only from a slightly different point of view (Lacan
J. The Language of the self. - N. Y. 1968). One of the humorous definitions of advertising is
that it is the art of saying things that are pleasant to us (Walker R. R. Communications. -
Melbourne, 1967). It should be recognized that rumors also represent the desired
information. After all, even negative facts in them are still taken on faith.
This is the psychology of a person, these are the features of information perception. Rumors, as
well as other phenomena of the oral sphere, should be recognized as real communicative
units of our communication. They become doubly significant for the propagandist,
since they clearly indicate to him the "white spots" of collective consciousness that
have remained outside the sphere of influence of mass communication media.
References
Dmitriev A.V. et al. Informal political communication, Moscow, 1997
Makarov A. Not a single rumor? Anatomiya slukha [Anatomy of hearing] / / "Advertising
dimension". -
1998. - № 3 N peaks. Our weapons-rumors / / Soldiers of fortune. - 1995. - No. 4
Pocheptsov G. G.. Rumours as a semiotic phenomenon / / Logic, Psychology and semiotics:
aspects of interaction. - Kiev, 1990
Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and practice of communication. - Moscow, 1998
Social psychology. A brief sketch, Moscow, 1975
Shibutani T. Improvised news. A sociological study of rumor. - Indianopolis etc., 1966.

§3 . Semiotics

When a TV screen talks about the appearance of a certain figure as a landmark

(such as this Deputy Prime Minister is a landmark figure personifying reforms),
then such usage is based on the tools of semiotics. When, on the eve of
the third vote on the election of S. Kiriyenko as Prime Minister of Russia, the
General Director of the Center for Political Technologies I. Bunin speaks about the
opposition, that "they need a symbolic concession from the authorities" (NTV news,
1998, April 23) is also a reference to the semiotic aspect. When A. Delon arrives
in Krasnoyarsk, saying that "My friend invited me to a birthday party", this is
also the use of the Delon sign to improve the symbolic weight of the Swan sign.
Semiotics studies the symbolic worlds in which a person lives, and this is its
special value for society. We decode the reality around us through verbal and
nonverbal symbols. For example, the presence of success/ failure symbols helps
us clearly distinguish a beggar from a successful businessman. In the world of
symbols, transfers of some symbolizations to others are quite frequent. For
example, the Harley-Davidson motorcycle is modeled as a "modern horse",
attracting to itself the entire associative series associated with travel, etc.
Charles Morris, one of the founders of semiotics, writes: "Semiotics provides the
basis for understanding the basic forms of human activity and their relationships,
since all these activities and relationships are reflected in signs that serve
as intermediaries between these actions" (Morris Ch. W. Foundations of the theory of
signs. - Chicago, 1938, p. 58). He begins his book with the following statement:
"Humans are the most significant sign-using animals. Animals other than
humans, of course, respond to certain things as signs of something else, but
these signs do not reach the degree of complexity and extension that
is found in human speech, writing, art, testing devices,
medical diagnosis,and signaling instruments. Science and signs are inextricably
linked, since science provides people with more reliable signs, and
also embodies its results in sign systems "(p. 1). We see that the signovality is an
all-encompassing phenomenon, and from this point of view, PR also cannot avoid
relying on the laws formulated in the framework of semiotics.
The basic unit of semiotics is sign. This is an elementary unit that cannot
be further divided without losing its properties. It has two components - form and
content, which are connected by a conditional connection. Conditional, since it
is introduced by the sign system itself, and not represented in reality. For example,
a nod of the head can mean consent in our country, but in Bulgaria the same form
gets the meaning of denial. Or a word, such as" fish", which, like most
natural language words, has no connection between the physical object indicated
by this sign and its shape. Verbal
signs, according to Ferdinand de Saussure, have two characteristics: the linear
nature of the form, when we can not pronounce all the sounds at once, but only one
after the other; the second characteristic is the connection between form and
content noted above, which is conditional. Ferdinand de Saussure considered
linguistics to be a subsection of semiotics, which studies the laws of verbal
language. Charles Pierce distinguished between index signs, icon signs, and
symbol signs. The index is characterized by the actual adjacency of the sign and
the object (for example, smoke over a bonfire is considered as a bonfire sign). Here,
the sign is really a part of reality, just like the object itself. Iconic signs are signs
that are similar to an object. An example is a drawing, a photograph, etc. Here,
as in the following case, the sign is no longer present in the depicted reality, it is a
purely artificial formation, separated from the depicted object. A sign-symbol does
not have a valid connection between form and content at all, it is conditional. We
accept it as a given, learning the data systemth language. Examples of signs and
symbols are natural language words.
Charles Morris emphasized that "newspaper statements, political creeds,
and philosophical systems are increasingly viewed in terms of interests
that are expressed and governed by the production and use of signs" (p.38).
Politics is a symbolic reality, and it is strongly served
by semiotics, even without a clear awareness of it. This applies to both domestic
and, to an even greater extent, foreign policy, where the country's image depends
not only on its role and behavior, but also on the ability to attract foreign investment.
Famous for his advertising works, Russian director Yuri Grymov, for example,
is ready to start the project "It's fashionable to live in Russia", which includes
a series of social advertising works and social actions. He says: "We need to
raise our image, which will be followed by people themselves. America, by the way,
spends huge amounts of money on promoting its way of life. I am sure that our state
will also understand the need for this case. I would give up everything for him..."
(Trud, 1996, 7 Jan.). In any case, this approach meets the expectations
of the population. If you look at the data in Yu. According to Levada (Izvestia, 1996,
January 11), 31% of the population is generally in favor of the revival of socialism in
Russia, 48% do not support this idea , and 21% do not give an answer.
Semiotics can help PR answer the most important question: how
to symbolize a leader, what are his physical characteristics that have certain
symbolic meanings. Since the time of Richard Nixon, Americans have come to
the central axiom of PR action in the field of politics: the voter does not have
personal contact with the candidate, he reacts only to the television picture,
so for effective influence, the following is necessary:it allows you to influence the image
or TV image of the candidate, correcting it as necessary, but not changing the
candidate himself.
Semiotics has quite seriously studied mass forms of culture, that is, those
forms in which the consumer himself is primarily interested. Umberto Eco even
called his book "The role of the reader", deriving many structural features of mass
culture from the role of the reader, considering him an equal participant and creator
of a mass product, along with the author (Eco U. The Role of the Reader. - L., 1979). And
since these parameters reflect the inner world of the population more clearly than
the elite-oriented high literature, they are of particular interest to
PR. One of the important characteristics of such mass literature, Umberto Eco considers
its strong redundancy, calling it a "thirst for redundancy". "We can compare
Fleming's novel to a game of football, in which we know in advance the place, the
number and personal composition of players, the rules of the game and the fact that
everything will take place in a high-voltage area, except that in a game of football we do
not know until the very end who will win" (p. 160). Ian Fleming's writing technique is
such that many pages of his books are devoted to descriptions of actions that are so
well known to readers. The hero starts the car with a detailed description of each action.
The hero lights a cigarette... etc. Umberto Eco considers this maximum reliance on the
ordinary and familiar to be a rhetorical device. "By ' rhetoric' I mean the art of
persuasion based on endoxa, that is, on general opinions shared by the majority
of readers" (p. 161). There is another important parallel with PR:
mass culture inevitably comes to the image of Superman, without it it will not become
mass. Almost the same path is taken by politics, reaching out to symbolic values,
such as "the president as the father of the nation". Therefore, the phenomenon of
Superman, its characteristics and their implementation in the texts are very interesting
for PR. After all, the political problems of PR are also the problems of"supermen", only
in politics. Naturally, there are differences. For example, Superman, as a rule, has an
extraterrestrial origin, which can not be said about politicians. But there are also serious
similarities; Umberto Eco writes that any accountant in any American city cherishes
the dream of suddenly and unexpectedly turning out to be superman (p. 108). Similar
patterns of perception are also characteristic of the relationship between the average
citizen and their president. He, on the one hand, has clear rungs in his ladder
of movement to success; on the other hand, he must have a set of completely different
qualities that are not typical of an ordinary person. The president is both undervalued
and overstated. At an undervalued level, I am equal to it, but at an overestimated level,
I am not. The same twofold problem exists in the case of Superman, whose interest
is associated with a sufficient number of unpredictable events. "The mystical
character embodies a law or universal requirement," writes Umberto Eco, " and
therefore must be partially understood." predictable and it can't surprise us
; the character in the novel wants to be more of a person like everyone else, and what
might happen to them is as unpredictable as what might happen.
with us." In the same way, Umberto Eco characterizes comic book characters.
This is an archetype that reflects the collective ideas of many, but it is "marketed"
in the field of romance. Umberto Eco considers superman the hero of the"
outward- looking person " (according to David Risman), to whom society provides
the results of projects that have already been completed without him. "In an ad,
as in propaganda and in the field of human relations, the absence of the
dimension of "planning" is the basis for establishing paternalistic pedagogy, which
requires a hidden belief that the subject is not responsible for his past, does not control his
future, and is not even subject to the laws of planning..." (p.117). What
are the characteristics of such superheroes? They can overthrow the government,
defeat the army. On the other hand, they are kind and moral. For these heroes
, there are no restrictions in the physical, mental, or technological spheres. Having
the ability to decide galactic politics, the superhero operates at the level
of a small community. Accordingly, if you look at his opponent, he
also does not seek to fight organized crime, corrupt
politicians, and drug distribution. The object of his anger may be,
for example, bank robbers. Umberto Eco writes: "The only visible form
that evil takes is an attack on private property" (p.123). By the way,
Superman spends a lot of time on PR activities in its purest form (for example,
raising money for orphans and the homeless). Umberto Eco introduces the
following rule of this particular type of text: "Just as evil takes only the form of an
attack on private property, so good can only be represented as charity" (p. 124).
The villain figure has been polished not only in our trials against the enemies of
the people, but also in numerous novels by Fleming. Umberto Eco formulates a
number of common characteristics that are always expressed in the images of
villains in Ian Fleming's novels. "The villain is born in ethnic areas stretching from
Central Europe to the Slavic countries and to the Mediterranean basin: he is often
of mixed blood, and its origin is complicated and unclear. He is asexual or
homosexual, or in any case not sexually normal. He has amazing
resourcefulness and organizational qualities that help him get a lot
of wealth and with which he works to help Russia: for this purpose, he
devises a plan of a fantastic nature, worked out to the smallest detail,
aimed at creating serious difficulties either for England or for
the free world as a whole" (p.151). This type of enemy sufficiently
determines the type of hero, and vice versa. The
female figure in Fleming, dependent on the villain, gradually passes to the hero.
The female scheme of Fleming can be represented in the following form:: 1) the
girl is beautiful and basically positive; 2) she has passed a number of tests in the
past; 3) they led her to serve the villain; 4)after meeting Bond, she discovers
new opportunities in herself; 5) Bond possesses her and then loses her. That
is, the female figure here is also a clear plot unit. Umberto
Eco calls her role "the role of a hunted virgin."
The researcher puts such texts on a par with soap operas. And this is not
a negative assessment. We have no right to look down on these things,
because they are very popular and clearly provide certain
"social vitamins" to society, which high literature and art do not give it. Umberto
Eco combines all these phenomena with different conditions of perception: "Since
the decoding of a message cannot be done by its author, but depends on the
specific conditions of perception, it is difficult to guess what Fleming represents or
will represent for his readers. When is the communication act completed
provokes a response in public opinion, determinedthis verification takes place not
within the book, but in the society that reads it" (P. 172).
No less important semiotic observations on mass culture are presented in
the works of John Fiske. He uses as objects for studying the most diverse
manifestations of popular culture: from jeans to songs of Madonna (Fiske J. Understanding
popular culture. - London etc., 1992). The original semiotic idea of jeans was
connected with village life, work, and traditions. They were beyond class and gender
differences. Jeans in their current interpretation reflect such characteristics
as modernity (by the way,remember how "Western" they were when they first
appeared in the USSR, they were even ideologically labeled as a heretical
object that should be fought), leisure (and not work), femininity,
social isolation. There is a transition from generality to a certain
personal meaning: both from a typographically typed greeting to a personal one,
written by hand to a specific person and from a specific person. "Jeans
have shifted to a world where class distinctions and subtle differences within the class
have become important" (p. 7). And then: "Along with class differences come gender
differences. It is significant that so many jeans ads are directed at women, and in our
patriarchal society, women are more trained than men to invest their
social identity, self-esteem, and sexuality in the appearance of their bodies" (p
.10). As for pop singers
(and, in particular, Madonna), John Fiske sees the communicative meaning of their
existence in the translational nature of their activities. If the text of high literature is a
value in itself, and the processes of perception cannot in any way overestimate it, then
in the case of the Madonna, the situation is different. He writes: "Madonna as a text,
or even as a series of texts is incomplete as long as it is not placed in
the conditions of social circulation. Its gender policy lies not in the realm of its
textuality, but in the realm of its functionality. It is an exemplary
popular text because it is filled with contradictions - it contains
patriarchal meanings of female sexuality and resists them, as if her
sexuality is intended for herself and does not require male approval. Its
textuality suggests both patriarchy and ways to resist it in
a restless, unstable tension" (p. 124). This form of implementation has important
implications: Absolutely everyone can consider the Madonna as their object. It
is as if it lays down the maximum audience coverage in the conditions of its operation
. And it's not just an audience, it's an audience that watches with adoration. This
is not informing, it is something completely different. Actually, unlike high
culture, the object of adoration in mass culture is not the author or the text, but the
performer himself - this is the main axiomatic of the existence of pop culture. "In
popular culture, the object of adoration is less a text or
artist, and more a performer, and a performer like Madonna
exists only intertextually. No concert, album, video clip, poster or
album cover is an adequate text of Madonna. Intertextual
competence is central to the production of creating
popular meanings from texts" (p. 125).
In this review, Fiske comes to the same conclusions as Umberto Eco, who
also talks about the iterative scheme of mass culture. John Fiske
's own opinion is: "The paucity of individual text and emphasis is a constant circusy
-values means that popular culture is marked by repeatability and
seriality, which, among other effects, make it easy to match
the routines of daily life. Magazines are published weekly or monthly,
records are constantly spinning, television is organized in series and serials, clothing
worn and discarded, video games played over and over, sports teams
playing game after game - popular culture is built on repetition, none of its
texts is sufficient, none of these texts is a complete object.
Culture consists only of values and pleasures in a constant process" (p. 126).
This phenomenon, marked as U. Eco, like J. Fiske, finds its explanation in
the level of the average person, who finds it difficult to rise to the heights of artistic
culture, but he is easily accessible to the circulation of mass culture. At the same time, we are not
looking at a passive version of the perception of the finished product, as John Fiske believes. "There is littl
pleasure in accepting ready-made values, even those that are appropriate to the point.
Pleasure arises both from the power and process of producing values from one's
resources, and from the feeling that these values are a part of one's own experience. our as opposed to
someone else's. Popular pleasures should belong to the oppressed, they should
contain elements of opposition, evasiveness, scandalousness. attacks,
vulgarities, resistance. The pleasures derived from ideological
conformity are voiceless, they are hegemonic; they are not popular
pleasures and work in opposition to them" (p. 127).
This brings us to another of John Fiske's themes: popular texts as expressions
of protest against official ideology. He basically considers soap operas
to be a sort of supermarket of values, from which every berthis is what he likes. He
tries to explain the popularity of violence in popular culture by saying that it is
a metaphorical reflection of class or social conflict. "Violence
is popular because it represents a specific representation
of social dominance and submission, and because it expresses resistance
to that submission. The socially and racially disadvantaged may see their
social representatives in conflict with the forces of dominance, and in the early
stages of the narrative, they may find themselves in conflict with the forces of domination. happy day Descrip
villains win everything. except for the last battle" (p. 136). Another characteristic of violence is its belonging
a male culture as a counteraction to dominance. "Sylvester Stallone,
like Rimbaud or Rocky, exerts violence on a racially or socially subordinate
body, whose muscles provide subordinates with the only possible
means to achieve male status, even if only symbolically. In such a male
popular culture, women are usually presented as victims or whores - two
basic metaphors that can be used to productively express their
subordinate role in relation to a man" (p.136-137). At the same time, popular
culture is attracted not just to violence, but to a type of violence that is
a structural metaphor that reflects the distribution of power in society. This is like a
pleasure for subordinates. From this perspective, the role of "soap
operas" and other similar communication structures is also seen differently. Female viewers do not just
put themselves in the role of beautiful heroines, but they do it as if in denial of their
current position, which is interpreted as unworthy, dishonest, uninteresting.
In the CIS situation, we can find some relief in, that the "soap opera"
has a clear foreign connotation for us, so such a transfer may
not be perceived so acutely, because this is not how other classes live, but in other countries.
Therefore, many everyday details that are completely alien
in their luxury to our audience become retold.
Umberto Eco also did research work in the field of PR in his
study "Strategies for Lying", which focused on Richard
Nixon's televised speech during the Watergate scandal (Eco U. Strategies of lying // On signs.
Baltimore, 1985). On April 30, 1973, Richard Nixon, trying to save himself in the eyes
of public opinion, tried to justify himself on television. But the
opposite happened: if only a small number of Americans did not believe Nixon before this televised speech,
as a result of this exculpatory text, a large number of those who did not believe Nixon did not believe h
who stopped trusting him, exceeded fifty percent. U. Eco considers the
type of argument of R. Nixon in the form of a plot close to the fairy tale about
Little Red Riding Hood. This results in the following comparison table (p. 7):

Western press
Functions red hat Pearl Harbor Nixon's speech
model

Hero Little Red

Americans The Americans President
Riding Hood
Safety and Security are a Controlled The American
Value Security
power Government Way of Life
Not Not
Keep track of your own
Prohibition stop now Be prepared corrupt yourself,
don't spy They
There's a
are carefree
The villain wolf in the woodsJapanese President
staff
Little Red
Violation Riding Hood Annoyance in
Arrogance Watergate
bans speaks to China and Vietnam
Little Red
Riding Hood is
Abuse
Failure being cheated Pearl Harbor Loss of trust
by authority
by the wolf
The Savior Loggers Amerikantsy President of the
Press and court
' Pursuit World War II Government
Fighting Investigative journalism investigation
The Wolf war
White House Bad employees
Victory The wolf is killed
The Japanese surrendergets under
investigation fired
Values Security and Control of the American
Safety way of life
restored The strength But the
of the hero was villain tried The hero was
The hero was
careless, but lying to the community, careless, but he was
Evaluating facts careless, but
I was able to find but myself
public able to save himself
they're saving him
to rescue heroes punished him myself

As you can see, he also compares Nixon's behavior to two other "plots": the
attack on Pearl Harbor and the Western-style press coverage of the event. The plot in
question is as follows: "Americans want a government that is responsible for its actions
and that can be controlled by public opinion; the villain (here, the president) Instead
, he committed a series of actions that lead to unlimited and hidden power in
the White House, to a real abuse of power at the expense of civil liberties. The press
and the court then get involved in the case, and through a series of investigations
and accusations, they manage to put the White House and the president under
investigation; the goal is fulfilled, and the government cannot escape the control
of citizens" (p. 8). As a result, the public has received such contradictory "stories"for
evaluation. Nixon tried to twist the interpretation of the situation so that he appeared
to be a deceived hero who, as a result, manages to save the American way of life.
That is, one story that was actively produced by the press was replaced by another,
where the president shifted from the position of the villain to the role of the hero.
In reality, it was a well-thought-out PR campaign. What happened as a result? It
turned out that the good text was entrusted to a bad "actor" who did everything right.
messed up by U. Eco summarizes the situation as follows: "Narrative
construction would be fine if the text remained in writing. But it was
" spoken." And every muscle in Nixon's face betrayed confusion, fear,
and tension. Such a good story with the advantages of a happy ending
was told by a terrified person. Scared from start to finish. Nixon's speec
was a visual reenactment of insecurity, played by the " security guarantor
It is this fear that Americans have felt on their television screens" (p.
here you should take into account that. that Nixon's PR team has done
much more than the administrations of other presidents, which are already
only with parts of the sophisticated system worked out under Nixon.
As we can see, there are many intersections of PR and semiotics. And
here the reader should be referred to the following unaffected parallels:
semiotics of visual communication (works of [Link], B. Uspensky, P.
Florensky, R. Barth), semiotics of behavior (works of Yu. Lotman),
semiotics of theater (P. Pavi), semiotics of advertising (R. Barth). Literature
Bart R. Selected works. Semiotics. Poetika, Moscow, 1989
Bart R. Mythologies, Moscow, 1996
Baudrillard W. Sistema tesh [System of Things], Moscow, 1995
V. V. Ivanov. Essays on the history of semiotics in the USSR, Moscow,
From the works of the Moscow Semiotic Circle, Moscow, 1997
Lotman Yu. M. Conversations about Russian culture. - SPb., 1994
Lotman Yu. M. Inside the thinking worlds. Man-text-semiosphere-history, Moscow
1996 Lotman Y. M.. Culture and Explosion , Moscow, 1992
Lotman Yu. Semiotics of cinema and problems of film aesthetics. - Tallinn
Lotman Y. M.. Structure of the artistic text, Moscow, 1970
Lotman Yu., Tsivyan Yu. Dialog with the screen. - Tallinn, 1994
Lotman Yu. M. and the Tartu-Moscow semiotic school. - M., 1994
Lotman's collection. - Issue 1-2. Moscow, 1995-1997
Moscow-Tartu Semiotic school. History, memories, reflections,
Moscow, 1998
Pavi P. Dictionary of Theater, Moscow, 1991
Pocheptsov G. G. History of Russian semiotics before and after 1917
Semiotics and art geometry. - M., 1972
Film structure. - M., 1985
Uspensky B. A. Selected works. - In 2 volumes-M .. 1996
Uspensky B. A.. Semiotics of Art , Moscow, 1995

Florensky P. A. Analysis of space and time in artistic and visual

works. - M., 1993

Broms H., Gahmberg H. Semiotics of management. - Helsinki, 1987

Eco U. The role of the reader. - Bloomington etc., 1979

Eco U. A theory of semiotics. - Bloomington etc., 1976

Fiske J. Understanding popular culture. - London etc., 1992

Melrose S. A semiotics of the dramatic text. - Houndmill etc., 1994

Metz C. Imaginary signifier. - Bloomington, 1982

4. Neuro-linguistic programming, psychoanalysis and group therapy

psychotherapy

* Neuro-linguistic programming

Breaking the chronology, we put NLP (neuro-linguistic programming)

in the first place in our consideration, separating it from psychoanalysis
and group psychotherapy for the following reason: NLP has a clearer
theoretical basis of the communicative order, which as a result made it possible
to build our own methodology of influence just as clearly. NLP seems to
have become a synthesis of communication theory and psychotherapy, putting
the methods of psychoanalysis on a strictly defined communicative basis. At the
(see, for example, Grinder D., Bandler R. The structure of magic, Moscow, 1995), that
same time, the authors of NLP try to bring their constructions closer to the transformational
grammar of N. Chomsky , but it seems to us a certain exaggeration,
and besides, the Chomsky grammar itself has long since moved away
from the version that the creators of NLP rely on. What is interesting about
NLP for PR? NLP is built on the following basis:It receives information through
a number of communication channels (audio, visual, etc.), but for each of us,
one or another channel is the dominant, leading one. We seem to be oriented
towards it and even habitually describe situations, often without paying attention
to it, in words from the same set. Leslie Kameron-Bandler describes these
sets as follows: (Kameron-Bandler L. They lived happily ever after. - Voronezh, 1993. - p.
44): - ---------------------
Visual Auditory Kinesthetic Smell / Taste
- ---------------------
see hear feel taste on

taste

draw sound like touch sniff

bright loud warm fresh

clear melodic soft fragrant

vague noisy smooth exhausted

in focus harmonious comfortable sweet

flash the screechinggrabsound

it piquant

perspective scream clamped sour

dark screeching rude bitter

multi-color ringing blunt pickles

- ---------------------

Accordingly, according to the preference given to certain groups of words, the

leading representative system for an individual is determined. NLP also offers a visual
method for determining the leading system. By asking a series of questions centered
on a particular system (such as "What color are your mother's eyes?", "Which door
creaks the loudest?", "Can you hear your mother calling your name?"), the researcher
looks at the behavior of the subject. "One of the men in response to each question
first looked down to the right. The other looked up and to the left. The former sought
the answer kinesthetically, the latter visually" (ibid., p. 55). That is , when starting
access to information, a person relies on their own master system. Significant for
PR are the types of observations that are proposed in the framework of NLP for
finding [Link] / incongruities (the degree to which the characteristics
of different channels correspond to one another). This is close to the PR methodology,
for example, when learning to hide your excitement. NLP offers the following
checklist for visual observation: (Grinder D, Bandler R. The structure of Magic-p. 348):
1. The hands of the individual.
2. Individual movements.
3. The legs and feet of the individual.
4. Patterns of fixation during eye movement (this refers
to the eye movement patterns noted above when starting access to information).
5. The head/neck/shoulders relationship.
6. Facial expressions, especially the eyebrows, mouth, and facial muscles.
Since we are quite rigidly oriented to one channel (this is the main hypothesis
of NLP), when switching to a different channel in a controlled way, interesting
results can be obtained. J. Grinder and R. Bandler cite as an example the technique
of a shaman who asked a person with a headache to look at a piece
of paper for five minutes. And the pain receded. Their interpretation is as follows: the
sensation of pain goes through one channel, switching to another frees you from pain
(Grinder J., Bandler R.. From frogs to princes. Voronezh, 1993, p. 67). If this hypothesis
about the existence of a leading representative system for each person is correct,
then PR and advertising should in principle be built within the framework of one or
another representative system in order to increase the effectiveness of impact. And if
the mass audience needs a justification for the choice (maybe a link between the
leading system and the type of product offered), top in the case of individual exposure
the possibilities of NLP are indisputable, because in this case a person will receive
information in the form to which he is accustomed.
In general, it turns out that the therapist works with incongruent situations
that he must decipher. NLP creators give the following example: "
the patient's words in which he declares his love for his wife do not match the timbre of his
voice when he says these words. The patient's left hand with the index finger outstretched
is not consistent with the right hand lying on his lap with the open palm facing up.
The message conveyed by the patient's words is different from the message
conveyed by the patient's voice timbre. The message transmitted by the
patient's left hand is different from the message transmitted by the right hand" (Grinder D., Bandler
R. The structure of magic. - p. 316). This text is very "attractive" for PR. For NLP
, however, there is another problem: when receiving such inconsistent information, the patient
selects only one side. So, one of the patients developed a rule
according to which, " whenever she is faced with incongruent communication-
a situation where the messages that she receives through different channels of receiving
information do not coincide, she systematically selects and perceives only the
information that she perceives visually. This first of all deprives her
of a significant source of knowledge about other people and the world around her" (Bandler R. et al.
Family therapy. Voronezh, 1993, p. 59). In fact, PR specialists teach leaders
exactly congruence, when they teach them to look confident, sincere, and not
betray their excitement. No
less important is the aspect that NLP pays to metaphor. David Gordon writes about the role
of this tool in Therapeutic Metaphors: "Metaphors
(in the form of fairy tales, poems, and jokes) are consciously and subconsciously
used by therapists to help clients make the desired
changes. The client can express any areas of their experience where they feel
limited.b satisfactory choices or lack of alternatives. In this
case, the therapist can tell him a joke from his own life, from the life
of another client, or come up with a new one" (Gordon D. Therapeutic metaphors. - SPb.,
1995). And further: "The most important requirement for a metaphor in terms of its
effectiveness is that it meets the client in his model of the world. This does not
mean that the content of the metaphor must necessarily coincide with the content
of the client's situation. "To meet the client in his own model of the world" means only
that the metaphor should preserve the structure of the given problem situation" (In the same place.
- P. 25).
Since politics deals quite frequently with the future, that is, in reality
, not so clearly defined reality (see about this Pocheptsov G. G. Semiotics of
political discourse // Rationality and semiotics of discourse. - Kiev, 1994),
the metaphorical nature of language is also very important for PR. Metaphor is the most
accurate "shot", the impact of which is dramatically higher than simple speech.
And the last term (and, accordingly, the technique) of NLP is I k o r b. Touch, sound,
visual symbols, and smell can initially be associated with the experience, but then
they can themselves cause the necessary experiences. NLP authors describe this situation at
the individual level, but the anchor is also quite possible in the field of collective
behavior. Such sound anchors can be the national anthem, the sound
of the Kremlin chimes, associated with the New Year's Eve meeting throughout
the former USSR. An anchor can encourage desired behavior, but it can also
stop unwanted behavior. As Leslie Cameron-Bandler writes, "In a situation
of possible aggression, the visual anchor is better than the kinesthetic one, since
the approach required to touch can be very difficult."b dangerous. Working with
a woman whose husband was proud of his aggressive reactions, I taught to take
an impressive karate stance (her husband was not in therapy). I gave her instructions
that when a situation of aggression loomed and she felt that she could not escape
the violence and protect herself, she should take this pose. Such a situation arose,
and she did so. According to her description, her husband instantly cooled down,
became confused, and then burst out laughing" (Cameron-Bandler L. Edict. soch. - pp.
149-150). It is very interesting that such positive anchors have long been used in
advertising and PR was borrowed from there. This is the use of children's pets,
which the audience has an exceptionally positive reaction to. Margaret Thatcher
even used someone else's dog to wander around a deserted beach in front of the
camera. Accordingly, a smile acts, relaxing the interlocutor and removing
aggressiveness. Political leaders always assume precisely calculated
poses and facial expressions in front of the cameras. Images taken with your
family around you are quite frequent. A photo of someone with a leader performs
the same process of transferring positive attention to themselves. Repetitive
musical rhythms also play a positive role . The audience, as you know, treats the
familiar very well and takes all new directions with hostility.
Now we should be clear about the main positive lessons that PR can
learn from NLP: a)
NLP relies on a strong generalization of the communication process, which allows
you to build a meta-model, which, by the way, is also necessary for users; b) the main
hypothesis of NLP about the presence of a leading representative system is very interesting,
which allows you to build a particular strategy of influence; c) NLP provides
another perspective on the existence of human defense mechanisms and
ways to overcome them. Some objects such as the child / pet
anchors mentioned above easily bypass these filters, which is probably rooted in
a certain biological basis, for example, no dog will attack a puppy;
d) it is possible to continue this "basis" in other directions. It may
be possible to distinguish male/female preferences in the future (
the visual channel may be preferred for men , and the auditory channel
for women). There are certain historical parallels when civilizations move from
the auditory to the visual form (see more Pocheptsov G. Semiotics of visual/spoken
civilizations // Neue Fragen der Linguistik. - Tubingen, 1991); e) NLP can help
in finding mechanisms for switching channels. For example, if Nixon as a presidential
candidate was recorded as "uninteresting" when submitted through the visual
channel, it was necessary to look for ways to submit it through the auditory channel.
An attempt to apply some NLP methods can be found in the work of A. N. Zhmyrikov (
Zhmyrikov A. N.. How to win an election. - Obninsk, 1995). Thus, he notes: "Knowing
the way the interlocutor prefers to perceive information, as well as the characteristics
of the image obtained, the candidate easily adapts to it, secretly imposing
their ideas" (p.52). Or an example of using "anchors": "The emotional reaction
of an object associated with experiencing an event that is significant for it is combined
in this way with an external anchor. Now, when the candidate needs to evoke a similar
emotional response, he can repeat the anchor, and the emotion will arise without
the control of the object's consciousness " (p. 77). The last technique is related to the
following: "in order to convince the partner of something, it is enough to convey your
opinions to him at a time when he is in the thrall of a pronounced positive emotion.
Offering the voter to conclude an agreement on mutual assistance to the state.
Thus, the candidate, by including the anchor of positive
experiences of the voter, gets an additional lever of influence on him" (p . 77).

In general, it should be recognized that NLP tries to put its methodology

on a very well-defined basis, which allows it to continue developing
its tools just as clearly. At the same time, NLP is also of interest to
PR as an object: the rapid spread of NLP across the territory of the
former USSR that we are seeing is very significant. There is a parallel
impact through books and seminars, involving an increasing number of
people in its turnover. On the territory of Ukraine , "socionics" also
developed rapidly. Once again, the PR is interested in such concrete
theories based on a sufficiently rigid basis. Relying on well-established foundations,
it is possible to build much more effective strategies of influence.

Literature

Bandler R., Grinder J., Satyr V. Family therapy. - Voronezh, 1993

Gordon D. Therapeutic metaphors. - SPb., 1995

Grinder J., Bandler R.. From frogs to princes. - Voronezh, 1993

Grinder J. Bandler R. Structure of Magic , Moscow, 1995

Grinder D., Bandler R. Formation of trance , Moscow, 1994

Zhmyrikov A. N. How to win an election. - Obninsk, 1995

Cameron-Bandler L. They lived happily ever after. - Voronezh, 1993

McDonald's In. Guide to submodalities. - Voronezh, 1994

* Psychoanalysis

Now we return to the prehistory of psychotherapy - psychoanalysis. Its founder

, Sigmund Freud, no matter how critical he is, has the priority of discovering
the unconscious, that is, those areas of consciousness where access to
consciousness is limited .the basis of our rational management. We are interested in
psychoanalysis because it tells us how people build their "protective screens",
getting rid of unpleasant, rejected, unrealized desires and thoughts. Freud
called this process of withdrawal into the subconscious the process of repression.
Consciousness can't keep conflicting areas in itself and tries to get rid of them.
"The concept of repression is at the center of Freudian psychology." Jung (Jung K.
Problems of the soul of our time, Moscow, 1994, p. 258). Psychological studies
of leaders conducted within the framework of psychoanalysis are also of interest to
PR. An example is the psychological study of the twenty-eighth President
of the United States, Thomas Woodrow Wilson, conducted by Sigmund Freud and
William Bullitt (Freud Z., Bullit U. Thomas Woodrow Wilson, Moscow, 1992). As an
example, we can cite the following arguments of the authors: "Wilson's opinion
that Clemenceau has a" kind of feminine mind " sheds more light
on the personality of Wilson than on the personality of Clemenceau. Nothing can be
less effeminate than Clemenceau's refusal to be crushed by Wilson's harangues,
and it is hard to imagine anything more effeminate than Wilson's reaction
to Clemenceau's behavior that morning. Clemenceau broke the bounds of
politeness. He insulted Wilson, and there are few men who would refuse to
use the masculine means of struggle that Wilson had in his hands. But Wilson
in his speech, he again outlined his vision of the world. Wilson's answer was
therefore a product of pure womanhood, and his remark that Clemenceau possessed
"a kind of feminine intelligence" was clearly an attempt to convince himself that he was not a
woman., that his own behavior is not feminine, by transferring his
own attitude to Clemenceau" (In the same place - P. 233). The concept
of the collective unconscious, introduced by C. Jung, is also of particular importance for PR. At
the same time, psychoanalysis considered many manifestations of human fantasy,images,
desires, dreams precisely as primary associations that arise earlier than others, outside
of rational understanding, but as if originally set by human nature.
So, Gaston Bachelard did a psychoanalytic study of fire ( Bashlyar City
Psychoanalysis of fire, Moscow, 1993), where he asserts that both the" conquest " of fire and
primary associations associated with fire are sexual in nature. About the method of his work, he
writes the following: "The sexual meanings that we intend to reveal can be
either hidden or clearly expressed. Naturally, muted and
darkened values are the most difficult to psychoanalyze, and they are also characterized by the
greatest activity. Meanings that are visible or intelligible are directly
reduced by laughter. In order to show more clearly the resistance of the
most hidden layer of the unconscious, we will start with such examples where this resistance
is so weak that the reader will laugh and make a reduction on his own, saving
us the need to emphasize the obvious error once again (In the same place. - P. 69-70).
In turn, Yuri Lotman quite wittily reinterpreted the tale of
Little Red Riding Hood from the point of view of psychoanalysis (Lotman Yu. On the reduction and
deployment of sign systems (To the problem of "Freudianism and semiotic
cultural studies") // Proceedings of the All-Union Symposium on secondary modeling
systems 1 (5). - Tartu, 1974). His reasoning was as follows: a child paints the characters
of a fairy tale according to the available information.I'm his "actors". Little Red Riding Hood is
himself, mother and grandmother are also clear. Thus, the only role left for the father is that of a
Wolf. And from this we can deduce the Freudian Oedipus complex - the child's dislike of the
father. Psychoanalysis also provides a psychological model of modern society. Karen Horney
wrote: "Sometimes our feelings of attachment, anger, and suspicion are so
fleeting that they barely reach consciousness, and so transient that we forget about them.
But they can also hide a huge dynamic force. The degree of awareness
of a feeling says absolutely nothing about its power or meaning. When applied
to anxiety, this means not only that we can unconsciously worry, but also
that anxiety can be a determining factor in our lives, while remaining
unconscious to us at the same time." (Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time.
Samoanaliz, Moscow, 1993, pp. 36-37). Knowing all this spectrum of anxieties, expectations,
and aspirations allows you to build and plan PR campaigns
with a sufficient degree of efficiency. At the same time, in some cases it is psychoanalysis
that allows Horney to come to paradoxical conclusions. So, it considers the role of the cultural
factor. "The power, prestige, or wealth of an individual member of society does not play a role in
every culture. For example, among the Pueblo Indians, the desire for prestige is definitely
discouraged, there are only minor differences in individual
ownership, and as a result, this desire is also insignificant. In
this culture, it would be pointless to seek any form of dominance
as a means of appeasement. The fact that neurotics in our culture choose this path
is because in our social structure, power, prestige, and possession
can give us a sense of powershe's safe" (In the same place. - P. 128).
Freudianism has passed through a number of periods in its history. Let's take a closer look at
some models of psychoanalysis. At the same time, each of them contains interesting lessons for
PR. They are particularly important because psychoanalysis is basically a form of self-analysis.
It is a practically oriented science, and its models grow out of direct
communication between the analyst and the patient.
* Freud's model
The main postulate of Freud can be the following: our behavior is not always
based on what consciousness gives us as the motives of our actions,
which in reality may be completely different. The focus on the search
for sexual motives in Freud's model should be recognized as somewhat exaggerated.
The essence of psychoanalysis is to find these hidden motives, to transfer them from
the unconscious to consciousness, which in some cases has a therapeutic
effect. Freud came to this understanding of his model by treating hysteria. And
there is a way to enter this unconscious. As V. Voloshinov (M. Bakhtin) writes:
"The unconscious, as we already know, is denied direct access to the conscious and
subconscious, at the threshold of which censorship works. But all repressed drives
do not lose their energy, as we also already know, and therefore constantly strive to
break through into consciousness. They can only do this in part by using the k o m p r o m
s a i s k a g e n i I, by which they deceive the vigilance of censorship"
(Voloshinov V. N. Freudianism, Moscow, 1993, p. 47). Hence Freud's interest
in slips of the tongue, mistakes, and humor, since only in the way he believes can one
deceive one's inner censorship. Hence the interest in dreams, since they are also
realized outside the powerful control of consciousness that we have in our daily
life. V. VoloshinM. Bakhtin believed that the psychoanalytic session really
reflects the" struggle " between the doctor and the patient, in which one wants to hide some
aspects of the situation, impose his interpretation of the situation on the other, and the other
- the doctor - tries to force the patient to take a more correct point of view on the disease a
its causes. And then V. Voloshinov (M. Bakhtin) comes up with a very important postulate for
both communication theory and PR: "A word is, as it were ,the "c e n a r i y" of the closes
communication in the process of which it was born,and this communication, in turn, is the
moment of broader communication of that social group, which the speaker belongs to. To
understand this meaning, it is necessary to reconstruct all those complex social
relationships, the ideological refraction of which is this statement"
(In the same place. - P. 78-79). The complexity of psychoanalytic communication
is emphasized not only by its critics, but also by practitioners: "a
therapeutic alliance can be considered as based on the patient's conscious
desire to cooperate with the therapist in overcoming the difficulties
experienced by the patient. This is not the same as just going to sessions
for fun or anything like that. The therapeutic alliance involves the
awareness of the need to overcome your internal problems and engage in
psychoanalysis, despite internal or external resistance..." (Sandler J. et al. Patient
and psychoanalyst. Fundamentals of the psychoanalytic process. Voronezh, 1993, pp.
28-29). Freud also presented an interesting study of mass psychology ("Mass
psychology and analysis of the human" I " / / Z. Freud. On the other side
of the pleasure principle, Moscow, 1992), which is important for PR specialists as working
with the audience. He analyzes two artificial masses-the church and the army. In both
cases, a certain external compulsion is necessary to prevent
these formations from disintegrating. Another common characteristic is the following: "In
the church (we can successfully take the Catholic Church as an example), as in the army -
no matter how different they may be in other respects-the same deceptive
idea (illusion) is cultivated, namely that there is a supreme ruler (in the Catholic Church
- Christ, in the army-commander), for each individual member of the mass, the lover is equal
to love" (In the same place. - P. 278). Freud gives examples of neuroses developing in the ar
, associated with the rough treatment of individual [Link], he
in general, it emphasizes the predominance of a sense of gregariousness,a certain
primitiveness, characteristic of the mass. "We must conclude that mass psychology is
the oldest psychology of mankind; everything that we have isolated as a psychology of
the individual, ignoring all the remnants of the mass, has been isolated only later,
gradually and, so to speak, still only partially from the ancient mass psychology."
(In the same place. - P. 304-305). And from here we logically move on to Jung's model as relate
to such archetypes.
* Young's model
Carl Jung removed the exclusively sexual interpretation of libido (energy,
attraction), which Z defended. Freud (Jung K. Libido, its metamorphoses and symbols. -
SPb., 1994). He also wrote an important comment for PR: "People want to love in God
only their ideas, exactly the ideas that they project into God. They want
to love their own unconscious in this way, that is, those equally preserved
remnants of ancient humanity and the centuries-old past in each person." (In the
same place. - P. 184). Hence this constant access to symbolism, traced in all directions
of psichoanalysis, which is of particular value for PR. It is symbols that facilitate
access to a person in any type of communication, psychoanalysis tries to put the
explanation of symbolism in the framework of its hypothesis. K. Jung also introduces
the concepts of archetype and the collective unconscious, which underlie the symbolism
of fairy tales, myths and rituals. "The collective unconscious," writes C. Jung
(Jung K. Problems of the soul of our time. - Moscow, 1994. - p. 126), - apparently cons
- as far as we can generally judge this-of something like mythological
motifs or images; therefore, the myths of peoples are direct
manifestations of the collective unconscious. All mythology is a
kind of projection of the collective unconscious." As a possible
tool for searching for archetypes, the following is suggested:" any mental
reaction that is not proportional to the cause that caused it should be investigated
as to whether it was also caused by the archetype" (In the same place. - P.
138).
K. Jung sharply underestimates the role of the personal, giving priority to collective
mental representations. "When we analyze a person, we remove the mask and
find the following:: what appeared to be individual is basically collective;
in other words, the persona was only a mask of the collective psyche" (Jung K. G.
Psychology of the unconscious, Moscow, 1994, p. 217). Therefore, it lays down a
different hierarchy of values: "A person has an ability that is the most
valuable for the collective, and the most harmless for individuation - this is imitation.
Social psychology cannot do without imitation, because without it
mass organizations, the state, and social order are simply impossible; after
all, it is not the law that creates social order, but imitation, the concept of which also
includes suggestibility, suggestibility and spiritual infection" (In the same place. - P. 213).
About the same K. Jung says in his Tavistock lectures: "Any process that has
an emotional character immediately triggers similar processes in others. When you
're in a crowd driven by emotions, you can't help but succumb to those emotions."
(Jung K. G. The Tavistock lectures. Kiev, 1995, p. 142).
Under the K symbols. Jung understands such formations as contain "something
more than their obvious and immediate meaning" (Jung K. Archetype and Symbol
, Moscow, 1991, p. 25). The role of symbols is very important for PR, precisely because
of this reference to the sacred. Jung says that cultural symbols, having passed through
the centuries, have become collective images of now civilized societies. And although
society has become civilized, man still has many primary features in himself. This
allowed C. Jung to write the following: "Nevertheless, such cultural symbols
still retain much of their original numinous (sacral,
divine) or" witchcraft " origin. It is known that they can cause a deep
emotional resonance in some people, and such a mental charge causes them
to act in much the same way as in the case of superstition or
prejudice. They belong to the same factors that the psychologist
has to deal with, and it would be foolish to ignore them just because in rational terms
they look absurd and insignificant. Cultural symbols are important
components of our mental structure,and they are also vital forces in
building the human image, and therefore cannot be eliminated without significant
losses." (In the same place. - P. 84-85). Among the archetypes identified by him , the "hero"is
of particular interest to the PR. "The figure of the hero is an archetype that has existed since
time immemorial," writes K. Jung (In the same place. - P. 68). By the way, Z. also wrote abou
Freud, based on Le Bon's research: "Since the mass does not doubt the truth or falsity of
something and at the same time is aware of its enormous power, it is as intolerant as
it is subject to authority. She respects strength, but kindness, which seems
to her only a form of weakness, is guided only in a small measure.
She demands strength, even violence, from her hero. It wants to be owned and
suppressed, and it wants to be afraid of its master." (Freud Z. Beyond the
pleasure principle, Moscow, 1992, p. 264).
Thus, Jung's concept, which was called "analytical
psychology", as well as psychoanalysis in general, provides significant material for PR
specialists precisely in the aspect of mass psychology, which is more
controlled by primary, more primitive structures. K. Jung also proposed a
set of psychological personality types that can be useful in
modeling leadership skills (Jung K. G. Psychological types , Moscow, 1996).
* Lacan's model
Jacques Lacan is considered the creator of "structural psychoanalysis". He builds his theory
by emphasizing his reversion back to Freud. He begins with the task of a communicative
foundation: "Whatever psychoanalysis seeks - whether for healing, professional
training, or research-it has only one medium: the patient's speech." (Lacan J. Function and
field of speech and language in psychoanalysis, Moscow, 1995, p. 18). And since this is spe
it is designed for the existence of Another. Even silence is the answer.
The psychoanalyst seeks to detect in the patient's behavior what he does not mention.
As his leading tool, J. Lacan offers the following:
"Psychoanalysisthe alitic knows better than anyone that the most important thing is to hear which
"party" in the discourse is entrusted with a meaningful term; this is exactly what he does, at best
, so that the story of everyday life turns out to be a
parable addressed to those who have ears to hear; a long tirade - an interjection;
an elementary slip of the tongue on the contrary, it is a complex explanation, and a silent sigh i
a whole lyrical outpouring" (In the same place. - P. 22). It creates a whole list of possible
structures where uncensored information is recorded. These monuments are my body,
where neurosis is recorded. These are archival documents, which he calls childhood
memories, the meaning of which is often unclear. This is a semantic evolution, i.e. a stock of
words and features of their use. These are traditions and legends, where individual history
is clothed in heroic forms. "The unconscious of the subject is the discourse
of the other," says Jacques Lacan (In the same place. - P. 35). He also returns to the basic
symbols: "It is in the name of the father that one should see the bearer of the symbolic function
that, even at the dawn of human history, identifies his face with the image of the law"
(In the same place. - P. 48). Jacques Lacan describes how the symbolic function works. For exam
person enlists himself in the ranks of the proletarians, and then because of his belonging to them
takes part in a strike. Lacan describes this pattern as follows: "The
symbolic function reveals itself as a double movement within the
subject: a person first transforms his action into an object, but then, at
the right time, restores this action as a basis" (In the same place. - P. 55).

The distinction between language and speech in the framework of psychoanalysis turns into the
following: "To liberate the subject's speech, we introduce it into the language of his desire, i.e., into the
primary language, on which, in addition to all that he tells us about himself, he tells us
something already unconsciously, and says, first of all, with the symbols of the symptom" (In the same place.
- P. 63).

He connects the work of a psychoanalyst with his work ... the scribe, because it is he
who places punctuation marks in the patient's text. And depending on them, this text
gets one or another meaning. "It is known that in the manuscripts of symbolic
scriptures, whether the Bible or books of the Chinese Canon, the lack of punctuation
is a source of ambiguity. Punctuation fixes the meaning, changing it
updates or reverses the meaning, and erroneous punctuation
distorts it" (In the same place. - P. 83). Separating
the concepts of the real and the symbolic, Lacan believes that the real always stands
in its place, there are no questions about it, while the symbolic
"is a substitute for what is missing in its place. A symbol, word, etc. always
causes the absence of an object or referent" ( Lechte J. Fifty key contemporary thinkers. -
London etc., 1994. - Р. 69). At the same time, researchers do not pay
due attention to symbolism today. As written by Zh. Lacan, "The current lack of
interest in symbol language research, which is evident when comparing
the number of publications before and after 1920, is due in our discipline
to nothing less than a change in its subject matter; the desire to equalize to a flat
level of communication, due to the new tasks assigned to psychoanalytic
technology, most likely served as a reason for this." the reason for the bleak
outcome that the most discerning minds sum up to its results" (Lacan W. Functions
and field of speech and language in psychoanalysis. - p. 41). Thus, the central
points from the point of view of PR are the concepts of the Other (even a monologue,
with thatfrom Lacan's point of view, presupposes the presence of the other) and the Symbolic
(any symbolic is such in the eyes of the Other). Lacan also sees the purpose
of the language in purely PR-terms: "the function of the language is not to inform,
but to call representations" (In the same place. - P. 69). Or compare the following statement:
"Psychoanalytic experience has rediscovered in man the imperative of the Word-the
law that shapes man in his own image and likeness. By manipulating the poetic
function of language, this experience also gives human desire its symbolic
mediation." (In the same place. - P. 91).
Concluding remarks
To. Jung wrote that it is impossible to imagine the history of twentieth-century spiritual
life without Freud's name. This is despite the fact that today the predominance
of biological factors in Freud's concept over factors of a sociological
order is quite clear. But in any case, a number of the presented models provide a
certain understanding of the functioning of human psychological mechanisms, which
allows them to be actively used for PR purposes.
* Literature

Freud Z. Introduction to psychoanalysis. - Lectures. Moscow, 1989

Freud Z. Essays on the psychology of sexuality. - Riga, 1990
Freud Z. Beyond the pleasure principle, Moscow, 1992
Freud Z. Psychology of the unconscious , Moscow, 1990
Freud Z., Bullit U. Thomas Woodrow Wilson. The twenty-eighth President
of the United States. Psychological research , Moscow, 1992
Jung K. G. Archetype and Symbol , Moscow, 1991
Jung K. G. Libido, its metamorphoses and symbols. - St. Petersburg, 1884
Jung K. G. Problems of the soul of our time, Moscow, 1994
Jung K. G. Psychological types , Moscow, 1996
Jung K. G. Psychology of the unconscious , Moscow, 1994
Jung K. G. The Tavistock lectures. - Kiev, 1995
Jung K. G. The phenomenon of spirit in Art and Science, Moscow, 1992
Lacan J. Function and field of speech and language in psychoanalysis,
Moscow, 1995 Lacan J. The language of the self. - N.Y., 1968
Bashlyar G. Psychoanalysis of fire, Moscow, 1993
Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time. Samoanaliz. - Moscow, 1993

Voloshinov V. N.. Freudianism , Moscow, 1993

Dodeltsev R. F.. The concept of culture Z. Freud, Moscow,
1989 Ovcharenko V. I. Psychoanalytic glossary. - Minsk,
1994 Odaynik B. Psychology of politics. Political and social
ideas of Carl Gustav Jung. - St. Petersburg, 1996
Popova M. A.. Freudianism and Religion , Moscow, 1985
Sandler J. etc. Patient and psychoanalyst. Voronezh, 1993;
deut. ed. Moscow, 1995 Sartre J. P. Freud, Moscow, 1992
Samuels E. Jung and post-Jungians , Moscow, 1997

* Group psychotherapy

Group psychotherapy has the advantages of collective action. Historically,

it is associated with the loss of a person of many of their usual functions
during life in modern conditions, when a certain sensitivity is atrophied,
when certain muscle groups are "frozen". Once in an unusual environment
of mass living in large cities, a person is exposed to a number of neuroses.
Group psychotherapy is also important because of the influence that a group
has on a person. Examples of such positive effects of the group date back to
the experiments of Franz Mesmer in Paris. The very term "group
psychotherapy" is attributed to J. R. R. Tolkien. Moreno, the creator of psychodrama.
Psychotherapy of this type also has a certain therapeutic effect. There
are numerous varieties of it. Kjell Rudestam includes the following types of
group psychotherapy: training groups, meeting groups, gestalt groups,
psychodrama, body therapy groups, dance therapy groups, art therapy groups,
skill training groups(Rudestam K. Group psychotherapy , Moscow, 1993).
Karl Rogers offers his own classification of groups (Rogers K. About group
psychologyerapii, Moscow, 1993, pp. 9-10). In reality, these groups teach a
person the types of behavior that are blocked for one reason or another. This
includes self-confidence training , overcoming shyness and fear. As we can see,
all these topics are very significant for PR, since leaders of both politics and
business must necessarily overcome such limitations in themselves. Consider
some types of group psychotherapy.

Psychodrama
Psychodrama occurs in the twenties in the United States. The psychodrama itself is played out in
the presence of all the members of the group. Its meaning is as follows:"this is a form of
psychotherapy in which the patient or subject acts out their conflicts, and does not talk about them"
(G. A. Blatner. Psychodrama, role-playing game, methods of action. - Part 1. - Perm, 1993. - p. 5).
For example, a person has a problem with his superiors. Chairs are placed on the stage, one of
the participants becomes the boss, who attacks the "hero"with philippics.
Sometimes a double trick is added here, when a participant who acts
as a double is singled out, he expresses feelings that the "hero" cannot show for various reasons
. After playing the situation, the "hero" and the boss can switch
places and play the scene again. As a result of such psychodrama, a person works
out behaviors that are not typical for him. Having them at his disposal in
a game situation, he will be able to apply them in real life. It is known that even
leaders feel very bad in new situations, so they try
to develop certain stereotypes of situations in advance. After the end of the psychodrama
, participants exchange opinions, which helps to identify the weaknesses/strengths of
each person's behavior. The idea of psychodrama came to Moreno when one actress told
him about her [Link] with the groom. And with the help of an existing troupe, Moreno
put the conflict on stage.
Psychodrama is based on the concepts of role-playing and improvisation. We all play
certain roles, and the richer our repertoire of these roles, the more confident we
feel in life. Psychodrama seems to be aimed at expanding this repertoire. At
the same time, it acts very precisely, dealing with those behaviors that
are"crushed" in the patient. The improvisational nature of psychodrama is also very similar to
life, with improvisation creating an element of creativity that allows the members
of the group to reveal themselves in a completely new way. In some cases, inconspicuous
gray mice suddenly rise in their dramatic capabilities, and the attention
of the group serves as an additional incentive for them. A very important element
of psychodrama is rea-sion, this is due to the initial conservatism,
inhibition of many of the participants,and most people
find it quite difficult to reveal themselves. By the way, modeling such self-disclosure
and sincerity is an important element of training leaders in the framework of PR. The role
of the doppelganger also significantly helps to find new feelings, and what is very
important-teaches various options for their manifestation. "In order to become a good
double," writes Barbara Seaburn, " you need to call on all your
intuition, experience and feelings. If you are duplicating a depressed patient, then
you should sit, move, and look like a depressed person
. Then you should talk about how you feel in a state of depression and about
your own feelings. Better duplication is achieved when you fully
identify with the patient" (Seaburn B. The role of the double / / Blatner G. A.
Psychodrama, role-playing game, methods of action. - p. 57). Such methods allow
you to "develop" a new repertoire of behavior.

Meeting groups

The creator of the meeting groups is Carl Rogers, whose goal was to find
self-disclosure in interpersonal relationships. "Today in the United States, perhaps,
there is no more or less large city in which psychotherapy groups
in some form do not exist," writes K. Rogers (Rogers K. On group psychotherapy,
Moscow, 1993, p. 15). He also cites two reasons for this rapid spread. On
the one hand, there is a dehumanization of civilization, from which man disappears.
On the other hand, at a certain level of material security, and the United
States has undoubtedly reached it, a person can deal with their psychological
problems. At the same time, poor people's quarters do not show much interest.
K. Rogers lists the following types of behavior
patterns in the group: 1. Confusion.
2. Unwillingness to open up or speak out.
3. Description of the experience. 4.
Expressing negative emotions. 5. Expression and
research of material that is important for the
individual. 6. Expressing spontaneous feelings
between group members. 7. Developing the
ability to heal in a group. 8. Self-understanding
and initiating change. 9. Destruction
of the "shell". 1O. Feedback between
participants is established. 11. Collision.
12. Mutual assistance outside of group
meetings. 13. True communication.
14. Expressing positive feelings and intimacy.
15. Behavioral changes in the group.

In groups of meetings, as in the case of psychodrama, a person learns

self-disclosure, listening to his feelings, maximum understanding of the other,
i.e. he becomes more communicatively sensitive. It is this communicative
enrichment that is central to PR, this ideal, one that we should all strive for,
but it's especially important when your professional career depends on it. This
is exactly the case with the leader. And another aspect of group
psychotherapy is important for us. How and why does the impact occur, and what are its
mechanisms? After all, group psychotherapy really brings a change in
behavior patterns, which is very important for the entire complex of
communication sciences, and in particular for PR. We are faced with
purposeful and controlled communication, which results in psychocorrection.

Literature
Alexandrov A. A. Modern psychotherapy. - SPb., 1997
Bern E. Games that people play. People who play
games. - L., 1992 G. A. Blatner Psychodrama, role-playing
game, methods of action. - Part 1-2. - Perm, 1993
James M. et al. Born to win. Transactional analysis
with gestalt exercises, Moscow, 1993
Litvak M. E. From hell to heaven. Selected lectures on psychotherapy. -
Rostov-on-Don, 1997 Oleshkevich V. I. The birth of a new psychotechnical culture, Moscow, 1997
Rogers K. R.. A look at psychotherapy. Stanovlenie cheloveka [Formation of a person],
Moscow, 1994 Rogers K. About group psychotherapy , Moscow, 1993
Rogers K. Empathy / / Psychology of emotions, Moscow, 1984
Rudestam K. Group psychotherapy. Psychocorrection groups: theory and
practice, Moscow, 1993
Fvnch F. Transformative dialogs. - Kiev, 1997
Harris T. A. I - o "kay, you-o" kay. - Moscow, 1997

5. RHETORIC. THEORY OF ARGUMENTATION. PRAGMATICS

* RHETORIC

All three sciences are the sciences of speech influence, of which the
earliest is rhetoric. Classical rhetoric was a science of sciences, since music,
painting, and literature were not based on it, and not only [Link]
it remained so until the beginning of the nineteenth century. In pre-revolutionary Russia, rhetoric
was part of the school [Link], in Soviet times it was forgotten, because the need
for the sophisticated influence of the intellectual order that rhetoric provided fell away.
Something similar happened in the Middle Ages, another period of decline in rhetoric
compared to Antiquity. At this time, the power of the word was measured not by verbal
sophistication, but by the degree to which it corresponded to the holy word, that is, the Bible. It
believed that the holy word would already overcome the unholy words, so there was no point in
practicing rhetoric . Rhetoric is still being defined (in modern terms) as a science of
optimal communication, as a science of effective communication, which is quite
consistent with the interests of PR. A. Mikhalskaya recalls another well-known
saying: the right to power is always the right to speech (A. K. Mikhalskaya
Pedagogical rhetoric. History and Theory, Moscow, 1998, p. 12).
Rhetoric in the classical sense asked the most important questions. effective formulas
for speech impact, in which both antiquity (which leads to
oratory) and the Middle Ages (which leads to the science of
sermon construction - homiletics) were interested. The Complete Orthodox Theological
Encyclopedia defines homiletics (vol. 1. - b. g. - p. 661) as "a church-theological
science that sets out the rules of church eloquence or preaching."
The reference to the Middle Ages in this context does not contradict the previous paragraph.
The content of speech of that period was quite dead, while maintaining attention to
the form. As Viktor Hoffman wrote, "The main category of public speech was
a lecture-sermon, the content of which was mainly theological fictions.
P u b l i h n a I r e h b y l a o r a t o r s k o y t o l k o p o f o
the clue to the fact repeatedly stated in the literature onthe striking
immobility, lifelessness and stencil of medieval ecclesiastical and
academic speech, a clue to the fact that the 1st century was the culmination
of Christian oratory (on Greek soil) (V. Hoffman. The speaker's word
(Rhetoric and politics). - L., 1932. - p. 80-81).
The surge of rhetoric in ancient times is primarily related to the democratic
conditions in which ancient society existed. The whole point is that a
citizen could express and defend his rights in a word. This is explained by the fact that the deci
was made by all free citizens, and not delegated to separately
elected "deputies". The rhetoric was further stimulated by the system of courts, where in some
cases it was forbidden to transfer their defense to hired lawyers. The state could
put up a professional prosecutor, who could not be opposed by an amateur.
This required all citizens to have a fairly strong grasp of judicial
eloquence. P. S. Porokhovshchikov left us a relentless book about this type
of rhetoric. "Eloquence is an applied art," he writes, "it pursues
practical goals; therefore, the decoration of speech only for decoration does not correspond to its
purpose" (P. Sergeich. The Art of Speech in Court, Moscow, 1960, p. 63). And another
statement that translates the essence of the trial into a purely communicative
plane: "the truth is the result of a court agreement. These words contain a bit
of bitter truth. The court agreement does not establish the truth, but it solves the case" (In the sa
- P. 215). And last but not least, the spirit of ancient times, when the word was
primarily only spoken, is no less important. The element of writing will take possession of the minds
of mankind much later. Such bursts of the spoken word are typical for certain
social breaks. This is the roar periodolutions of the seventeenth year for Russia, when
speeches at rallies become a defining form of communication. This
is the period of the 89-90s for the former USSR, when again the population began to receive
type of information only through rallies. As a witness to the events of the seventeenth wrote,
"Rhetorical principles are political principles in disguise, and rhetoric is
mystified politics. Rhetoric, as a theory of oratory, is, as it were,
surrogate of political theory, leadership of political struggle" (V. Hoffman Edict op.
- p. 264). There are probably at least three reasons why oral
communication comes out on top again during these periods: a) the dynamic
nature of live communication, which makes it possible to bring the processes
of text creation and perception closer, to reduce them to a single level. one time point
b) perception in a crowd dramatically increases efficiency because people who are in
a similar elbow-to-elbow state are psychologically transferred to an excited
state. Professional speakers try to get people to sit down in the audience, for
example, side by side to achieve a crowd effect;
c) traditional means of communication are always usedolee are conservative and
lagging in relation to new ideas. They are usually under
the control of government structures, so it is difficult for "heretics" (especially
subversives) to get there.
Classical rhetoric, in modern terms, has three " programs."
An invention - selection of arguments and emotional references. Disposition - location
of the selected item. Elokucia - verbal implementation of the selected text, up to the
phonetic level. Since antiquity, a special role has been played by the audience
and establishing contact with it. In the future, we lost such an important role in our
sciences. , but it is not lost in PR. Therefore, many rhetorical rules here
become rules PR. N. Bezmenova formulates the following set of these rules: 1)
demonstrate seriousness, modesty, benevolence and caution; 2)
avoid anything that may give the impression of injustice, evil, lies, etc.; 3)
mainly use "morals" in the introduction; 4) beware of affectation and build
your speech in such a way that the feelings themselves "appear" from the words
of the speaker" (Bezmenova N. A.. Essays on the theory and history of Rhetoric,
Moscow, 1991, p. 24). Different historical periods interpret this orientation to the
addressee set by rhetoric in different ways. "Strong dependence on the
addressee clearly distinguished Baroque "individualism" from the expression of
the personal principle at a later time (for example, among Romantics), O.
Zakharova writes in the book " Rhetoric and Western European music of the
XVII-first half of the X VIII century "(Moscow, 1983-p. 11). - The main goal of such
individualism"- maximum impact on the addressee, far from self-expression. It is
the force of influence that becomes here a kind of measure of the personal
principle". PR tasks are also purely communicative. This is the output of a message
created for a specific audience and transmitted over the channel used by this
audience. As you can see, the efficiency formula has not changed much over the
centuries. It is interesting that the current professionalization of the spoken word is
shifting from politics to the purely judicial sphere. Ancient rhetoric helped politicians
to reach out to all citizens at once. When they became too numerous for this type of
communication, rhetoric could no longer help. But within the framework of judicial
eloquence, it is once again becoming a reliable tool. Television again revised the
positions of all participants in communication, bringing forward the television
version of the spoken word. It is again different, and it often models the
characteristics of verbality without actually being one. Speaking
about the rhetoric of mass communication, Yuri Rozhdestvensky highlights
the following characteristic features: ( Rozhdestvensky Yu. V. Introduction to General
Philology, Moscow, 1979, pp. 166-167):
 1. In the mass media and the author is massive, taking into account the editor and
all other participants in the communication chain of this technological process;
2. Different information agencies duplicate their own information in an attempt to
convey the most essential information.
З. The creator and recipient of the media are located in the same time, but
are separated spatially;
4. Recipients can only be those who have the means to receive
them; 5. Mass information is not based on a dialogue with the
recipient; 6. The recipient of mass information does not store it.

Rhetoric naturally merges with PR when it comes to the division of PR

called speechwriting. This is a special cohort of professionals, which
recently includes a number of party workers of former times. A
similar department in the White House employs up to fifty people, who not only
prepare the president's speeches, but also supply articles (and, probably, blanks for
them) for newspapers. The same number - fifty people - is mentioned by the British
when it comes to preparing the most important speeches of their prime minister.
Again, here PR and rhetoric completely coincide. They
also coincide in the tools, in the aspect of relying not only on the rational, but also
on the emotional. N. G. Mikhailovskaya and V. V. Odintsovo write:" in judicial speech
, the rational is combined with the emotional" (Mikhailovskaya N. G., Odintsovo V. V.. Art
in courtthe public speaker, Moscow, 1981, p. 57). We always lose when we start
rationalizing a problem, forgetting about its emotional component. This is
one of the rules of negotiation theory, developed within the framework of Harvard
Law School, when its authors claim that the other's head is an attic
full of emotions. Therefore, it is necessary to calm down, not excite the opponent.
Just as important are some of the rules of P. S. Porokhovshchikov, who reinforces the
rules of classical rhetoric by including an emotional beginning. Rejecting
the rational plan presented in the works of the classics, he says: "Don't look
for a plan; it will find itself while you are thinking about the case. It will be the fruit of
unconscious, and therefore artless, work; therefore, there will be a natural plan; when
it is found, try to rearrange the parts. It is possible that this way you will create
a more interesting presentation scheme. The fewer components in your speech, the
better. The speech should be brief; brevity does not mean that it is
short, but that there is nothing superfluous in it." (P. Sergeich. edict. op
. - p. 166). The type of rhetoric is the type of a particular era. In
Soviet times, the function of praising oneself and humiliating one's enemies was strongly
developed. Self-praise gave rise to a series of anniversaries that reached their
apotheosis during the Brezhnev period. Underestimation of enemies was expressed
in limiting their number and stupefying them, which is especially evident in times
of crisis, cf. the image of a German in films of the Patriotic War period or expressions
such as" White Guard boogers "in Stalin's course"History of the CPSU(b)". The same
rhetoric was expressed in numerous trials, condemning the enemies of the people,
and then there were the processes of fighting cosmopolitanism. Ideology has a very
important function as a defender of the existing [Link] [Link] Smelzer speaks of
ideology as a mechanism for interpreting existing reality (Smelzer N.
A. Mikhalskaya defines the concept of the rhetorical ideal: "The rhetorical ideal,
therefore, is a historically formed and specific for a given form of culture system
of categories that reflect the most general requirements for speech and speech
behavior, a system hierarchically organized, so that its elements do not have the same
status, that is, they do not have the same status.E. general theory paradigm; set
elements (categories) and their status in this paradigm is determined by the general aesthetic and
ethical ideals of a particular culture and expresses their essential features"
(A. K. Mikhalskaya Pedagogical rhetoric. History and Theory, Moscow, 1998, p. 284).
It is interesting that the words "historically formed", as if to confirm
the author's opinion, evoke a different continuation of "historically formed community-
the Soviet people", which immediately evokes the Brezhnev era.
A. Kovelman saw the novelty of writing in the II-IV centuries in the fact that a new type
of morality appears. Giving examples from letters from that period, which contain the following
maxims: "so that they do not think that I do not have parents", "look, do not neglect this,
so that it does not seem that I am deceiving people", he comes to the following important
conclusions about the emergence of a new point of view during this period: "In all these
passages, someone else's hidden or open speech is a reflection of someone else's moral position. This
is a position that letter writers have learned to portray, just as they have learned to portray someone else
's feeling. Like a feeling, a moral attitude became the subject of the letter. Like a
maxim, an instruction, a term, someone else's speech "generalized" the situation, but not
by typifying it, but by introducing it into the circle of other people's opinions, including the general
opinion" (Kovelman A. B. Rhetoric in the Shadow of the Pyramids, Moscow, 1988, p. 87).
A person with the right to autonomous behavior emerges, and a new rhetoric emerges.
But by and large, rhetoric is probably an invention of the collective personality. These
are the most effective ways to reach a mass audience. Somewhat exaggerating
similar situations, Boleslav Yavorsky generally considers rhetoric in the plane
of not very attractive phenomena, when he writes: "Every rhetorical process
of thinking proceeds from a previously given,fixed as a motive and as a goal and,
therefore, ideologically immobile, not subject to development of the thesis. If
rhetorical, it is also impossible to introduce new
rhythmic schemes that reasonably follow from the comparison, since this would violate the "pre-established harmon
Izbrannye trudy [Selected Works], vol. II, Part I. Moscow, 1987, p. 104). Rhetoric, according to Yavors
an understanding within the framework of the medieval realization mentioned above, when
the content is rigidly fixed. The form can take on any character.
"Rhetoric speaks without saying anything" (ibid.). We can consider
this idea as one of the possible solutions to the rhetorical
problem, which, by the way, was quite frequent in the framework of "totalitarian rhetoric". In
general, rhetoric is a much more effective mechanism, which is aimed not
only at saying nothing.
Nikolai Zhinkin also uses the term "rhetorical" in his distinction
between portraits and caricatures. The portrait can function without an accompanying text
.The caricature assumes the presence of text. "The portrait satisfies us without any
inscription or a brief" portrait of Mr.... " and in all other respects, in rhetorical
topicality, lack of independence, allegorical, the portrait is
the opposite of the caricature. All this difference occurs because the portrait takes
the form of a poetic image, while the caricature takes the form of rhetorical
reasoning, despite the presence of forms of personification in it" (.Zhinkin N. I.
Portretnye formy [Portrait forms] / / Iskusstvo portreta, Moscow, 1928, p. 39).
The beneficial relationship of rhetoric with PR is beyond doubt. Already antiquity sets
quite a number of important points that are actively taken into account today. So,
Cicero says that you should win the favor of the crowd
with a friendly speech, emphasizes the role of non-verbal communication ("posture,
gait, way to sit, way to recline at the table, facial expressions, eyes,
hand movements-all this should remain appropriate" - [Link] old age. About friendship. On
duties, Moscow, 1975, p. 91). It also sets the basic axiomatics, in the framework of
which should be used to build the rhetoric of power structures: "to preserve and retain
power, the most appropriate of all means is to be loved, the most incongruous is
to inspire fear" (In the same place. - P. 105). He does not forget about the main category of
PR in relation to political leaders - trust. "Trust," writes Cicero (In the same place. - P.
108), - can be earned by two qualities: if we are recognized as far-sighted and
fair. .. Of these two qualities, justice is the most powerful in winning
, because it is sufficiently convincing even without farsightedness;
farsightedness without justice is powerless in this respect." We see a general pattern
that stems from the fact that the basic parameters of a social person are the same,
both in antiquity and in our time. Therefore, the convergence with PR that we are
seeing is taking place. At the same time, we did not touch on the attention of rhetoric
to tropes, as we touched on the metaphor above. Michel Foucault generally speaks of
rhetoric as the science of tropes and figures, as the way in which language takes
on a spatial form: "Rhetoric determines the spatiality of representation
that is born with language" ( M. Foucault. Words and things. Archeology of the Humanities
, Moscow, 1977, p. 139). And finally, oratory reaches the end
of the communication chain - to the actual implementation of the constructed text,
which also brings it closer to PR. Viktor Vinogradov wrote:: "oratory is a syncretic
genre. It is both a literary work and a stage performance"
(Vinogradov V. V. Selected works. On the language of artistic prose, Moscow, 1980
, p. 120). The same words apply to a large extent to all types of PR, which are
unthinkable without appropriate implementation.
Moreover, some researchers generally draw direct parallels with
related verbal processes. "Most of the great preachers,
orators, and politicians were storytellers. They use the narrative
form professionally. Often, a narrative is used to capture the audience's attention
and engage with the issue being discussed" (Larson Ch.U. Persuasion: reception and
responsibility. - Belmont etc., 1995. - p. 199). It follows from this. that the tools
available in the hands of both polditik and the preacher are limited, and practically do
not change over the centuries. We can only emphasize
certain aspects of it more strongly or more subtly, but basically it remains the same.

literature
Averintsev S. S. Rhetoric and the origins of the European literary tradition, Moscow, 1996
Bezmenova N. A.. Essays on the theory and history of rhetoric, Moscow, 1991
Vinogradov V. V. O khudozhestvennoy proze [About artistic prose], Moscow, 1930
Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G. Culture and art of speech. - Rostov-on-Don, 1995
Vinogradov V. V.. Selected works. On the language of artistic prose, Moscow, 1980
Graudina L. K., Miskevich G. I.. Theory and practice of Russian eloquence, Moscow, 1989
Hoffmann In. The word of the speaker. - L., 1932
Gurvich S. S.. etc. Fundamentals of rhetoric. - Kiev, 1988
Zakharova About. Rhetoric and Western European music of the XVII-first half of the XVIII
century-Moscow, 1983
Kovelman A. B. Rhetoric in the shadow of the Pyramids, Moscow, 1988
Kokhtev N. N. Rhetorika, Moscow, 1994
Lemmerman H. Textbook of Rhetoric , Moscow, 1997
Lviv M. R. Rhetorika, Moscow, 1995
Meyzersky V. M. Philosophy and neoritorics. - Kiev, 1991
Mikhailichenko N. A. Osnovy rhetoriki [Fundamentals of Rhetoric], Moscow, 1994
Mikhailovskaya N. G., Odintsovo V. V.. The Art of a Court speaker, Moscow, 1981
A. K. Mikhalskaya Fundamentals of rhetoric. Mysl i slovo [Thought and Word], Moscow, 1996
A. K. Mikhalskaya Pedagogical rhetoric. Istoriya i teoriya [History and Theory], Moscow, 1998
A. K. Mikhalskaya Russian Socrates. Lectures on Comparative Historical Rhetoric , Moscow.,
1996

Mitsich P. How to conduct business conversations. - M., 1983

General rhetoric. - M., 1986
Speeches famous Russian Lawyers , Moscow, 1985
Rhetoric and style. - M., 1984
Rozhdestvensky Yu. V. Introduction to General Philology, Moscow, 1979
Rozhdestvensky Yu. V. Teoriya rhetoriki [Theory of Rhetoric], Moscow, 1997
Sagach G. M. Золотослів. - Київ, 1993
Sergeich P. The Art of Speech in Court, Moscow, 1960
Smolyarchuk V. I. Giants and wizards of the word. Russian court speakers of the
second half of the X1X-early XX century. - Moscow, 1984
Soper P. L. Fundamentals of the art of speech. - Rostov-on-Don, 1995
Steshov A. V.. How to win an argument. On the culture of polemics. - L., 1991
Chikhachev V. P. Lectorial eloquence of Russian scientists of the XIX century. -
Moscow, 1987 ARGUMENTATION THEORY
Argumentation theory is a rare type of human science that has emerged
before our very eyes. Among its creators is the Belgian Professor H.
Perelman, Professor at the University of Amsterdam Franc van Eemeren and
Rob Grootendorst, the latter also created the International Society for the
Study of Argumentation with their own journal. The object of studying
argumentation theory is not new, it is the justification or refutation of
someone's point of view in a rational way. the initial premise was dissatisfaction with two
sciences that traditionally focus on utterance: logic, in their opinion, is too
abstract, and linguistics is too concrete for these purposes. Argumentation is
defined by them as "social, intellectual, and verbal activity necessary to justify
or refute an opinion consisting of a set of statements and aimed at
gaining the approval of the audience" (van Eemeren F. H. a. o. Handbook of
argumentation theory. Dordrecht, 1987, p. 7). This is the subject of
argumentation theory. The novelty of the approach also lies in the focus on
informal argumentation schemes used in everyday life, which formal logic pays
insufficient attention to. In principle , it cannot do this without losing its
consistency and rigor. By the way, other logicians look at the same
(Ishmuratov
cross-section of verbal reality , for example, Anatoly A. T.. Logical analysis
Ishmuratov
of practical reasoning. - Kiev, 1987). In a number of their works, Eemeren and
Grootendorst connect the theory of argumentation with the theory of speech
acts, since they see communication as an exchange of speech acts of varying
degrees of complexity. Argumentation is considered a complex speech act.
In their submission, the dispute resolution process goes through four stages:
1. The stage of confrontation, where a point of view is put forward and
questioned. 2. The opening stage of the discussion, where the parties agree on
the rules of discussion and defend/criticize the point of view.
3. The argumentation stage, which is a real discussion, when
further argumentation is required to resolve doubts.

4. The final stage, where it is determined how the dispute is resolved (van Eemeren F. H.,
Grootendorst R. Argumentation, communication, and mistakes. St. Petersburg, 1992, pp. 36-37).

At the same time, the authors follow the path of describing those real situations that
were not fully covered by formal theory. For example, attributing a fictional point
of view to an opponent like "As a communist, he should think that Mrs. Thatcher is a
politician who should not be trusted" (In the same place. - P. 117). Another way to get away from
direct refutation consists in the initial distortion of the
opponent's point of view, which then begins to be refuted. They quote the following
statement from Dutch Labour Party leader Wim Kok: "Kok, who was invited
to give a speech at an official ceremony marking the start of the academic year at
the university, reflected on the fact that in our society there are important types of
work for which it is becoming increasingly difficult to find people. Why not organize
a national social security service by analogy with the national service in the
military , he suggested. "It was just an idea," says Kok, "but
the next day The Telegraph published a 7-column article on page 3 with the
headline: 'The cook needs forced labor'! I felt that I was being cruelly joked about"
(In the same place. - P. 119). The rule for performing such a distortion is to change
the point of view by generalization, when the quantifiers "some", "several", "couple"
are replaced by "all". The new version of the point of view is already easier to
refute. Coinciding with PR is a clear focus on the real speech context, and not on
its theoretical generalizations inherent in logic. Therefore, the authors introduce
such characteristics of their theory. Argumentation theorists pay attention to
colloquial speech (van Eemeren F. H. a.o. Speech acts in argumentative discussions. -
Dordrecht, 1984). Under externalization of argumentation they understand the fundamental
focus on verbal communication. Under functionalization of argumentation
Argumentation is understood as a purposeful activity, a process, and not
a product. socialization of argumentation it is understood as its communicative and
interactive nature, when the speaker and listener alternately switch places. The
fourth characteristic of this approach is dialectification. You can talk about about-
arguments or about counter-arguments. "In any case, one of the users
of the language refers to another user, who presumably takes
the position of a rational judge and who reacts to the arguments with a critical one,
resulting in a critical discussion" (p. 15). If logic is focused
on argumentation as a product, the main element becomes the validity
of arguments, rhetoric looks at the effectiveness of activities, considering
argumentation as a process. Argumentation
theorists have developed certain rules for conducting discussions. There
are rules for the initial stage, for the argumentation stage, and under. For example,
it requires opponents to 1) determine which propositions they accept
together without argument, and 2) determine by what procedure they will jointly
accept the correctness of the arguments. In conclusion, we note
the importance of a number of orientations of argumentation theory for PR. The
first is a significant focus on real speech usage, rather than forced,
artificial examples. The real speech reality is analyzed. Second - it
is not prost is analyzed, but actually generated. Argumentation theory defines
the actual processes of generating arguments. Third, it is rare for the humanities
to focus on the interlocutor as equally active with the speaker. All these
theoretical premises make argumentation theory a powerful tool in
the hands of the PR specialist, especially when it comes to, for example, political
discussions, which are still only in their infancy. As
soon as we move one step further in democratizing our political
life, there will be a serious need for a new kind of knowledge developed within
the framework of argumentation theory.

literature
Bezmenova N. A.. Essays on the theory and history of rhetoric, Moscow, 1991
van Eemeren F. H., Grootendorst R. Argumentation, communication, and mistakes. - SPb., 1992
Ivin A. A. Fundamentals of Argumentation theory, Moscow, 1997
Ishmuratov A. T.. Logical analysis of practical reasoning. - Kiev, 1987
Mitsih P. How to conduct business conversations, Moscow, 1983
Perelman H., Olbrecht-Tytek L.. From the book "New Rhetoric: a treatise on Argumentation" //
Language and modeling of social interaction, Moscow, 1987
Povarnin S. Dispute. On the theory and practice of dispute resolution. - SPb., 1997
Rationality and semiotics of discourse. - Kiev, 1994
Ruzavin G. I. Logika i argumentatsiya [Logic and Argumentation], Moscow, 1997
Argumentation illuminated. - Amsterdam, 1992
Argumentation theory and the rhetoric of assent. - Tuscaloosa-London, 1990
van Eemeren F.H. a.o. Handbook of argumentation theory. - Dordrecht, 1987
van Eemeren F.H. a.o. Speech acts in argumentative discussions. - Dordrecht, 1984
PRAGMATICS
(THEORY OF SPEECH ACTS)
Pragmatics was originally defined by Charles Morris as an integral part of semiotics,
dealing with the relationship of a sign to a person. syntax was defined by him as the
relation of sign to sign, and semantics - the relation of sign to object ( Morris Ch. W. Foundation
of the theory of signs. Chicago - London, 1966). The English philosopher John
Austin was engaged in the "philosophy of ordinary language", previously the creators of
the theory of argumentation. As part of his approach, he proposed to distinguish between
two types of statements: performative programs and constatives. The former do not just describe
the situation, but are themselves part of it. This is an accusation, a request, a thank you,
and a gift, and crossing them out of the situation devalues the situation itself. If you don't
ask for a cup of coffee, you won't get it. At the same time, the constative as a pure
description of the situation is easily subject to the procedure of crossing out. Saying/not
saying "Here comes the sixteenth trolleybus" does not change the situation of reality. The
performative (as opposed to the constative) is also characterized by a special grammatical
form. This is the first person, present tense, and explanatory mood. "I ask you...", " I
promise you ...", "I thank you". we will change the time to the past, and we will no longer
have a construction that cannot be omitted from the situation, but only a description of the
situation: "I asked you yesterday...", "I promised you" and [Link] another feature of the
performative was the inapplicability of the definition of truth/falsity to it. you can't use this
scale to check, for example, "I promise to pay you back in three weeks," because at the
moment the truth of such a statement is not definable in real situations. Therefore
, a different scale was proposed to describe performatives: sincerity/insincerity.
Whether the promise is made sincerely, the request is made, and the reason. It follows that
performatives are speech components of real situations, so we
cannot omit them, they are an essential element of these situations.
PR and advertising should be interested in performatives, since they
are such communicative pointers to real actions. But
performatives must pass throughodit in such texts is hidden, as if in the background.
Forgotten today, but well-known yesterday, "Fly with Aeroflot planes"
was characterized by meaningless directness, especially since there were no other
companies. We can only use performatives at a deep level to enhance
the impact function of our text.
Extending his theory, John Austin proposed to distinguish between locative services and
illocutionary elements speech acts. The former have meaning and reference, the latter have
a certain speech-acting power. Austin divided the locative act into three
components: phonetic act, consisting of pronouncing certain sounds,
phatic act, consisting in the utterance of certain words, and retic act,
which consisted in pronouncing these words with a specific meaning and reference.
He distinguished the locution and illocution act by giving the following example:
Locution Questioner: He said to me "Shoot her!", meaning" shoot her "to shoot and
referring to her with"her".
Illocution Questioner: He encouraged (or advised, ordered, etc.) me to shoot her.
The result of performing such a speech act is a perlocutionary effect.
When such a speech result took place, he called this process "perlocution". Accordingly,
Franz van Eemeren and his colleagues actively used the proposed scheme, placing
different types of speech acts at different points in their argumentation structure
as characteristic of this particular point in the process. Another important area of
research within the framework of pragmatics is the study of communication
postulates. Paul Grice wrote an article on this topic in 1968, and then until its " official " publication
in 1975, the article was distributed in copies all over the world, demonstrating
new ways for scientists to communicate outside of traditional communication
systems, P. Grice proposed a certain principle of cooperation between the participants
of the conversation, decomposing its implementation into levels of Quantity, Quality,
Attitudes and Manners (Grice P. Logic and conversation // Grice P. Studies in the ways of
words. Cambridge, Mass., 1989). Quantity Category requires you to provide the required
amount of information, but not more than what is required in this context.
Quality Category it requires you to express what you believe in as part of the conversation.
Relationship Category puts forward a rule to say something that is relevant,
relevant to the conversation. Category manners it requires being clear and understandable,
avoiding ambiguities, and being concise. The development of such maxims of
communicative behavior made it possible to analyze standard elements of
conversation that are poorly modeled by traditional linguistics. For example: "I'm out of
gas." "There's a garage around the corner. Pragmatics has given rise to a number
of works in the field of analysis of so-called indirect speech acts. This is an interesting
phenomenon that we encounter, for example, when we hear at the table "Could
you pass the salt? "When we hear this, we do not answer"Yes" and continue to eat.
John Searle among the rules that allow a person to understand. That this is not a
question, but actually a request, is indicated, for example, by the fact that an indirect
request can be expressed by a request for the ability to perform an action
(speech acts / / Syntax and semantics. Vol. 3. N.Y. etc., 1975). Lacs note
in this regard that a request occurs when the listener understands that (Searle J.R. Indirect
the speaker
is not going to ask a question. "In this case, the colloquially transmitted meaning
(request) can only be transmitted when the literary meaning (question) is not
transmitted and if the listener accepts, what's wrong with that" (Gordon D., Lakoff G.
Conversational postulates. Ms.). J. Searle also conducted an analysis of literary
discourse. One of the points of his analysis is as follows: the author pretends to
perform an illocutionary act, but his act of utterance is real. "Literature differs from
lying in the existence of a separate set of conventions that allow the author to make
statements that he knows are not true, although he did not
intend to deceive" (Searle J.R. The logical status of fictional discourse // "New literary
history", 1975, N 2, p. 326). There is no
doubt that when writing influencing texts within the framework of PR, it is necessary
to take into account the proposed distinctions, paying attention to the significant
variety of performatives themselves. Promises that are heavily distributed as
both presidential and parliamentary
candidates are also examples of performatives.

literature
Arutyunova N. D.. The sentence and its meaning, Moscow, 1976
New in foreign linguistics. - Issue XIII. Logika i lingvistika [Logic
and Linguistics], Moscow, 1982 New in foreign linguistics.
Issue XVIII. Logical analysis of Natural language, Moscow, 1986
Pocheptsov G. G. Communicative aspects of semantics. - Kiev,
1987 Philosophy, logic, language, Moscow, 1987
Austin J.L. How to do things with words. - Oxford, 1962
Essays on [Link]. - Oxford, 1973
Grice P. Studies in the ways of words. - Cambridge, Mass., 1989

6. HERMENEUTICS. THEORY OF LITERATURE. THEORY OF MYTH

HERMENEUTICS

Hermeneutics is the art of understanding (interpretation).

Humanity operates with texts all the time. The sacred texts of the past
required more careful reading than the texts of mass culture today,
so the emergence of hermeneutics is quite understandable.

We strive to move from sign to value and look for authoritative ways to do so
. The past also had a tradition allegohistorical
interpretation, when the words were searched for a very deep, often mystical
meaning. Therefore , g. Shpet
sees two types of hermeneutics in history: "In the first case, the word as a sign
to be interpreted indicates a 'thing', an object, and objective relations
between things that are revealed by interpretation, and these objective relations
themselves obviously connect the communicant about them; in the second case
, the word indicates only intentions, desires the communicant's ideas and
interpretation are as free and even arbitrary as the communicant's desire
to put any meaning or many meanings into his words, since this corresponds
to his intentions" (Shpet G. G. Hermeneutics and its problems / / Kontekst -1989
. Moscow, 1989, pp. 234-235). Within the
the concept of the hermeneutic circle: this is understanding
framework of this direction,
a part from the point of view of the whole, and the whole from the point
of view of parts. In principle , hermeneutics tends to understand the text even
better than its creator. Or as H.-G. Gadamer writes: "the artist who creates an
image is not its recognized interpreter. as an interpreter, he is not the highest
authority, and has no fundamental advantage over the recipient. because it
makes sense of itself, it acts as its own reader" (Gadamer H.-G. Truth and Methods,
Moscow, 1988, p. 241). G. Shpet formulates the circle as follows: it is impossible
to interpret without knowledge of logic and grammar, but the speaker himself
puts his speech in a logical and grammatical form already having an understanding
of what he wants to say in advance (Shpet G. G. Hermeneutics and its problems / /
Context-1990. Moscow, 1990, p. 244). He also cites such canons of
hermeneutics, formulated by its creator Fr. By Schleiermacher:
"1. Anything else that needs a closer definitionIt can
only be determined from the language of the author and his original audience.
2. The meaning of any word in a given place should be determined by its connection with
the meaning of the context" (in the same place).
Thus, the plane where hermeneutics conducts its constructions is outlined. Define its
concepts of sign, meaning, and symbol. Naturally, hermeneutics is not interested in
elementary transitions from sign to meaning, but in those where this path is not so clearly
defined. General element that P. Riker sees in this case: it is "a definite
construction of meaning, which might be called ambiguous or
polysemous; its role, however dissimilar, is always to show by
hiding. And I would like to reduce this analysis of the language to the semantics of shown-
hidden, to the semantics of multi-valued expressions" (Ricker P. Conflict of Interpretations
, Moscow, 1995, p. 17). This is also what H.-G. Gadamer says: "The effort of
understanding takes place wherever there is no direct understanding or where the
possibility of misunderstanding has to be taken into account." (Gadamer edict op., p. 226).
That is , in both cases we are talking about a fundamental complication of the object,
which in turn requires a complicated understanding and the help of hermeneutics. How do
we deal with such situations ? Gadamer calls one of them: "Where speech is
an art, understanding is also an art. All speech and all text,
therefore, are in principle connected with the art of understanding, hermeneutics, and
this explains the mutual affiliation of rhetoric (as a branch of aesthetics) and hermeneutics:
every act of understanding, according to Schleiermacher , is a transformed act of speech,
a reconstruction of some construction. Accordingly, hermeneutics is a kind
of inverted rhetoric and poetics" (Gadamer edict op., p. 236). In his other work , Semantics
and Hermeneutics, Gadamer continues to dissect the" world " of hermeneutics. Semantics,
as he believes, describes the linguistic reality as if from the outside. "Hermeneutics,
on the other hand, focuses on the inner side of dealing with this world of signs, or rather,
on such a deeply internal process as speech, which from the outside appears as the
development of the world of signs. Both semantics and hermeneutics, each in its own way,
thematize the totality of human relations to the world as they are expressed in language.
Finally, both semantics and hermeneutics conduct their search without distracting
themselves from the existing multiplicity of languages" (Gadamer G.-G. Topicality of beauty,
Moscow, 1991, pp. 60-61).
The type of sign that hermeneutics works with is a symbol. P. Riker defines
it as follows:: "I call a symbol any structure of meaning where one meaning - direct,
primary,literal-simultaneously means another meaning, indirect,
secondary, allegorical, which can only be understood through the first" ( Ricker
P. op. ed., p. 18). Accordingly, starting from such an understanding of the symbol, he
comes to the concept of interpretation: "this is the work of thinking, which consists in
deciphering the meaning behind the obvious meaning, in revealing the levels of meaning
contained in the literal meaning" (in the same placeThe transition from sign to meaning is
particularly ambiguous in areas where the code (grammar) arises in the very process of
perception, as is the case, for example, in movies. Due to this discrepancy in the
perception of cinematography, accusations of elitism and abstruseness are so often
voiced. In classical hermeneutics, we are talking about two types of understanding -
grammatical and psychological (Schleiermacher is credited with developing the latter).
In modern terms, this is linguistic and historical (as if a real understanding of the writer's
personality, the chain of his actions). Within the framework of grammatical understanding,
the main meaning of the word and its given contextual use are established. And here
we come to the convergence of hermeneutics and PR on the basis of communication.
After all, as G. Shpet writes: "Communication is the element of consciousness in
which understanding lives and moves. What is reported is the field of hermeneutics. Data
that lead to the subject of understanding and on which all its content is organized, -
words as signs" (Shpet G. G. Hermeneutics and its problems / / Context-1991.
Moscow, 1991, p . 222). Fr. Schleiermacher proposed
the following rules of psychological (technical) interpretation (see
Gabitova R. M. "Universal" hermeneutics of Friedrich Schleiermacher
/ / Hermeneutics: history and modernity. Moscow, 1985, pp. 82-84):
Rule one: psychological interpretation should begin with a
general overview, which makes it possible to understand the
unity of the work and the main features of the composition.
rule two: apply the hermeneutical circle-the ratio of part and
whole; rule three: strive for a perfect understanding of style and
not only within the framework of language, but also of thinking;
Rule four: this perfect understanding can only be achieved
approximately;
Rule five: the positions of the author and interpreter should be equalized.
The interpreter should know not only the author's biography, but also the literary context
at the time of appearance of his work.
Rule six: use both
the intuitive("feeling") and comparative (analytical) methods of [Link]).
rule seven: the idea (purpose) of a work can be understood only on the basis of
combining two points - the content of the work and the circle of its addressees for
whom this work was written.
Why is PR interested in hermeneutics? It is quite clear that the interpretation of
communications conducted within the framework of PR should be based on all possible
options. For example, previewing campaign ads involves
the work of dozens of different specialists who try to predict the various possible
negative consequences of their incorrect interpretation on the screen. Hermeneutics
has another important feature from the point of view of PR - it is a sharp overestimation
of the position of the interpreter. We constantly tried to emphasize this aspect in other
areas as well, because overestimating the role of the audience is very important for PR.
Without accurate knowledge of your audience segment, you can't create an effective
message option. Both hermeneutics and PR are "centered" on the message and
on the audience. P. Riker saw as if two hermeneutics: one is aimed at restoring what
was missed, the other is aimed at creating new symbols. At the same time, he comes
to a very important conclusion for us: "It is also necessary to understand that the system
of counter-directional figures: figures directed forward, and figures that refer
to what is symbolized, to what already exists, is same system" (Ricker P., edict.
soch., p. 182). This is important as a type of guide for PR, when the creation of new
symbolizations must be based on the laws of the same system. And even the general
goal of hermeneutics is very similar to the requirement of harmonization of relations,
which often arises in one or another of the definitions of PR. As Gadamer writes: "The
goal of any understanding is to reach agreement on the substance; for this purpose, we
communicate with each other and agree among ourselves. And the task of hermeneutics
since time immemorial is to achieve agreement, to restore it. The history of
hermeneutics confirms this. You can think of Augustine-he needed to combine the Old
Testament and the Gospel. You can think of early Protestantism-it was again faced
with the same problem. Or about the Age of Enlightenment..." ( Gadamer G.-G., Relevance of
beauty, pp. 73-74). Before us all the time there is an analysis of various symbolization
systems, which cannot but be important for a PR specialist.

literature
Gadamer G.-H. Istina i metod [Truth and Method], Moscow, 1988
Gadamer City-G. Topicality of the beautiful, Moscow, 1991
Hermeneutics: istoriya i sovremennost ' [History and modernity], Moscow, 1985
Mikhailov A. A.. Modern philosophical hermeneutics. Critical analysis. -
Minsk, 1984
Ricker P. Conflict of interpretations. Essays on hermeneutics, Moscow, 1995
Shpet G. G. Hermeneutics and its problems / / Context-1989-1992. - Moscow, 1989-1992.

THEORY OF LITERATURE

( POETICS)

We will address only one school within the framework of literary theory, called
formal literary studies. Its peak occurred in the post-revolutionary-
pre-war period, and a number of its representatives who emigrated (for example, R.
Yakobson and N. Trubetskoy) conveyed its ideas to the West, thereby consolidating
them in the scientific consciousness.
At least two reasons force us to take a closer look
at this particular direction. First of all, it is not just the longevity of this school that is
so important, but the fact that it provided the basis for a completely different
direction - semiotics. And the works of, for example, R. Barth or K. Lev-Strauss
were carried out exactly according to the methodology laid down at that time, with a
strong reliance on the mechanisms studied, first of all, in the framework of
linguistics,and then transferred to the artistic text. Secondly, it is particularly
interesting for PR to note the "omnivorous nature" of this methodology: both V.
Shklovsky and Yu. Tynyanov, for example, was just as active in describing cinema,
using the tools developed by formal literary studies. Last but not least, because of
this, formal literary studies is one of the few schools of international rather than
local importance. Starting from them, for example, French structuralism largely
arises. This alone should make us take a closer look at the results achieved within
the framework of the project.
We will focus only on some of the basic concepts of this school, and then
evaluate them from the point of view of PR.
Formalists enter literary studies with the idea of structure and form. "A literary
work is a pure form, it is not a thing, not a material, but a relation
of materials. And like any relation, this is also a zero-dimensional relation.
Therefore, the scale of the product and the arithmetic value of its
numerator and denominator are irrelevant. Humorous, tragic, worldly, indoor
works, contrasting the world with the world or cats with stone - are equal to each
other" (Shklovsky V. Rozanov, 1921, p. 4). Undoubtedly there was an element
of outrage in this, undoubtedly a small book,which, as Shklovsky recalled, was
printed in a printing house where business cards are printed, and therefore typed
and printed sheet after sheet, wanted to be noticed. And she succeeded. Boris
Eichenbaum speaks about the same primacy of form in an article with the title
"How Gogol's Greatcoat was made "shocking the public at that time," Again shocking,
because contemporaries could perceive such a design only in the context of
"how a car was made". Here Eichenbaum introduces the idea of "skaza"as a type
of narrative. "A completely different stanoa composition is formed if the plot itself,
as the interweaving of motives by means of their motivation, ceases to play
an organizing role, that is, if the narrator somehow puts himself in the
foreground, as if only using the plot to interweave individual
stylistic techniques" (Eichenbaum B. About prose. On poetry, Moscow, 1986, p. 45).
The next line, introduced in the same Rozanov, tells about the paths that it follows
changing genres Blok canonizes the themes and tempo of the "gypsy novel", while
Chekhov introduces the "Alarm Clock" into Russian literature. Dostoevsky
introduces the techniques of the tabloid novel into the literary norm. Every new literary school
is a revolution, something like the emergence of a new class. But of course, this
is only an analogy. The defeated "line" is not destroyed, does not cease to exist. She
just goes off the ridge, goes down for a fallow walk, and can resurrect again,
being an eternal pretender to the throne." ( Shklovsky District Rozanov, p. 7). Shklovsky
called this phenomenon "canonization of minor genres"and then his research was
continued by Yuri Tynyanov.
Boris Eichenbaum introduces a very interesting theory literary life, which
is still insufficiently used today, although it has clear application
grounds. It emphasizes, as it were, the specialness of literature: "Literature, like any
other specific series of phenomena, does not generated by facts of other series and
therefore not reducible on them. The relations between the facts of a literary series and
the facts and facts lying outside it cannot be just causal, but can
only be relations of correspondence, interaction, dependence or
conditionality" (Eichenbaum B. On literature, Moscow, 1987, p. 433). He starts
from the idea a literary fact, defended by Yuri Tynyanov, who citedthe
meaning of a letter that can become a fact of the genre of "literary correspondence",
or it can again fall into everyday life, become just a document, a receipt. "But in
the right conditions, this everyday fact again becomes a literary fact"
(Tynyanov Yu. Poetics. History of literature. Moscow, 1977, p. 266). The same path is
followed by the extension of some literary device found to other areas:
"The constructive principle carried out in one particular area tends
to expand, to extend to as wide areas as possible. This can
be called" imperialism " of the constructive principle (in the same place, p. 267).

Literary life is the conditions for creating a text and distributing it.
B. Eichenbaum writes about the new working conditions of the writer: "
The social regroupment produced by the revolution and the transition
to a new economic system deprived the writer of a number of points
that supported his profession (at least in the past) (a stable and high-level
readership, various magazine and publishing organizations, etc.)
and at the same time forced him to become a professional to a greater
extent than was necessary before. The position of a writer approached
that of a craftsman working for a commission or an employee for
hire, and yet the very concept of a literary "order" remained vague or
contradicted the writer's ideas about his literary duties and rights" (
B. Eichenbaum., On literature, p. 430). It places the text in the real conditions
of its creation and functioning, since they can strongly shape
it.

Another idea of the formal school, which has become in some ways its symbol, is
the idea of automation/deautomatization. The usual is automated by a person. "With
such an algebraic method of thinking, things are taken by counting and space, they are
not seen by us, but are recognized by the first features. ...In the process of
algebraization, of automatization of things, the greatest economy of perceiving forces is
obtained: things are either given only one feature, for example, a number, or they are
performed as if according to a formula, without even appearing in consciousness"
(Shklovsky V. On the theory of Prose, Moscow-L., 1925, p. 11). He cites an example fro
Tolstoy's diary, when Tolstoy notices that he doesn't remember whether he dusted the
sofa. For art, automation is dead; art is interested in something else. "Goal
the goal of art is to give a sense of a thing as a vision, not as recognition; the
method of art is the method of "removing" things and using a difficult form,
which increases the difficulty and length of perception, since the perceptual
process in art is an end in itself and must be prolonged; art is a way
to survive the doing of a thing, and what is done in art is not important" (Shklovsky V.
On the theory of prose, p. 12). This is true even psychologically, the work done
together is remembered. The idea
of "ostranenie", deautomatization immediately unfolds further. B. Tomashevsky
distinguishes between everyday, practical and artistic speech (Tomashevsky B. Teoriya
literatury [Theory of Literature], Leningrad, 1925). In everyday communication we only monitor
the content within the framework of artistic communications both form and content are
important to us . By the way, he also gives definitions of rhetoric and poetics that
are important for us: "The discipline that studies the construction of non-fiction
works is called rhetoric; a discipline that studies the construction
of works of art - poetics. Rhetoric and poetics form a general theory
of literature" (in the same place, p. 5). And
already in our time, the idea of automation/deautomatization is picked up by Yuri
Lotman. "In order for the overall structure of the text to remain informative, it
must constantly be taken out of the state of automatism that is inherent
in non-artistic structures. However, the opposite
trend also works at the same time: only elements placed in certain predicted
sequences can play the role of communication systems. Thus, in the
structure of a literary text, two opposite mechanisms work simultaneously: one
seeks to subordinate all the elements of the text to the system, to turn them into
an automated grammar, without which the act of communication is impossible,
and the other-to destroy this automation and make the structure itself a carrier
of information" (Lotman Yu. Struktura khudozhestvennogo teksta [The structure of a
literary text ]. Moscow, 1970, p. 95). And
the last, but very important for our next section, idea of the structure of a fairy
tale, proposed by Vladimir Propp. His book was first published in 1928, and was
translated many times abroad until in 1969 we were ready to reprint it. The main
idea of it is as follows: although fairy tales talk about different things, but many
of the events that occur in them can be generalized if you use the concept
functions. "A function is an act of an actor defined
in terms of its significance for the course of the action" (Propp V. Ya. Morphology of
Fairy tales, Moscow, 1969, p. 25). Red Riding Hood,
who tells the Wolf where she is going, and Ivasik, who drinks from the hoof, will
fall under the same function of "breaking the ban". He found 31 such functions,
which in a traditional fairy tale, as it turned out, are even arranged in the same
sequence. Let's name the first ones :
1. One of the family members is absent from home (absenteeism).
2. The hero is addressed with a ban (prohibition).
3. The ban is being violated (violation).
4. The antagonist tries to make a reconnaissance (prying out).
5. The antagonist is given information about his victim (extradition).
6. the antagonist tries to deceive his victim in order to take possession of her or
her property). 7. The victim
succumbs to deception and thus unwittingly helps the enemy (complicity), etc.
K. Levi-Strauss, as we will see later, was able to expand these functions as
part of his study of the myth.
And Umberto Eco (see above) showed how Richard Nixon tried to use
the same functions in his text, which was supposed to justify him to
the population. By the way, the idea of refutation is very complex, and the
PR must do its best to find ways to build a reasonable refutation. The formal
school "did its job", giving birth to one of the schools of semiotics, but it
did not go away, because the desire for accuracy and objectivity laid down at
that time remained unsurpassed. what lessons can we learn from
the above for PR? The following concepts are of undoubted interest for PR: deautomatization,
which allows you to correctly build commercials; literary life,
which helps you understand not only the creation, but also the conditions
for distributing texts; creating a text structure through a set of functions not
only for creating refutations, but also election texts, leaving a clear
functional place for your enemies. And the problem of "skaz" clearly reflects
the candidate's pre-election speech, when it is necessary to weave personal
information into the event text to the maximum extent. So the theory
of literature, as it may not seem surprising, is very important for PR.

literature

E. Auerbach. Mimesis, Moscow, 1976

Bart R. Selected works. Semiotics. Poetika, Moscow, 1989
I. Ilyin. Poststructuralism. Deconstructivism. Postmodernism , Moscow, 1996
Lotman Yu. M. Structure of the artistic text, Moscow, 1970
Pocheptsov G. G. History of Russian semiotics before and after 1917, Moscow, 1998
Propp V. Ya. Morphologiya skazki [Morphology of Fairy Tales], Moscow, 1969
Tomashevsky B. Theory of literature (Poetics). - L., 1925
Anthology po teoreticheskomu literaturovedeniyu, 1. - Tartu, 1976
Collections on the theory of poetic language. - Issue no.1. - P., 1916
Structure and the functioning of the poetic text. Essays on linguistic
Poetics, Moscow, 1985
Structuralism: "for" and "against". - Moscow, 1975
Trubetskoy N. S.. Izbrannye trudy po filologii [Selected Works on Philology], Moscow, 1987
Tynyanov Yu. N.. Poetics. History of literature. Kino, Moscow, 1977
Tynyanov Yu. Problema stikhotvornogo yazyka [The problem of poetic language], Moscow, 1965
Tynyanov Yu. N.. Pushkin and his Contemporaries , Moscow, 1968
Wellek R., Warren O. Teoriya literatury [Theory of Literature], Moscow, 1978
Khovanskaya Z. I. Analysis of a literary work in modern French
Philology, Moscow, 1980
Shklovsky V. B. Hamburg Account , Moscow, 1990
Shklovsky V. For 60 years of work in cinema, Moscow, 1985
Shklovsky V. Favourites. In 2 volumes-Moscow, 1983
Shklovsky V. O teorii prozy [On the Theory of Prose], Moscow, 1925
Shklovsky V. Rozanov. - P., 1921
Shklovsky V. The energy of delusion. A book about the plot , Moscow, 1981
Eichenbaum B. Lermontov. Opyt istoriko-literaturnoi otsenki [Experience of historical and literary evaluation],
Moscow, 1924 Eichenbaum B. Literature. Teoriya, kritika, polemika [Theory, Criticism, and Polemics], Moscow,
1927 Eichenbaum B. About literature, Moscow, 1987
Eichenbaum B. About prose. About poetry. - L., 1986
Jacobson R. Works on poetics , Moscow, 1987
Yakbinsky L. P. Selected works. Yazyk i ego funktsionirovanie [Language and its functioning], Moscow, 198
Faryno J. Introduction to Literary Studies. - Ch. 1-3. - Katowice,
1978-1980 Harland R. Superstructuralism. - L. etc., 1987
Genette G. Narrative discourse revisited. - Ithaca, 1988
Texte der Russischen Formalisten. - B. 1. - Munchen, 1969
Todorov T. The poetics of prose. - Ithaca, 1977
Uitti K.D. Linguistics and literary theory. - Englewood Cliffs, 1969

THEORY OF MYTH

Myth is undoubtedly a close "relative" for PR, especially in the

field of politics. It is the mythological archetypes (such as the "father of
the nation") that largely determine the relationship between leaders and
the population. We should not forget that the image of a political
opponent is very easily transformed into the image of an"enemy". And this happens
in accordance with mythological models. When one of the first negative
TV spots during the US presidential campaign portrayed Barry Goldwater
as a man who could plunge the earth into hell through a nuclear
catastrophe, the creators of this representation undoubtedly relied on
their intuitive ideas about the enemy from myths and fairy tales. PR, in
principle, very often builds myths, giving its own interpretation of the
world around it, just as ancient man did, trying to explain his world.

Myth combines the rational and the irrational. Rational, since

modern man cannot think of himself without it, and he finds
comfort in trying to control and understand the world around
him. But the irrational in myth is even more important, since it
affects in the human soul those "painful" points that are outside
of the person's consciousness, outside of his rationalism.

The effectiveness of a myth's impact is related to its pre-determined

truth. Mythological content is not checked. If there is no correspondence to it in reality,
then this is the fault of reality, not myth. Then reality, not myth, begins to
be dissected and adjusted. Within the framework of totalitarian mythology ,
the "Kuban Cossacks" were true, and their discrepancy with reality was
explained by an exception of a local nature (= somewhere they still live like
this, but we have an exception). Mythological items can only be fixed at their own level.
When "Chapaev" was remade during the Great Patriotic War, he came out
alive at the end of the filma, calling to smash the Nazi invaders.

Another property of the mythological that ensures its effective

impact is that mythological-this is, as a rule, a repetition
of what has already happened before. Mircea Eliade wrote about the layer of time where
the mythological originates:"In the manifestations of his conscious behavior , the"
primitive", archaic man does not know an action that would not have been
performed and experienced earlier by someone else, and moreover not by a person. What it
does, it's been done before. His life is a continuous repetition of actions discovered
by others" (Eliade M. Cosmos and History, Moscow, 1987, p. 33). Being within the
confines of totalitarian mythology, we were always caught in this sacred time, the
epicenter of which was the people and events of the seventeenth year, presented
within the framework of the mythological model, when a number of characters were
erased, and the role of others was increased. This "living" of oneself within the
framework of myth has a salutary effect on human psychology, giving the story an
objective appearance. "Stalin is Lenin today" is a natural science law rather than a
humanitarian one. As Mircea Eliade writes: "Each character repeated the archetypal
action, each war renewed the struggle between good and evil, each new
social injustice was identified with the suffering of the savior..."
(Eliade op. ed., p. 135).
And this had quite strong beneficial consequences for the psyche:
"thanks to this approach, tens of millions of people could endure
the powerful pressure of history for centuries without falling into despair, without committing suicide
, and without coming to that state of spiritual desiccation that is inextricably linked with
a relativistic or nihilistic vision of history" (ibid.).
The phenomenon has already been implementedthe mythological situation naturally stabilizes
because we cannot change the past. A series
of Soviet-era anniversaries were based on references to the "holy" periods of past history.
At the same time, in the period of the revolution itself, the myth cannot work. Roland Barthes
sees revolution as a rare case of non-mythical speech: "A truly revolutionary
language cannot be mythical. Revolution can be defined as a cathartic
act that releases the political charge that has accumulated in the world. The Revolution
creates the world, and its language, its entire language, is functionally involved in this creative
act. Myth and Revolution are mutually exclusive, because the revolutionary word
is completely political, that is, from beginning to end, while the mythical
word is a political utterance at the starting point
and a naturalized one at the end." (Bart R. Selected works. Semiotics. poetika, Moscow,
1989, p. 116). And a little earlier: "Wherever a person speaks in order to
transform reality, and not to preserve it in the form of
this or that image, wherever his speech is connected with the production of things, the metalanguage
coincides with the object language, and the emergence of a myth becomes impossible"
(ibid.).
Roland Barthes defines myth as a secondary semiotic system, since it
consists of signs of the primary system. Only now are signs themselves
transformed into signifiers that refer to new signifiers. He cites
the example of the cover of Paris-Match magazine, which shows a young African man in
a French military uniform saluting while looking up at what is supposed
to be the French flag. The final meaning conveyed is as follows:
France is a great empire, served even by the Africans who were under its
colonial yoke. He's writing: "I have before me a superstructured
semiological system: here is a signifier, which itself is
a primary semiological system (an African soldier salutes, as is customary
in the French army); there is a signifier (in this case, it is a deliberate confusion of belonging to the
nation with military service); finally, there is a signifier (in this case, it is a deliberate confusion of belo
to the French nation with military service). representation signified by means of the signified" (Bart
edict soch., pp. 80-81). This shows the main feature of the secondary semiotic
system, in which the sign is both a form and a meaning.
One myth may replace another, but a person is never without myths. As
Arseniy Gulyga wrote: "Myth is a form of consciousness peculiar to man, just as
other forms of consciousness are peculiar to him. The destruction of a myth does not lead to
the domination of rationality, but to the affirmation of another myth. When a
high myth is replaced by a low one, it's a disaster: civilization is moving forward, but culture
is disintegrating" (Gulyga A. Myth as a philosophical problem //Antique Culture and
Modern Science, Moscow, 1985, p. 275). Humanity is constantly busy replacing myths
with myths. Christianity also replaced the cult of
pagan ancestors with the cult of martyrs. "The holy martyrs were to be brought before the pagan
consciousness in the face of the strong beyond the grave, who can take on the
protection of the orphaned living and the pacification of the offended dead. But
were the new arrivals truly strong, truly "heroes"?- Vyacheslav Ivanov writes in
" Dionysus and Pradionysianism "(Moscow, 1994, p. 207). - The criterion of
"hero" was a passionate eating of trizn, heroic "passions". The martyrs were
also crowned with this" heroic " crown in the pagan sense. The liturgies on the
tombs of martyrs are a direct continuation of the heroic cult with its semblance
of eucharistic rites." Barth is very dismissive of modern " leftist myths." Perhaps
this is due to his position as an observer, for us these myths were not as
strained as R. Barth writes about them: "left-wing myths are poor, poor in
nature. They cannot be replicated because they are made to order with limited,
temporary goals and are created with great difficulty. They do not have the
main thing-fiction. In any left-wing myth, there is a certain tension, literalness, a
taste of the slogan; to put it more strongly, we can say that such a myth is
fruitless. Indeed, what could be leaner than a Stalinist myth? It lacks
any ingenuity, its use is surprisingly
clumsy; the signifier of the myth (whose form, as we know, is infinitely rich in
bourgeois mythology) does not vary at all; everything is reduced to an infinitely
monotonous litany." (Bart R., decree, op. cit., p. 117). Perhaps, because we didn't
know the other myths, our own seemed good enough. Compare to a large
extent works of art created around the image of Volodya Ulyanov, for example,
where even Mikhail Zoshchenko was among the authors. Or the play "Batum"
with the hero Stalin, written by Mikhail Bulgakov. Let us now consider a number
of the most well-known approaches to myth: one is related to structuralism.
Levi-Strauss), another - with the analysis of modern myths, which is very
important for PR ( R. Barth), the third - with analytical psychology (C. G. Jung).

The Claude Levi-Strauss model

K. Levi-Strauss was the first to give a modern idea of the structure of myth. He began
by looking for an answer to the question: why can't even the worst translation
destroy a myth? From this it followed that mythologism manifests itself on a different
level. "Myth is a language, but this language works at the highest level, at which
the meaning succeeds, if the moIt's hard to put it that way split off from the language
base on which it was formed" (Levi-Strauss K. Structural Anthropology, Moscow, 1985,
p. 187).
He hypothesized that the essence of myth is bundles of relationships, and
that combinations of these bundles form the constituent units of myth.
Actually following Vladimir Propp, he tried to establish the structure of
the myth, grouping it by function. The structure of the Oedipus myth is divided into
four columns. The first category includes events that can be described as
a reassessment of kinship relationships. This is, for example, "Oedipus marries his
mother Jocasta." The second column shows the same relationship with the opposite
sign, this is an underestimation of kinship relations, for example, "Oedipus kills his
father Laia". The third column is about monsters and their destruction. In
the fourth category, three characters have difficulty using their
limbs ( there are lame, left-handed, and thick-legged). All this gives him the
opportunity to answer the question: why are the constant repetitions of situations
so significant in non-written literature? It gives the following answer: "Repetition
has a special function, namely, it reveals the structure of the myth. Indeed,
we have shown that the synchronic-diachronic structure characteristic of the myth
allows you to organize the structural elements of a myth into diachronic
sequences (rows in our tables), which should be read synchronously
(in columns). Thus, every myth has a layered structure, which
on the surface, so to speak, is revealed in the very technique
of repetition and thanks to it" (in the same place, p. 206).
Levi-Strauss explains his attention to structure as follows: "Structure
has no separate content: it is the content itself, enclosed in
a logical form, understood as a property of reality" (Levi-Strauss. Structure and
form. Reflections on one of Vladimir Propp's works / / Foreign studies
on the semiotics of folklore, Moscow, 1985, p. 9). Yakov Golosovker similarly
emphasizes the form, explaining it by the fact that it restricts temporary
fluidity. "Form is an idea of pure constancy, such as is so clear in
geometry. But it's the same in music." ( Yandex. E Golosovker. Logic of Myth,
Moscow, 1987, p . 127). However, for Levi-Strauss, structurality is the whole
point of myth, for which it exists: "myths and fairy tales as varieties of language
use it 'hyperstructurally'. They form, so to speak, a metalanguage, the
structure of which is effective at all levels. Because of this property, they
should, of course, be explicitly recognized as fairy tales or myths, and not as
historical or artistic narratives. Being speech, they undoubtedly use grammatical
rules and words from the lexical set. But another parameter is added
to the usual one, since rules and words serve here to construct images and
actions that are "normal" designators for the designated speech and
at the same time significant elements in relation to an additional system
of meanings that unfolds in a different plane" (Levi-Strauss K. Structure and
form, p. 31). Thus, central to Levi-Strauss is the perception
of myth as a structure, even the content of which is structure.

The Roland Barthes model

In his analysis of modern myths, Roland Barthes follows the same path,
discovering a structure that has a kind of superstructure: "myth is a double system; it
reveals a kind of omnipresence: the point of arrival of meaning forms the
starting point of myth" (Bart op. ed., p. 88). At the same time, in due time, thefrom
this myth , he adds another characteristic - his imperativeness perhaps this
is true as if from the point of view of "fresh" myths. R. Barth wrote: "The myth has
an imperative, motivating character, starting from a specific concept,
arising in very specific circumstances (...the French Empire is in
danger), it appeals directly to me, seeks to get to me, I
experience the power of its intention, it imposes its aggressive
ambiguity on me" (Bart R. op. ed., p. 90).
Continuing his discussion, he emphasizes two aspects of the functioning
of modern myth. On the one hand, they try to build a myth on a signifier
that is poor enough to fill it with meaning. These are caricatures, stylizations,
and symbols. On the other hand, the myth itself can be revealed by any other
signifier. as an example, he cites various implementations of the concept
of the "French empire":" a French general presents an award to a Senegalese
who lost an arm in battle; a nurse gives a healing infusion to a wounded
Arab lying in bed; a white teacher teaches a lesson with diligent Black children;
every day the press shows us that the supply of signifiers for creating myths is
inexhaustible" (in the same place, p. 93). But at the same time, Roland Barthes seems to
forget or does not notice how much the original image of an African soldier in
a French uniform, saluting the invisible, but supposed
the French flag is stronger and more effective than the options given by it. The fact
is that this image does not have those additional meanings that lead us
away. The first two cases are related to medicine and illness, a white teacher with
an education, the last two cases do not carry a hard reference in the form of a
French form.
Roland Barthes also offers three ways to read the myth. If we focus
on one signifier, then the concept fills in everything, and we have a kind of literal
reading: "an African soldier saluting is an African soldier." an example the French
Empire, its with the symbol" (in the same place, p. 94). Myth creators work at this lev
such as a magazine editor who searches for a form that matches the myth they
need. In the second case, the signifier is already filled with content, and it is
necessary to distinguish between meaning and form, as a result of which the
deforming influence of form on meaning will be felt. There is a certain destruction of
meaning, and the soldier saluting becomes an excuse for the concept of "French
empire". In the third case, if the signifier is considered as an indissoluble
unity of meaning and form, we become readers of the myth: "the image of the
African soldier is no longer an example or a symbol, even less can it be
considered as an alibi; it is a direct part of the myth." by representation
the French Empire" (ibid., p. 95). Roland Barthes sees the essence
of the myth in the "abduction of language", probably referring to the repetition
of both the structural organization of language in the myth and the meaningful
use of language units. If we look at the purpose of myth ,then "the task of
myth is to give historically determined intentions the status of
natural, to elevate historically transitory facts to the rank of eternal" (in the same place, p
. 111). In other words, a myth turns a case into a rule, required for everyone.
Another definition of myth given by Roland Barthes, which seems to
contradict the use of myth in PR: "there is a myth depoliticized the word"
(in the same place, p. 112). But he also makes a reservation that politics is underst
him at the deepest level as the real making of the world, similar to the
aforementioned revolution. And thus the resulting contradiction is removed.
Speaking about the myths of the left and right, he notes: "Myth-making is not an
essential feature of leftist forces" (in the same place, p. 117). The proof of this statemen
is probably rooted in the narrowing of the scope of thematization characteristic
of revolutionary ideologies, which are not particularly interested in
ideologizing the everyday. "Everyday life is inaccessible to them; in bourgeois
society, there are no "left-wing" myths about family life, cooking,
housekeeping, justice, morality, etc." (in the same place, p. 117). And here we can
definitely object when these left-wing forces are not the
dominant ideology, since in our society all this was
strongly ideologized From everyday examples, we can recall
the struggle with ties, tight trousers, jeans, long hair, short
skirts, with a hairstyle with a fleece and under., all this was immediately perceived
as a reference to bourgeois society. Referring
to right-wing myths, he says that the oppressed creates peace, so his speech
is active, and the oppressor seeks to preserve peace, so his speech is theatrical, it
is a myth. One of these global myths is the myth of Order. He also discovers
the difference between the two types of languages at the paremiological level:
"Folk proverbs predict more than they claim, this is the speech of
humanity, which is constantly creating itself, and not just existing. Bourgeois ones
the same aphorisms belong to the metalanguage, this is a secondary speech about
ready -made things. Its classical form is a maxim. In it, the statement of facts is
not directed at the created world, on the contrary, it should hide the already created
world" (in the same place, p. 125). That is, revealing the functioning of myths in the
modern worldRoland Barthes considers the mythology of order
and preservation of the existing state of society to be central to them.

The Carl Gustav Jung Model

Carl Jung's ideas have a special value for PR, as we discussed

earlier in the section on psychoanalysis. now we will look at some other
examples of using this material. Jung tried to analyze the irrational using
rational methods. In this way, he comes to the concept of the archetype
as a phenomenon of the collective unconscious. The archetypes of
hostile forces proposed by him are very important and interesting for our
purposes. Such a phenomenon that he encountered in the projections
of the collective-unconscious content was the witchcraft demon.

He gives it the following description: "this figure, if it presents some negative

and possibly dangerous aspect, often acts as a counter-figure. dark skinned and
related to the Mongoloid type" (Jung K. G. Psychology of the unconscious, Moscow,
1994, p. 143). This kind of thing can easily be used by propaganda,
remember, for example, that Soviet prisoners of war during the war were often
portrayed by German propaganda as a Mongoloid type.
After quoting the often-repeated statements "They make a god out of him" or
"the name makes a diabolical impression on X," Carl Jung sees this as a
projection of archetypes, only as an over - or underestimation. In principle, he
considered it possible to put them on a very significant level for PR: "Archetypes
are therefore extremely important things that have a significant impact, and
they should be treated with all care. They should not simply
be suppressed, on the contrary, they deserve to be taken
into account in the most careful way, because they carry the danger of mental
infection" (in the same place, p. 142). Jung considers the very important archetype
of the hero for PR, which we discussed in the section on psychoanalysis,
the archetype of the father. Like the image of the mother, " the father is also
a powerful archetype that lives in the child's soul. The father is also
first the father, the all-encompassing image of God, the dynamic principle.
In the course of life, this domineering image also recedes into the background:
the father becomes a boundless, often too human person. Conversely,
the image of the father extends to all possible spheres corresponding to its
meaning" ( Jung K. G. Problems of the soul of our time, Moscow, 1994, pp. 141-142).
From here we can throw a bridge to the psychology of Christ, because undoubtedly
millennia give the right to this cross-section of his existence. Carl Jung wrote:
""The symbol of Christ" is the most important subject for psychology, since along
with the image of the Buddha, it is perhaps the most developed and differentiated
symbol of the self. We determine this by the scope and content of the available
statements about Christ, which correspond to a surprisingly high degree
to the psychological psychology of the self, although they do not contain all aspects
of this stereotype" (Jung K. G. Archetype and Symbol, Moscow, 1991, p. 248). By the
way, and here follows an important remark for PR about the paradoxical nature of
this image, about the combination of opposites in it. The experience of the opposite
is not an intellectual object; Jung calls it fate. "Without experiencing this
in contradiction, there is no experience of wholeness, and thus no
inner access to sacred images. On this basis, Christianity rightly
insists on sinfulness and on hereditary sin - with the obvious
intention of at least outlining the abyss of cosmic contradiction in
each individual." (in the same place, p. 249). How do we enter the
collective unconscious? Jung believes that no analytical
technique helps to "remember" it, because it has not been forgotten
or repressed. He finds it only in creatively designed material.
"A prototype or archetype is a figure-whether it is a demon,
a person, or an event- that repeats itself throughout history
wherever creative imagination operates freely. Accordingly, we
have here primarily a mythological figure" (in the same place, p. 283).

h h h

In conclusion, we note the general characteristics of the mythological, important

for PR. Myths and archetypes describe the world of the ideal. Jung wrote: "All the
most effective ideals are always more or less explicit versions of the archetype"
(in the same place, p. 283). That is, we are looking at an area that we are striving for
and that we have no doubts about the correctness of. Hence the powerful
influencing force of such images . They are taken from the "image bank", which
has been tested on humans for many millennia. And here we turn again to
Jung: "Any relation to the archetype, whether experienced or simply named,
"touches" us; it is effective because it awakens in us a voice louder
than our own. the speaker of types speaks as if with a thousand voices,
he captivates and conquers, he raises what he describes from
one-time and temporary to the sphere of eternal existence" (in the same place, c, 284).
That is why certain system references that arise in the study of myths are so
important, they are equally important for both PR and advertising. It is as a guide
to the latter that the following lines of V. Toporov can be read: "nature tends to
the g o r I z o n t a l n o y plane, to various types of a m o r f n o s t i, to r
I n and to the connection with n i z o m (land and water); culture - k v e r t i k a l i,
h e t k o y
o f o r m l e n n o s t i, p r I m i z n e, aspirations in v e
the sky, to the sun). The transition from nature to culture (as one of the options for
salvation) often becomes possible only when it is possible to establish a visual
connection with the spire or dome (usually golden...)" (Toporov V. N.. A myth. The ritual.
Symbol. Obraz. M., 1995, p. 289). In other words, the grammar of human perception
is already set, and texts should be written in accordance with this grammar.

And in this grammar we can find answers to questions that cannot be given by
political scientists, sophisticated with modern knowledge. So the clue to the victory of
Vladimir Zhirinovsky can be found in the following words of the folklorist: "The image
of a" trickster "(rogue, mischief-maker) is formed stadially earlier than the image
of a hero" (Chistov K. V.. Narodnye traditsii i fol'klor [Folk traditions and Folklore], l., 1986,
p. 288). The image of the hero himself, according to the ideas of , for example,
Buslaev, appears in Old Russian writing late, after the Tatars ( Buslaev F. I. Russian
heroic epic. Russian folk epic. Voronezh, 1987). Zhirinovsky from the time
of his first victories followed exactly this model, only then shifting to a different one,
although the "tail" of the former model is still preserved in his image today.

literature
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Bart R. Selected works. Semiotics. Poetika, Moscow, 1989
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Toporov V. N.. A myth. The ritual. symbol. Image. Research in
the field of mythopoeia, Moscow, 1995
Toporov In. Aeneas-the man of destiny, Moscow, 1993
Freudenberg O. M.. Myth and Literature of Antiquity, Moscow, 1978
Chistov K. V. Narodnye traditsii i fol'klor [Folk traditions and
folklore], Moscow, 1986 Eliade M. Cosmos and History , Moscow,
1987 Jung K. G. Archetype and Symbol , Moscow, 1991
Jung K. G. Problems of the soul of our time, Moscow, 1994
Jung K. G. Psychology of the unconscious , Moscow, 1994

§7 . Propaganda, motivational and content analysis

In the modern world, propaganda has long ceased to be a purely

ideological occupation, it is based on strict scientific grounds. It was the
last war, called the cold war,that was really a semantic war, a
semiotic war. It gave a significant incentive to the development of communicative
models of influence. They are sufficiently scientific, although
they are formulated with an unusual degree of cynicism for our
ears. So, Americans believe that they are better off treating one
journalist than ten housewives or five doctors. Since a person is
considered as a channel, and not as an addressee of information.
Standard communication models are now supplemented by two models
of communication propaganda (Jovet G.S., O'Donnell. Propaganda and
persuasion. Newbury Park etc., 1992).
Curved source model, where the propagandist (N) creates a curved
source (N1) from which the message originates (Soob). Recipient
(Gender) treats this information as coming from
a source available to it, P1, because it does not know the original (P).

Soob

Soob

P1 Paul

Source legitimization model. In this case, the propagandist (P) secretly places
the original message (Soob 1) in a legitimate source (P2). This message is in
in a different form (Soob 2) is transmitted by the propagandist
to the recipient of information under the guise of another
message (Soob 3) as one that came from another source (P 2).

Soob1 Soob3

Soob2

P2 Paul

The use of rumors should also be added to this list of propaganda

models . Auditory source model: the information is used if there is no
reference to the source. Sergey Filatov, head of the Presidential
Administration of Russia, in an interview with the newspaper
Moskovskiye Novosti described one of the possible options for
using this model: "We must not allow anyone to succeed in an old party trick. Do you remember
how it used to be? A rumor of resignation - and then a vacuum, the phone is silent,
the waiting room is empty. Who can survive this?" (Moskovskie Novosti, 1994, No.
44). There are also earlier examples of using this model: "Still
, there was something strange about the persistence with which the rumor about Lenin's
poison was spread around Moscow (in various variations) . I wouldn't talk about this" oddity
"if I didn't have to deal several times later with other"whispers",
insinuations,malicious statements, apparently conducted by someone,
necessary and profitable for someone. The system of rumors in Moscow was so widespread
that the XIII Party Congress, which met on May 23-31, 1924, considered it necessary
in a special resolution to speak out "against the dissemination of unverified rumors,
prohibited documents, [Link] methods, which are the favorite
methods of unprincipled groups infected with petty-bourgeois sentiments."
This resolution was drawn up by the Central Committee of the party, mainly with the
aim of hitting the "opposition". In fact, it also targeted those who in the Central Committee
and its organizations were active creators of all sorts of rumors and pieces of paper
that were put out for a specific purpose" (Valentinov N. (Volsky N.) New
Economic Policy and the crisis of the Party after Lenin's Death,
Moscow, 1991, p. 94). Japanese advertisers have found that the
auditory channel - they call it "conversations at the well" - is even
more successful in advertising,for example, medicines or doctors '
services. Garth Jowett and Victoria Donell propose the following
framework for propaganda analysis:
1. Ideology and goals of the propaganda campaign.
2. The context in which propaganda takes place.
3. Identification of the propagandist.
4. Structure of the propaganda organization.
5. Target audience.
6. Techniques used by mass communication media.
7. Special equipment.
8. The audience's reaction to the impact technique.
9. Counter-propaganda, if used.
10. Effect and ratings.

Identification ideologies (1) it involves determining the preferences, ratings,

attitudes, and behaviors that are considered the norm in a given group. It is
clear that the impact, for example, on young people should be different from
the impact on pensioners.
When installing the context (2) the researcher must reconstruct the broad
context of events and find their interpretation in it. Particular attention should
be paid to the myths accepted in this society, since it is on them
that the preferred models of behavior are built. For example, a Western is
based on the corresponding myth about the type of American. totalitarian
myth glorified Pavlik Morozov, Stakhanov, etc., elevating the social
characteristics of a person over personal ones.
Identifying the propagandist (3) is a search for the author of the original
message, who, as we have seen from the above models, is actively
trying to hide. Therefore, the question becomes relevant here: who and why
benefits most from the dissemination of this message?
Definition structures of the propaganda organization (4) allows you to
see its real connections, internal and external. Why is the message
transmitted via this particular QMS channel, and who controls it? Why, for
example, was the interview with Leonid Kravchuk published specifically by
Kievskiye Vedomosti? Organizations have formal and informal leaders, and
they probably have their own preferences. A propaganda organization may
have short-term and long-term goals. For example, the green organization
has a long-term goal- eliminating the danger of Chernobyl, and the
immediate goal is to process opinion leaders in this society.
Clear definition of the target audience (5) seems to be a very important
aspect of conducting a propaganda campaign. Americans have long
switched from processing mass audiences to working with opinion leaders.
So, for example, in the case of the Middle East, they believe that treating
10% of the elite as a result will provide an impact on the entire country.
Diversity techniques (6) impacts are equally important. Special
attention is paid to the visual sphere, which supports the
verbal sphere everywhere and everywhere. It is especially important to
attract a person at the very beginning of the propaganda campaign, then they
are already easier to influence. Americans describe a case where Cairo
medical students who believe in communism would never go to the American
library. Then in the library ke was shown a film about the success of
American medicine. Students went to the film because it was interesting to them
as professionals, and then they started going to the library.
Special propaganda techniques (7) have been greatly developed in
the modern world. "Resonance" - it is difficult to change the existing opinion,
but you can correct the existing one in the necessary way. The same arsenal
includes trust in the source, working with opinion leaders, and personal
contact. Evaluate the difference in the work of the former Lenin rooms and
the American House in Kiev. In one case, purely political information is
collected, in the other, politics is fundamentally relegated to the background.
The remaining points (8-10) are quite clear.

Propaganda works well only when its methods are not random, but
systematic, and in all areas. Propaganda has always been, is, and will always
be. This should not be discounted.
Motivational analysis. Already in the
50s, a direction was formed that laid the basis for the following installations::
1) it is always necessary to establish what people really think, what their real
motivations are; 2) with this knowledge, you can manage people even without
their awareness of this fact. How did the researchers come to the conclusion
that it is impossible to believe the statements of respondents about
themselves, and we should try to identify their interests not directly, but
indirectly? Many experiments were conducted that showed a discrepancy
between the audience's opinion and the actual state of affairs. For example,
beer producers produced two varieties: light and ordinary. Surveys have
shown that consumers choose light beer in a 3: 1 ratio . At the same time,
ordinary (actually cheaper) beer is bought ten times more. A survey about why smoked
herring is not in demand among buyers gave the following response:et:
I don't like the taste. However, as it turned out, 40% of those who responded
in this way did not try this herring at all. Another experiment: while waiting
for a lecture, you could stay in a room with either modern furniture or traditional
furniture. All the women spontaneously gathered in the first room. However,
after the lecture, 84% gave an answer about their preference for a traditional
interior. This leads to a clear conclusion: a person almost always
says what they want to hear from him.
Of particular importance is the direction in testing, which
involves the rejection of any hints. For example, the Shondi test. A
person is shown photos of various people, and he must choose someone with
whom he would agree, for example, to travel in the same train car. But
a person will not be told that in one of the experiments they will see photos of
people with mental disabilities (maniacs, paranoids, sadists, etc.). The choice
he made will show us his preferences and dislikes, and give us an explanation
of some of his problems. The same test was used to find the underlying
motivations of drinkers. It was found that 85% of alcohol drinkers drink 22%
of people. What drives them? The Shondi test was used before and after three
drinks of alcohol. As it turned out, a person drinks until he enters a more
pleasant psychological role for himself: a weak person most often strives
to become strong, a loser wants to feel lucky, and so on. And then this
state does not change. Therefore, it is not surprising that advertising actively
uses references, for example, to the aristocratic world, which is not accessible
to most consumers. And this shows a general pattern: since
one hundred identical products have almost no differences, the consumer
makes his choice, based on internal references,
it is the task of advertising to formulate them. In general, motivational analysis
is used not only in advertising, but also in management. In both cases,
two possible sets of goals are set: on the one hand, there are fears, things
that people would like to avoid; on the other hand, there are various desires,
things that people would like to achieve. On the one hand, people are afraid
of losing their jobs, looking stupid, or doing something wrong. On the other
hand, they want to raise their status, they want to be admired
surrounding people. Thus, motivation is
based on the desire to achieve certain results.

Image becomes an important component of selling a product, since you can

only distinguish the same product by the particular image that advertisers have
associated it with. Vance Packard mentions an experiment with smokers.
Three hundred people who preferred one of the three brands had to identify it
in a set of three. 35% were able to do this. But guessing one of the three should
already go with a probability of 33%. So, says Packard, only 2% actually
chose their brand (Packard V. The hidden persuaders. N.Y., 1958). In another
experiment,it was possible to determine the type of
gasoline that a person prefers based on the type of drawing of a person, how
they depicted a car. Since each type of gasoline is advertised through a
particular image , V. Packard formulates eight basic types of needs that a
product must meet in order to be purchased. At the same time, we remember
that it is not the product itself that is being sold as a physical given, but its
psychological correspondence, something that it can help psychologically.
1. Selling Emotional Security. Studying the sale of freezers
was necessary to explain why people spend extra money on
electric powergia, for that. that certain leftovers of the product will have to be
discarded and stored. It turned out that freezers came into fashion after the
Second World War, when there was a shortage of food. People
need more food than they can eat to feel safe. The same problem occurred
with air conditioners, People in need of security did not want
to open their windows even at night.
2. Selling Proof of Value. Advertising of washing powders was based
only on cleanliness. However, advertisers have found that it is necessary to
emphasize completely different things-women feel that they are doing work
that no one appreciates. So companies that sell suitcases can win. if
they emphasize that they sell confidence.
3. Selling self-appreciation. The sale of excavators has fallen into disrepair. When
we tried to assess what was wrong, we found that all the advertising photos
showed excavators carrying tons of earth, stones and dirt, but there
was no human being anywhere. When all the photos were taken from the point
of view of a working person, the situation changed dramatically.
4. Selling your creative work. Psychologists have found that working with flowers and
plants creates a substitute for pregnancy for older women. Even baking
a pie is symbolically equated with the appearance of a new child in the family.
This led to significant conclusions. If earlier on packages with a semi-
finished cake it was written "Do not add milk, just add water", then women
inside themselves were indignant at what kind of preparation it was when
nothing should be added there. Therefore, when the words "Add fresh eggs
and fresh milk" appeared, the sales level immediately increased. House
designers in this case found that you should not paint everything down to the
smallest detail, it is necessary to leave something for the consumer.
5. Selling love objects. The recordings of one of the pianists were particularly
popular with women of the age when it is no longer possible to give birth to a
child. They kind of wanted to stroke his curls.
6. Selling a sense of power. Cars are marketed from a position of extra
power that they provide. A person buys, for example, motorboats
with an ever-increasing amount of horsepower.
7. Selling your sense of roots. Wine is sold from the point of view of the goo
times. There is a recolama like "This is the wine that my grandmother made".
By the way, in politics, Reagan wanted to return America to the quiet years
before the thirties.
8. Selling eternity. Insurance agents sell men the confidence that
they will be in control of their family even after they die. There are specific
recommendations of psychologists on how to solve this problem. your own problems
based on other's motivations. There are three steps to do this:
- find the advantages recognized by your motivational goal, qualities,
characteristics, opportunities, what he / she recognizes, what he / she
admires, what he / she loves; - study
yourself and decide which of your advantages are suitable for your
motivational goal in the area of his / her preferences;
- imagine situations in which you can show,show,
demonstrate your advantages in front of the motivational goal so that he / she
learns about them. At
the same time, a very interesting feature is emphasized: you need not just
stand out from other people, not just differ in something, as many people
strive to do, but act in such a way that these characteristics are important for
your work. A motivational plan should take into account the specifics of your
goal. Its / her features can be described based on the"angle" principle: you
need to see the problem from a new angle. In this case, the motivation
becomes not ordinary, but special, and you need to look for it additionally.
Motivational analysis has many points of contact with deep psychology,
with Freud's theory. This is an attempt to reach out to phenomena that are not
openly manifested, but which, however, can shape our decisions. For
example, companies that wanted to advertise flight safety
were advised to abandon this idea and advertise something else: for men -
the fastest and most convenient way to travel, for women-the fastest way
to return their husbands home. We have
considered only a number of possible approaches to the analysis of the area
in which PR operates.
Content analysis.
It is actively used to solve problems in the field of government and business
structures. Its formula is the translation of verbal information into a more
objective nonverbal form. Therefore, all definitions of content analysis
emphasize its objective nature. An example is the following
wording:
- statistical semantics; - a
technique for objective quantitative analysis of the content of communication;
- a technique for drawing conclusions by objectively and systematically
identifying the characteristics of messages.
Objectivity is understood as follows: each step can be
performed only on the basis of explicitly formulated rules and procedures.
Therefore , the repetition of the same result
by another person on the same material becomes an important verification
mechanism. After all, what usually happens in the humanities is that we can
put 50 people in prison and they will give us 50 results. And content analysis is
a fairly accurate research technique, for which the state, for example, is willing to
pay moneyI. For a more complete description of the method, add the following.
First, all data from verbal material statistics are used to
draw conclusions about nonverbal aspects, for example, about certain
characteristics of the addressee and addressee. Therefore, the text material is
represented as an intermediate object here. We are not interested in the text at
all. And the second: in itself, finding out the frequency of use, for example, by a
writer X of such and such a word with such and such a frequency is not content
analysis. Content analysis is always a comparison of two streams. For
example, matching two newspapers as two verbal streams. It is possible to
compare non-verbal and verbal flows: birth rate data and information about
children-heroes in literary magazines. It is possible to compare this verbal flow
and the norm: the frequency of using a certain word in the works of a certain
writer and the standard frequency of using this word in the language of that
time. Content analysis is used in such areas as the study of social
assessments of certain events, the analysis of propaganda, methods of
journalism, the study of the arsenal of mass communication media,
psychological and psychoanalytic research. This range covers, according to
researchers, 60% of all works.
What can be counted in the verbal flow, what typical research
models exist? You can count:
a) the frequency,
b) the presence/absence of some topics,
c) the relationship between topics,
d) the main topics.
When processing small texts, of course, qualitative rather than quantitative
analysis has more advantages. Thus, the change of one of the terms in
the Chinese periodicals revealed a transition to a more aggressive stage of
Beijing's actions, which was followed by a war. Examples of
research topics: "How are cultural differences reflected in the songs of different
peoples?", "Linguistic differences between a schizophrenic and a normal
person", " How does sentence length affect text perception?", "Identifying the
author of an anonymous text", " What characteristics distinguish a bestseller, a
soap opera?". The latter example is particularly interesting for the phenomenon
of the market existence of literature and television. In this case, it is determined
based on past success: the average age of the hero, the average age of
the heroine, the type of antihero, etc. Having all these characteristics, you can
predict the success of a future book or production. There are
three essential conditions for the development of communication processes,
in which the use of content analysis is most effective:
1. When we have indirect access to the speaker, the author.
We can ask an ordinary interlocutor what exactly his words mean, why he said
it. But there are a whole range of situations where a direct question is
impossible. For example, when it comes to the president of an unfriendly state,
a long-dead writer, or someone else 's propaganda. In all these cases, we
have only indirect outputs. So, in the face of a lack of information, for example,
Americans analyzed Yeltsin's relations with the military based on whether he
buttoned up his jacket when he got up from the presidium to speak.
2. When the language factor is crucial for the study. There are specific
tasks where the language is very important, or only the language subtext
is available to the researcher. For example, establishing schizophrenia,
searching for the author of an anonymous text. Establishing the authorship
of texts belonging to Shakespeare, Sholokhov, etc. is also a task of content
analysis. 3) When the volume of material is too large. We have similar volumes
in cases of mass communication, literature, and cinema. It is the reliance
on completely different volumes that gives new results. John Nesbit laid the
foundation for a quarterly trend analysis based on a content analysis of 6,000
newspapers. Our individual reading of one or two newspapers does not allow
us to see what the analysis of the whole array shows. Therefore ,corporations
and government agencies become subscribers to such materials that
allow them to predict future social and economic conditions .
What can be unit of analysis? A word or symbol is the smallest unit.
A topic is another unit that represents a separate statement about
a particular subject. In the study of literature and cinema, where you need to
buy the characteristics of the hero, use such a unit as character.
There are fairly clear requirements for a possible unit of analysis:
a) it should be large enough to express a value;
b) it should be small enough not to express many values;
c) it should be easily identifiable;
d) the number of units should be so large that they can be
sampled. Once
we have determined the unit, we should decide what we will count. It can be a
frequency, it can be a place (for a newspaper,it can also be the size of the title,
the page on which this message is placed), it can be the time for
television, radio, and movies. It should be added that such work is impossible
without computer processing of the material, since the volume of text material
is very large. Here are some examples of
possible problems: one source is investigated at different times (for example,
the newspaper Pravda from 1975 to 1995), one source when reaching
different audiences (one ad in different publications). You can compare
several sources to determine how different communicators are:
compare a normal person and a suicide, or the performances of different
candidates for deputies, or different presidents. We can compare different sources,
not just verbal ones: for example, biographical data of a writer and his
novels. We may be interested in the results of the impact of an event, behavior
before and after receiving a message: for example, a film adaptation on
television and the subsequent increase in demand for a book in libraries or
bookstores. We may be interested in the number of different words that are
a person uses 100, 200, 500, and 1000 word arrays in their speech. In
schizophrenics, this number is much lower. They talk about everything in
a negative tone, focus on the past, and talk a lot about themselves.
If you take, for example, such a characteristic as the number of adjectives
per 100 verbs, then a normal person will have more of them than a
schizophrenic. The first examples of the use of content analysis date back
to the eighteenth century, when in Sweden the frequency of topics related
to Christ was used to decide whether a book was heretical. During
World War II, editors of a number of newspapers in the United States were
accused of links to the Nazis on the grounds that they found similarities in
the repetition of certain topics on the pages of their publications.
More sophisticated content analysis models offer a summary evaluation of
offers. The rating scale ranges from -3 to +3. For example, the sentence
"The Japanese ruling circles are corrupt"gets the following rating
:" are " - +3," corrupt " - -3. The total score is calculated
as follows: +3 x -3 = -9, i.e. 3csome ruling circles get a rating of -9,
which is quite negative. (North R.C. a.o. Content analysis. A handbook
with applications fro the study of international crisis. s.l.,1963. з. 95).
Content analysis provides an important tool for PR. Today, we are
working on automatic detection of words with negative connotations
(T. Amak's group from Germany) in a number of European languages,
which will make it possible to track negative press reviews on orders from
firms and corporations. * Literature
Boyko V. V., Markin L. V. Oral propaganda: criteria, indicators, conditions
of effectiveness. - L., 1983
Wojtasik L. Psychology of Political Propaganda, Moscow, 1981
Zalessky G. E. Psychological issues of forming beliefs, Moscow, 1982
Іванов В.Ф. Контент-аналіз. Методологія і методика дослідження ЗМК. -
Київ, 1994 Іванов В.Ф. Теоретико-методологічні основи вивчення змісту
масової комунікації. - Київ, 1996
Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and practice of communication. - Moscow, 1998
Psychology of political propaganda. Kiev, 1985
Sotsiologiya i propaganda [Sociology and Propaganda], Moscow, 1986
Taranov P. S.. Methods of influencing people. Simferopol, 1995
Language and modeling of social interaction, Moscow, 1987
Bettinghaus E.P. Persuasive communication. - N.Y. etc., 1968
Brown J.A.C. Techniques of persuasion: from propaganda to brainwashing. -
Harmondsworth, 1971
Budd R.W. a.o. Content analysis of communication. - N.Y. etc., 1967
Hoffer E. The true believer. - N.Y., 1966
Holsti O. Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. - Reading,
Mass., 1969 Jovet G.S., O'Donnell . Propaganda and persuasion. - Newbury Park
etc., 1992 Larson Ch.U. Persuasion: reception and responsibility. - Belmont etc., 1995
North R.C. a.o. Content analysis. A handbook with applications fro the study of
international crisis. - 1963

§8 . Negotiation theory
Negotiations are becoming an increasingly important part of modern
life. They do not arise in a situation of hierarchical dependence (such as
an army one), but if it is necessary to reach an agreement between two carsV.
Mastenbroek defines negotiations as a combination of two factors-
one's own interests and dependence on the opponent (Mastenbrook V. Conversation.
Kaluga, 1993). The problem of negotiations in the Western world is perceived
as more important, comparing, for example, with Ukraine, since there is a
serious problem there coordination of the behavior of different social groups and interests. We are used
to living (and probably continue to do so) within the framework of a hierarchical word
when the opinion of one person occupying the "command chair" is recognized
as the only possible and indisputable one. Our further progress towards
a democratic society will increasingly require the ability to coordinate
the interests of diverse strata of society, various organizations, and cooperation
at the international level, where, as is well known, there is no unity of command
and negotiations are the only way to reach agreement.
The most successful negotiation model was proposed as part of the Harvard
Negotiation Project (Fischer R., Yuri W. The path to agreement, or negotiations without
defeat, Moscow, 1990; Yuri W. Overcoming "no", or negotiations with difficult people.
- Moscow, 1993; Fischer R., Ertel D. Preparation for negotiations, Moscow, 1996; Ury W.L.
a.o. Getting disputes resolved. - Cambridge, Mass., 1993; Ury W. Getting past NO. -
N.Y. etc., 1993).
In the above-mentioned system of the Harvard Negotiation Program
, four basic points were laid down, and everything else is like an extension of
them:
1. Make a distinction between the negotiators and the subject
of negotiations.
2. Focus on interests, not positions.
3. Develop mutually beneficial options.
4. Insist on using objective criteria.

The program itself grew out of an attempt to get away from the idea of fighting
for a win, in which a win by one of the parties automatically means a loss by
the other. The other side, of course, will also struggle to win and
the conflict will turn into a protracted crisis. But at the same time, a more
lenient approach, where we only retreat, is not an alternative. A psychologically
soft approach is very difficult to sustain. Therefore, in this case
again, we will not come to a solution that is necessary for both of us. A
comparison of these two approaches can be seen in the following table:

Soft approach Tough approach

Members are friends Participants-opponents

Goal-agreement The goal is to win

Make concessions Demand concessions

Stick to soft Stick to the hard way

course information course information

Trust others Don't trust others

It's easy to change your position Stick to your position firmly

Make suggestions Threaten

Allow unilateral actions Demand unilateral dividends

losses for the sake of the agreement

as a fee for the agreement

Insist on an agreement Insist on your position

Give in to pressure Apply pressure

( Fischer A., Yuri W.., edict op. - P. 26).

The Harvard project considers these two options for positional negotiations-
soft and hard-as uninteresting. A special variant is proposed, based
on the basic principles of the two approaches described above. It gets the name
- principal negotiations. Negotiators
face the challenge of effective communication. Moving towards the goal,
we must strive to remove all obstacles that hinder us. Therefore
, three such "interfering" problems were found in communication:
1. People often say things that are not meant to be understood.
Explanation Questioner: negotiators may try to trap the other person, they
may try to make a certain impression. "If eachif you play for the
public, effective communication between the parties is absolutely impossible." (In
the same place. - P. 49).
2. People often don't pay attention to your words.
Explanation Questioner : you can think about your performance and barely
listen to your opponent's words. "But if you can't hear what the other
party is saying, there's no communication." (In the same place. - P. 49-50).
A. People often don't understand what was actually said.
Explanation Fischer and Urey give the following example: in the Persian
language, the meaning of the word "intermediary" is to define it as an uninvited
and annoying person. When, in 1980, the UN Secretary-General K. Waldheim
arrived to negotiate over the US Embassy staff held hostage in
Tehran, and he said he had come as a mediator to work out a
compromise. An hour after the broadcast, his car was bombarded by angry
Iranians.
One of the most important components of negotiation theory is
the communicative one. Everything is aimed at moving conflict
communication to a new track. This is where specialization such
as negotiations with terrorists. Specialists of this profile take on
most of the burden in this difficult situation. Their rules include: it is
necessary to shoot down the first demands of the terrorists, so as not to follow
their scenario in the future. But the last requirement should be met, then
it will be psychologically easier for the terrorist to surrender.
In negotiations, not only those who speak are active, but also those who
listen. Otherwise, the negotiation process necessarily starts
to stall. An effective negotiator knows how to listen well, and he / she is able to
the main work often consists precisely in listening. Yuri gets noticed: "Until
you give a sign that you know what you're talking about they what is said and
demonstrated, you may not believe what you have heard their. Otherwise,
when you try to justify a different approach, they they will assume that you
didn't understand that they did you mean (In the same place. - P. 51).
Having solved the problem of effective communication in the course of
negotiations, you can move on to the next phase, on which the solution
depends - the analysis of existing interests. Positions are rigidly formulated
conditions, from which it is no longer possible to move away due to their
fixity. But behind each position there are certain interests. Moreover, your
opponent may sometimes not know about your interests, so they should be
formulated and shown their importance to you. Without this, your interests
will not be satisfied. Working at the level of interests, rather than positions, is
also more effective because: 1) each interest can be satisfied with several
possible positions, which immediately increases the number of options;
2) opposite positions contain much more interests than those
that directly contradict. We see that
the principled negotiations proposed by the Harvard School are interesting
for this combination of firmness and softness, which was not found in other
implementations. One of the rules even puts this aspect in the first place:
Be firm when talking about a problem, but gentle with people.
The firmness that appeals to each participant is present in this
version of the negotiations, but this firmness is concentrated only on
the principal areas. All other components of conflict
communication, on the contrary, get rid of the signs of conflict in all
possible ways. We talked about the alignment
of interests, but at the same time we should also think about the following
issues:I think that, in principle, it is also possible to have common interests.
Harvard students emphasize three points in this case:

1) there are common interests in any negotiation;

2) common interests are a real opportunity, not a chance;
3) emphasizing the presence of common goals makes negotiations
smoother and friendlier. The last
parameter is the use of objective criteria. This immediately reduces the time
for disputes, because such criteria are independent of us, and it is not up to
us to change them.
In his book W. Urey (Yuri W. Overcoming the "no"...) develops a detailed
strategy for negotiating with a difficult opponent. In the presence of such an
opponent, there is nothing terrible, he believes. U. Yurey names five possible
barriers to cooperation: Your reaction, Their emotions, Their attitude, Their dissatisfaction, Their
strength. Note that only one of these barriers affects you. This
is a certain human emotionality, which we discussed above. All
the other four barriers relate to your partner. And it is with these
barriers that you need to help your opponent fight, even if he
does not notice them. Such ways to overcome the last barriers of W. Urey
calls it: Take their side, Reformulate, Build the Golden Bridge,
Use the power to nurture. We will try to elaborate on
some of his methods for overcoming such barriers.
To attract a partner to your side, you need to pay genuine attention
to them and their interests. By the way, the fake game in this regard often
comes out. So try to be sincere. What parameters can help us?
1) Active listening.
Active listening takes place on both the verbal (re-asking, confirming, etc
.) and non-verbal levels.
2) Confirm your partner's point of view.
You must confirm that you understood what was said, even if you do not agree
with the proposed position. This does not mean agreement, but rather
effective communication, where you should show understanding of what
you have heard.
3) Express empathy for their feelings.
You must express your understanding of their feelings. This is disarming and
disposing, and then you can expect the same in return.
4) Offer an apology option.
An apology often creates very good conditions for the subsequent
constructive resolution of the dispute.
An important parameter for a successful conversation is demonstrating your
consent where possible, Urey cites as an example one of
the U.S. senators who required his staff to talk to
voters only on those issues on which he has agreement with
his electorate. Even if it is one percent of the problems, you can
only talk about them. You should use
a variety of "yes's" as often as possible during the conversation, which tend
to disarm the partner: "Yes, you are right here", "Yes, I should agree with you
here". The same " yes " must also be present in nonverbal form. Attention to
the other person also consists in the fact that you do you recognize him as a person. This
should not depend on the subject of the conversation. Even if you disagree
with your opponent's position, it doesn't detract from your respect for them.
The next barrier is "their dissatisfaction," which Y Yuri suggests shooting
with a "reformulation". By creating a friendly negotiation context, you can
try to change the rules of the game, the task of which is to lead the opponent
away from defending their positions to satisfying their interests. Reformulation
allows you to direct the opponent in the direction of interests, take advantage
of new creative opportunities and discuss fair standards. How do I do
this? W. Urey gives an interesting example. In 1979, before the ratification of
the SALT II treaty in the Senate, in order to facilitate this process, the
Americans decided to make changes. They sent one of the senators to
Moscow to see Gromyko to explain the situation . And Gromyko in the
Western world was known as the "no" man, because he was very
uncompromising and unyielding. Naturally, Gromyko said " no " this time, because, as he put it,
already made big concessions to the Americans. And this is where
an interesting move in these negotiations took place. The US senator agreed
with this interpretation, did not argue, but said that he needed to somehow
convince senators like Goldwater, for example, and asked for advice on how
this is better done. The senator listed the arguments of his opponents, and
the experienced Soviet diplomat began to break them down with his iron
arguments. In the end, after almost four hours of conversation, Gromyko
suddenly agreed to the proposal of the Americans. W. Urey analyzes this
situation as follows: instead of reject it Mr. Gromyko, Senator
reformulated it the conversation was conducted in the right direction, and the
treaty was ratified. As a result, Gromyko himself began to perform his
work for the senator and agreed with a position that was previously out of
the question. What else can I do? You can ask "why?" questions to get to
the bottom of the problem. You can formulate the resolution of the situation
yourself using the "what if so" constructs. People don't like to express their
own thoughts, but they really like to criticize other people's. Thus, you can
reach the basic interests, the satisfaction of which will be the next goal.
With the construction of the Golden Bridge, Urey tries to solve the
problem of dissatisfaction. He cites the example of director Spielberg, who
was mercilessly beaten by one of the hooligans as a child. In response,
Spielberg offered this teenager to star in his film as the main character.
After the movie, they became friends. This young hooligan
solved the problem of attention and self-respect not by beating him, but by
appearing in a film. Thus, it is necessary to constantly search for and find
the interests of people that underlie negotiations. Even such
a question as" saving the enemy's face " gets separate consideration.
After all, very often people do not make any concessions, for fear of
appearing like a loser. U. Yurey offers such saving behaviors:
show that your circumstances have changed: in the previous situation, this
position was correct, but in the new conditions it needs to be changed.
contact a third party for a recommendation Questioner : what the third party says
may be quite acceptable. This third party can
be a mediator, an expert, a common boss, or a common friend.
point to a fair standard Questioner: it is not so easy to get offended
by objective things, so an objective standard can save the day. And
the last version of the barrier is a power one. They are playing a power
game against you. You try to respond in kind, and as a result, the situation
escalates. This means that this is not the best scenario. You should look
for another one. What do Harvard students offer? They
believe that you should warn your opponent, not threaten them him.
If the threat is confrontational, then the warning can be expressed with
respect. You can demonstrate your other alternatives. You can contact
a third party for [Link], because it's always better to be on the side of the
coalition, and not to fight yourself. And in conclusion,
U. Yuuri emphasizes that you should not strive to win at any cost, but
rather seek out ways of mutual satisfaction. This is the only way
opponents can become partners. Be magnanimous at the end of the road,
just like the professionals who negotiate with terrorists: at the end, you
should become soft, and you can give in to some things.
At the same time, there is an opinion that this dominant Harvard
paradigm is too simplistic. It is based on an exaggeration of the fact
that participants only follow their own interests, ignoring the role of social
norms, relations between negotiators, and the behavior of third parties (Pruitt
D.G., Carnevale P.J. Negotiation in social conflict. - Buckingham, 1993. - p. 8).
About the principal negotiations between Fischer and Urey, the authors write:
"Our analysis suggests that such a strategy will help to reach an agreement
(which may turn out to be in someone's favor), if the other party accepts
the proposed principles and proposed interpretations thereof, and if there
is objective information that makes it possible to apply this
principle unambiguously. But these are big " ifs " (p. 125). Among their own
principles that socially normalize negotiations,the authors include the
following. Fostering friendship and solidarity, which as a result make you
think about the state of other participants. Social pressure to comply with
regulations. A system of sanctions in case of evasion from compliance with
the norms. Another missing component of negotiations in the Harvard
paradigm is the relationship between participants. Here they consider such
parameters as power and trust, positive and negative relationships.
In general, we should conclude, what is certain is that there are several
possible theoretical paradigms that model the negotiation process. The
Harvard approach has become one of the most common, but it certainly
should not be treated as the only possible and correct one. For example, V.
Mastenbrok's approach can also be considered as a special one, in which
special attention is paid to both the processes of restraining emotions and
the processes of controlled release of emotions.
Literature
by G. Breuning Guidelines for conducting negotiations, Moscow, 1996
Grachev Yu. N. Conducting negotiations with foreign firms, Moscow, 1997
By Dan D. Overcoming disagreements. how to improve relationships at work
and at home. - SPb., 1994
Karras Tsp. The Art of Negotiating , Moscow, 1997
Kurbatov V. I. How to conduct successful negotiations (handbook for business
people). - Rostov-on-Don, 1997
Mastenbrook V. Conversation. - Kaluga, 1993
Mastenbrook W. Management of conflict situations and development of the
organization, Moscow, 1996
Mitsich P. How to conduct business conversations, Moscow, 1983
Nergesh Ya. Battlefield-negotiation table, Moscow, 1989
J. Nirenberg Maestro of negotiations. - Minsk, 1996
Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and practice of communication. - Moscow, 1998
Ruzavin G. I. Logika i argumentatsiya [Logic and Argumentation], Moscow, 1997
J. Salacuse Secrets of concluding international transactions. Negotiation skills
, Moscow, 1994
Fischer R., Yuri W. Path to agreement, or negotiations without defeats, Moscow,
1990 Fischer R., Ertel D. Preparation for negotiations, Moscow, 1996
J. Hodgson Negotiations on equal terms. - Minsk, 1998
Ernst O. You have the floor. Practical recommendations for conducting
business conversations and negotiations. - Moscow, 1988
Yuri W. Overcoming "no", or negotiations with difficult people. - Moscow, 1993
Janos N. Battlefield-negotiation table, Moscow, 1989
Pruit D.G., Carnevale P.J. Negotiation in social conflict. - Buckingham, 1993

9. Political psychology

A French proverb says that a person, like a rabbit, is caught by the ears.
Therefore, PR professionals should be able to master not just speech
communication, but also what exactly should be put into the ears of listeners. It is
in this aspect that we are interested in political psychology, and also because so
far the priority among PR-spheres in the CIS territory is firmly held
by political PRS.
Political psychology is interesting to us because it can answer such questions
as the psychological profile of the leader and the voter, what motives can
push the leader to make certain decisions. The leader is interesting for other
countries for its ability to start / not start aggressive actions. Everyone (both inside
and outside the country) is interested in predictability and stability, hence the
relevance of building psychological portraits (see different approaches to solving
such problems for more details in Pocheptsov G. G. Teoriya i praktika kommunikatsii
[Theory and Practice of Communication] , Moscow, 1998, Chapter [Link]
analiza tekstov politicheskikh liderov). Practical politicians also feel the
importance of such knowledge. For example. in his interview in the program " Results.
Night Talk "("Itogi", NTV, 1998, May 3) Mikhail Gorbachev spoke quite harshly about
the situation in Russia: "We are hostages of one person", meaning, among other
things, that the existing constitution was "tailored" for Boris Yeltsin. We can draw
on a number of statements in this interview, explaining them with data from
political psychology. Interestingly, in this interview, Gorbachev mentions one very
clear trait that defines a leader's behavior : the fear of losing power. He speaks of
this as applied to Boris Yeltsin, but also to himself: "I felt that the fate
of Khrushchev was waiting for me." And some theories of political psychology
interpret leadership precisely as compensation for one or another inferiority. By
the way, the typical way, for example, a person in the former USSR in the chair of
the director (university or academic institute) that was the way through the post of
party secretary. A person who had a sufficient amount of ambitions could not
realize them in a purely scientific or educational sphere and compensated for this
by falling behind on the party path. Mikhail
Gorbachev attributes the delay in reforms not to the leaders,but to the people,
saying that people should have been given more time to adapt. It is also
a phenomenon known in political psychology as what
can also be called cognitive error. In this case , internal "attribution
hindrances error
are", attributed
her
to others, and only external ones are attributed to themselves. That is, "I"
would do something if I didn't get in the way, but "they" usually don't do something
even if they don't have any obstacles. Researchers describe this phenomenon as
follows: "actors explain their behavior in terms
of situational constraints ("I did it this way because I had no
choice"), while observers explain the same behavior with in terms of
internal preferences ("She behaves this way because of her nature")."(Heradstveit D.,
Bonham G.M. Attribution theory and Arab images of the Gulf war // Political
psychology. - 1996. - Vol. 17. - N 2.- P. 272). Such mistakes in the perception
of others hinder the assessment of the actions of leaders of other countries.
By the way, one of the reasons for the Cuban crisis today is considered to be
the leaders of the USSR and the USA have different models of the world. N. Khrushchev considered
the deployment of missiles in Cuba to be a natural process of the movement of "progressive
humanity", while on the part of the entourage of J. R. R. Tolkien, the deployment of missiles in Cuba
considered a natural process of the movement of "progressive humanity". Kennedy considered the
same processes not as objective, as in Khrushchev, but as purely [Link] decisions
made on "malignity". There is also the concept of "cognitive complexity", which sets either a simplified
black-and-white perception of the world, or a more complex one. A simplified picture of the world not
only describes individual leaders, but also certain contexts in which
the leader finds himself. Thus, during the pre-election campaign, the leader is
characterized by a sharp simplification of the situation, which is associated with the inability for
the voter to understand all the complexities of the current situation. It is significant that
when answering one of the questions (would he hire A. Lebed?), Mikhail Gorbachev
said that he would answer "in the Gorbachev way" (that is, more difficult. not just " yes " or "no").
By the way, both A. Lebed and V. Zhirinovsky build a fairly simple picture of the world, where
all solutions and all problems seem easily achievable. This is an essential
feature of pre-election rhetoric in general. Fascism (as
well as totalitarian countries in general) is characterized by a low level of cognitive complexity,
hence, probably, the role of "enemies"should be more significant for them.
Again, perhaps this is due to an easy way to explain the wrong development
of the situation - the enemies are always to blame.
D. Winter (USA) builds portraits of leaders according to three essential parameters: the
role of three motives in the appearance of a leader: the motive of power, the motive of achievement,
and the motive of relationships/intimacy. Leaders may be differently oriented to these
motives, having a predominance of one of them. This motivational profile
sets one or another behavior option for leaders. Thus, in the United States, leaders
motivated by their relations sought to establish good relations with
the USSR, and built a process of detente. Power motivation pushes the leader to
be aggressive, to start a war. Presidents with a high level of intimacy
can get into scandalous situations, because they are highly
dependent on their environment. They even choose their own assistants
who are approximately the same as themselves (the same age, the same family composition, etc
.).
Motivational profiles of leaders allow, on the one hand, to make a forecast of their
behavior in a critical situation on a more objective basis than is done
in traditional political science. On the other hand, a leader is initially elected if
his motivational profile corresponds to the ideas of the average resident
of the country. This version of the average profile is determined based
on an analysis of popular cultural phenomena that currently prevail
(bestsellers, soap operas, commercial films). That is, on the one hand, we
have a forecast of the leader's behavior, and on the other, a forecast of the behavior of voters. In b
cases, the motivational profile becomes the determining component
.
Political psychology has already taken shape in a separate scientific direction. There is
a corresponding international association and the journal "Political Psychology". PR
should rely on the patterns discovered in this area in building its
strategy and tactics, especially with regard to political PR. At the same
time, attention should be drawn to the second cross-section of this issue, presented
by research on social psychology (see the list of references below). It is precisely
with the mass consciousness that we are less able to work, since we do not have clear ideas about
the mechanisms of its integration, and the tasks of PR lie precisely in this area.
Literature

Wojtasik L. Psychology of Political Propaganda, Moscow, 1981

Bobrova E. Yu. Fundamentals of historical psychology. - SPb., 1997
Gozman L. Ya., Shestopal E. B. Political psychology. - Rostov-on-Don,
1996 Diligensky G. G. Socio-political psychology , Moscow, 1996
Dmitriev A.V. et al. Informal Political Communication , Moscow, 1997
Dotsenko E. L. Psychology of manipulation, Moscow, 1996
Dridze T. M. Yazyk i sotsial'naya psikhologiya [Language and
Social Psychology], Moscow, 1980 . Foreign research in
reviews and abstracts, Moscow, 1996
Lebedev A. N., Bokovikov A. K. Experimental Psychology in Russian
advertising, Moscow, 1995
Le Bon G. Psychology of Peoples and Masses, St. Petersburg, 1995
Leontiev A. A. Psychology of communication, Moscow, 1997
Myers D. Social psychology. - SPb., 1997
Mass consciousness and mass actions. - M., 1994
Melnik G. S. Mass-media: psychological processes and effects. - St.
Petersburg, 1996 Moskovichi S. Vek tolp. - Moscow, 1996
Odaynik V. Psychology of politics. Political and social ideas of Carl
Gustav Jung. - St. Petersburg, 1996
Olshansky D. V. Mass moods in politics, Moscow, 1995
V. F. Petrenko Psychosemantics of consciousness, Moscow, 1988
Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and practice of communication, Moscow,
1998 Reich V. Psychology of the masses and fascism. - SPb., 1997
Robert M.-A., Tilman F. Psychology of the individual and group , Moscow,
1988 Roshchin S. K. Psychology and Journalism , Moscow, 1973
Sherkovin Yu. A. Psychological problems of mass information
processes, Moscow, 1973
Shibutani T. Social Psychology , Moscow, 1969
P. N. Shikhirev Modern Social Psychology in Western Europe,
Moscow, 1985 Shkuratov V. A. Historical Psychology, Moscow, 1997
Language and modeling of social interaction, Moscow, 1987

10. Intelligence theory

Everything in PR is based on good analytics. At the same time, we do not have

adequate training and generalizing texts not only for creating analytics in PR,
but also for any other analytical approach, including intelligence. It just so
happens that, analyst practitioners, like PR practitioners, belong to the" silent
majority " and do not write books. Therefore, we can take the advice of
intelligence analysts. At the same time, any of these books seems to reveal
the methodology of information work, for this reason they can also be considered
as an introduction to any information activity, starting with journalism
and ending with PR. This is especially true of the book by W. Platt (Platt V.
Information work of strategic intelligence , Moscow, 1958). This is due to the
fact that information processing is one of the main components
of effective intelligence work. However,
even in A. Dulles you can find whole passages that are significant for PR.
Take the following observation: "It is interesting, for example, to compare
the official text of Khrushchev's speech published in the Soviet press with
what he actually said. His famous remark thrown
to Western diplomats at a reception at the Polish Embassy in Moscow on 18
November 1956, "We will bury you", was not accurately quoted in
the Soviet press reports, although many people heard it. Apparently, the government
press has the right to censor Prime Minister Khrushchev's statements,
probably with his approval. However, later, when Khrushchev understood the meaning
of what he said then, he gave his words a lengthy and softening interpretation.
Consequently, it is often just as interesting to know how and why the content of a story is
distorted as its actual content. It often happens
that there is one version for "domestic consumption", a second for other
communist bloc countries, and a third for foreign countries. There are cases
when the "fairy tales" that communist regimes tell their own peoples indicate the emergence
of a new type of [Link] new weaknesses for them and creating new dangers"
(Dulles A. Iskusstvo razvedki [The Art of Intelligence], Moscow, 1992, pp. 83-84. This is
the standard problem that we are used to in the framework of PR, only there we
see it from a different point of view - from the position of the so-called "spin doctor", which
is designed to correct first-person statements when they lead public
opinion in the wrong direction. Or an example such as classifying information channels
in which to search for the necessary information, which looks like a purely
communicative task (see Hunt Ch., Zartarian V. Intelligence in the service of your
company. - Kiev, 1992).
On the other hand, the PR also sets tasks that are close to intelligence. So,
the" Bible " of PR discusses a similar topic, which can be seen in the following type
of analysis (Cutlip S.M. a.o. Effective public relations. - Englewood Cliffs, 1994).
Situational analysis It involves a complete and systematic study of the entire
communicative behavior of an organization in order to fully understand
exactly how its communication with the public proceeds. After all, it is this cross-section of
the problem that will determine success in solving the problem. The following four questions
can help you do this :
1. How much do people need information in this problem situation?
2. What type of information is actually used by people?
3. How do people use this information?
4. What can the use of information do? Or such an example
of completely converged tasks. As part of the" PR Week " in 1998 , a representative of
one of the PR agencies made a presentation at a forum dedicated to crisis PRS in Moscow
. Among the tasks presented in the report
were the following: Forecasting the withdrawal of A. Chubais, Luring specific
customers from one bank to another, etc. In such tasks, there is clearly a
"taste" of intelligence work, this was especially evident in the demonstrated results.m
"panel", measured in meters, where the history of banking
relationships in a particular situation was developed, made on the basis
of open print data processing. We wrote about
the image of the special services (Pocheptsov G. G. Public Relations, or how to successfully
manage public opinion, Moscow, 1998). At the same time, Walter Lacker, for
example, emphasizes the role of analyzing spy novels, considering that they not only
tell about the public image, but also tell about changing values, about
what people can be proud of, about trust (Laqueur W. World of secrets. The use and limits
of intelligence. - London, 1985). The image
of intelligence is quite complex, or rather unconventional - it is not based on the disclosure
of positive things, but rather on the processes of silence. And there is no other way-
it is well known that intelligence cannot "shout" about its success, it can not and
In the same way, she tries not to admit what happened when she fails
. So, R. Gehlen, the head of German intelligence, was known for
always wearing black glasses and never giving interviews. And the head
of British intelligence, even whose name is hidden from outsiders, said that if
his name is known, then the name of his deputy should be notified, and
then the head of some operation should be notified... But all the same, because of this
aura of mystery, on the one hand, and omnipotence, on the other, intelligence always
attracts public attention.
Top officials have different attitudes to intelligence. Churchill's military experience, for
example, supported his faith in intelligence; Hitler's experience, on the contrary, made
him prefer his own intuition. If Churchill actively relied on
the data provided to him, then R. Nixon was biased, since
he attributed his loss in the 1960 elections in part to the fact that
the CIA deliberately ... It also caused the leak of information about the Soviet threat,
which made this issue a problem for the presidential campaign. This happened
because the top CIA officers were more sympathetic to the Democrats and J. R. R.
Tolkien. Kennedy. The British Prime Minister, H. Wilson, generally believed that the
intelligence service was seeking its removal. But in all countries, organizationally, mutual
relations between the first person and the head of intelligence are built in the same way
as in PR: in a system of direct subordination. However, this also entails a serious
dilemma noted by intelligence experts: if the top intelligence official expresses an
objective opinion, he may lose access to the leadership; if he gives out unpleasant
information only after finding the right contexts,he will increase his influence, but reduce
the value of intelligence. In both PR and intelligence, there is a serious dependence of
top officials on these services (two-thirds of the western manager's time is spent on PR),
which leads to an appropriate organizational scheme, when the heads of PR
departments become vice-presidents directly subordinate to the first person. The
same chain of command exists in intelligence.
By the way, even the form of issuing information to management itself is a separate
problem. It is necessary not only to sharply limit the amount
of material provided, but also to give it in a sufficiently convincing form (tables, graphs).
As one of the former American intelligence officers who spoke in Kiev joked: our
president is illiterate, so we should write him texts no more than one
page. And here,of course, the variants of academic reports
that representatives of research structures are fond of do not work very well.
Consumers of information complain about its large volumes, although according to
American estimates, 90% of information is stored in the [Link] one leaves the CIA.
A similar situation exists in the case of analytical information processing: there are large
amounts of information, but there is no one to analyze them qualitatively. Western
researchers note that in the former USSR, managers generally preferred to receive
raw information rather than analysis. President
Eisenhower, for example, had the same desire. (At the same time, however, I came
across a counter- argument that Eisenhower, unlike Churchill, on the contrary, did not
require "raw" information.) It is possible that this is an echo of past centuries, when the
first person could also act as a scout for himself. With the current
complexity of the situation and huge amounts of information, this seems
almost impossible.
M. Hendel (Handel M. Leaders and intelligence) believed that investment in intelligence
correlated with the perceived weakness of their country's leaders. As an
example, he cites Israel and the Soviet Union, which are very strong
they maintained their intelligence services. It also identifies two stages of
intelligence support for decision-making processes. On the one hand, information and
analytics help the leader make a decision, then the intelligence service tracks the
success or failure of this decision and the reaction of opponents to it. On the other
hand, and this is a more painful stage, intelligence agencies can evaluate and
criticize the success of the first-person policy, which is especially important for
long-term policy options . It offers the following option for exploration levels::

Political and strategic information Operational-tactical and

intelligence service crisis intelligence

Often long - or
Mostly short-term ones
Time pressure average time estimates and
assessments and solutions;
and the amplitude solutions: insufficient or
direct pressure on the
ratings not immediatelye pressure
actions
time for actions

Long-term political
and strategic intentions The necessary information
the opponent is more difficult can often be well defined,
The essence to identify or evaluate. This identified and
of evidence for the intelligence
leaves relatively classified. Leaves a relatively
community
greater clearance for smaller gap
analysis
offline leader view for your own interpretation
and subjective the leader
interpretation

Errors related to
New policies and strategies
Correction exploration, to some extent
can be developed
tools for cases they can be compensated
later, to
of inaccuracy by the high command (or
counteract
exploration or diplomatic skill in the military).
to your opponent. Direct effect
incorrect in the event of a crisis),
there are no such counter-strategies.
usage as well as material and material
it can always be
data source military superiority
correctly understood and evaluated
actions

The consequences are often remote

in time and may not always occur The consequences of an
be linked to a error appear immediately and are
Effects
specific leader or solution. clearly identified. Direct line
failures
Failures can be "passed responsibility is easier
on" to the following assign to a leader
to leaders

For this reason, presidents can easily ignore long-term intelligence

recommendations. The military commander will see such inconsistencies immediately.
Intelligence at the operational-tactical level operates with a quantitative
information. This is less ambivalent and more objective information. By the way,
certain types of leaders (for example, Hitler) are not able to handle
exactly such variants of ambiguous [Link]. These types of leaders
(probably including Stalin) cannot work with information that is "unpleasant"
for them and with alternative approaches. There is a certain convergence
of PR and intelligence methodologies, although there are also elements
of complete discrepancy - the focus on secrecy in intelligence and the focus
on informing in PR. The heads of special services try not to meet with the press,
except for special cases, while the heads of other structures seek support from
the media in their endeavors and their work. If the slogan "no contact" and "no
comment" is characteristic of the special services, then it is completely
unacceptable and definitely erroneous in situations PR. JFK said, visiting the CIA
in 1961: "They keep silent about your successes, they trumpet your failures",
which seems to set a different communication paradigm, within the framework of
which operates the intelligence service. But it still exists, and the
emphasis on indirect approaches to information, on indirect methods of influence,
which is characteristic of both PR and intelligence, becomes closer to PR.
V. Platt lays the foundation for a systematic approach (Platt V. Information work
of strategic intelligence , Moscow, 1958). He believes that a fact doesn't mean
anything until it is put into the system. Knowing that the Soviet Union produces,
for example, ten thousand engineers a year becomes significant only in
comparison: how many engineers the United States produces, how many engineers the
USSR needs for military purposes, and AML. A fact gets its real assessment only in such
a specific context. "Facts don't mean anything," is how he formulates his
fundamental axiom.
At the same time, you should also keep in mind the information cycle adopted in
intelligence, which begins with the task statement by the consumer
of intelligence information. And only zatem follows its collection. So, the Defense
Intelligence Agency asked 200 questions of interest in relation to foreign countries
, and additionally assigned
a priority to the country and problem from one to eight. The CIA, which "eats"
15% of human and financial resources, at one time asked 83 problems
for 120 countries, where the priority was also set from 1 to [Link] can also
imagine an intelligence system built around
a possible set of threats. Since national security is defined by one
approach as threat management, this explains the division
of intelligence information into political, military, economic,
and scientific. The main stages of information
work are presented by V. Platt in the following form: 1. General introduction
to the problem, 2. Definition of the concepts used, 3. Collection of facts,
4. Interpretation of facts, 5. Hypothesis building, 6. Conclusions, [Link].
Regarding the last stage, V. Platt writes:: "The author of an information document
should not only have a clear idea of what he is writing about, but also be able
to express his thoughts in a clear form. You don't need to specify the degree
of validity of each statement. The report on scientific personnel should probably
contain tables and diagrams. It is difficult to compare the situation in
different countries correctly." (Platt In., 1997. - p. 116). The reliability of the source
is evaluated from A to E, from "absolutely reliable source" to "unreliable
source" (E) and "source reliability cannot be determined" (E) .
information from 1 to 5: from "the accuracy of the information is confirmed by
data from other sources" to "the information is implausible".
W. Lacker's idea of intelligence is based on the concept
of"surprise", since it is precisely the prevention of surprise that becomes
the task of intelligence (Laqueur W. World of secrets. The use and limits of
intelligence. - London, 1985). In this regard, the main processes are obtaining
information and evaluating it correctly, which is quite consistent with the
interests of PR. The confidence score becomes the main weak point,
because,for example, before the attack on Pearl Harbor, relevant signals were
received, but there were alternative explanations for each of them. The same
situation occurred before the German attack on the Soviet Union, when Stalin
had all the information, but could not adequately assess it. Earlier, the signing of
the Soviet- German pact was "marked" by the departure of Litvinov and the
reduction of anti-Soviet attacks in Germany and anti-German attacks in the
Soviet Union. By the way, the output of Y. Laquera's point is that a military
surprise is possible, but there should be no political surprise. Unexpected
developments are more significant in the case of new regimes. In the
case of revolutions, the prediction of their onset has been around for a long time,
but it is very difficult to decide when exactly public dissatisfaction can turn
into violent actions. CIA specialists wrote in 1980 about the French Revolution:
"A shrewd analyst should have recognized the warning of the coming revolution
at least a year before the fall of the Bastille." Hence, it is necessary to develop
a problem of "indicators" of the development of the situation. However, at a
conference in 1985, CIA methodologists noted that although approaches to this
area are rooted in the social sciences, today these approaches contradict each
other, and are also more likely to explain rather than predict. The psychological
difficulties of working with a completely new person are also a [Link]
situations. At the 1997 Stockholm conference, Bond presented the
results of work on monitoring the development of tension situations in a number
of countries (Bond D. Indications of social change and emergent conflict: toward
explanations of conflict processes // The second international workshop of low
intensity conflict. - Stockholm, 1997). Such a project, based on
open print data processing materials, is of particular interest.
Equally difficult is the disconnect between different types
of analysts. The oil shock of 1973 was left unsaid because
political analysts were not aware of this economic problem at all, and
economic analysts worked in a political vacuum. The solution to this and
similar problems is the creation of interdisciplinary groups. But in the group
there is pressure of a general opinion, there may be pressure of
a bossy opinion. By the way, the same problem of" inconsistency", on the
contrary, should be most welcome between structures aimed at analysis and
structures focused on operations. According to experts, here,
on the contrary, the most effective functioning requires strict
separation, funding from different sources and complete
disinterest in the success/failure of the other.
The complexity of prediction also lies in the problem of the mirror approach and
the rational actor hypothesis. The analyst looks at a foreign country from the point of
view of his culture and values, which naturally leads to a distortion of his model
of events. The American loss in Vietnam can be explained in terms
of a lack of understanding of traditional Vietnamese society. Same situation
It also occurred in the case of the USSR in Afghanistan and Russia in Chechnya. The
United States also failed to really assess the role of the religious situation in Iran in
1978-1979. I helped you in this situation aet building the operational code and cognitive map o
leader (for more information, see Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and Practice of communication,
Moscow, 1998). In some cases (such as the Arab attack on Israel in 1973), the lack
of prediction is attributed to a lack of rational understanding of actions. However
, irrational actions also take place in
the world. : "Good intelligence can take place with a minimum of theory, but
it is unlikely to take place with a minimum of knowledge" (p. 281). We can
easily extend this observation to the field of PR, where the problem always
arises whether this field is science or art. Accordingly, the problem of" craft
or science " is also faced by intelligence.
In 1973, when W. Colby was director of the CIA, two methodological
divisions were created there, which then merged into the Methodology and
Forecasting division, headed by Richard Hoer. This division was created
to ensure that intelligence methods do not lag behind the advancing
researchers from a purely academic environment. Thanks to this openness
, new methods have emerged that are also of interest to PR:
The UN vote in 1975, An analysis of the impact of economic conditions on the left
-wing vote in France over the past fifty years, and Support for Brezhnev by other
Soviet leaders. R. Hoer writes about the discrepancy between academic and
intelligence approaches to the analysis of phenomena: "A quantitatively
oriented scientist restricts his work to variables that can
be operationalized (i.e., expressed quantitatively) whereas an
intelligence analyst rarely has the opportunity to have that luxury. The scientist
is interested in the correlation of political violence in general and wants to test
some of his theoretical assumptions. Yandex. Metrica AnalystThe ci, on the other
hand, must be specific; it must offer, for example, an explanation
of the 1974 Thai mutiny and what consequences it may have for the future
of that country." Laqueur W. - P. 301). Intelligence
mistakes have serious consequences for the country. Such an erroneous point of
view in the United States was the exaggeration of the USSR's capabilities in the production
of ballistic missiles in the sixties: they seemed to compare their real production
of missiles with the forecast of the potential of the former USSR. Even closer to the
collapse of the USSR, the United States managed to mislead the leaders of the Soviet
Union about the reality of its "star wars" program, which led to serious
political and economic miscalculations. On the other hand, the Americans believe
that the Soviet Union correctly assessed the consequences of the introduction of troops to
Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan, since this did not lead to military opposition from
other countries. In principle, the intelligence community's opinion may not "coincide" with
the opinion at the top, and then it becomes a carrier of negative information:
thus, the Carter administration was focused on detente, without taking into
account the objections coming from the CIA.
Information work, especially at the methodological level, coincides in
many areas of humanitarian knowledge. Therefore
, other qualitative studies are also of particular interest. As an example , you can mention
Mannheim J. B., Rich R. K. Political science. Metody issledovaniya [Methods of research], Moscow,
1997; A. Leiphart Democracy in multi-component societies. Comparative
research , Moscow, 1997; Parsons T. The system of modern societies. - M., 1997; Saati
T., Kearns K. Analytical planning. Organization of Systems, Moscow, 1991; Bir S. The brain
of the firm. - M., 1993, etc.).
Working methods in this area are very important, since, according to experts '
calculations , intelligence expenditures reach up to 10% of the military budget (with
an average of 87% spent on technological intelligence, and 13% on human
actions), which in turn should inevitably affect the quality of work. Data close
to today are as follows: the total amount of spending by the US intelligence
community reaches $ 30 billion,
and up to $ 2 billion should be spent annually to maintain the necessary level of
preparation for information wars . On the other hand, such methods are
essentially applied, and such utilitarianism is very much
lacking in today's humanities.
Literature
Anin B., Petrovich A. Radioshpionazh, Moscow, 1996
Dulles A. Iskusstvo razvedki [The Art of Intelligence], Moscow, 1992
Dukhov V. E. Economic intelligence and business security. - Kiev, 1997
Leonov N. S. Likholetye, Moscow, 1994
D. Mclachan. Secrets of British intelligence (1939-1945). - Moscow, 1971
Matvienko V. Ya. Sociological analysis in politics. - Kiev, 1995
Platt V. Strategic intelligence. Basic principles , Moscow, 1997
Platt V. Informatsionnaya rabota strategicheskoi razvedeniya [Information work of
strategic intelligence], Moscow, 1958 Pocheptsov G. G. National security of transition countries. -
Kiev, 1996 Pocheptsov G. G. Theory and practice of communication. - Moscow, 1998
Ronin R. Its own intelligence service. - Minsk, 1997
Hunt Ch., Zartarian V. Intelligence in the service of your company. Kiev, 1992
Language and modeling of social interaction, Moscow, 1987
Cashman G. What causes war? An introduction to the theories of international conflict. -
New York etc., 1993
Brams S.J., Kilgour D.M. Game theory and national security. - New York, 1988
Laqueur W. World of secrets. The use and limits of intelligence. - London, 1985
Schelling T.S. Arms and influence. - New Haven etc., 1966

§11. Conflictology

Conflict (and, consequently, conflictology) should be of particular interest to

the PR. After all, any conflict situation always becomes the subject of PR
too. PR itself grows out of the resolution of conflict and crisis situations.
Avoiding conflict between the public and the organization is the direct
responsibility of the PR. But even for internal PRS, conflict seems to be the
primary task: the internal climate of the team, the desire to live as a single
family - all these are tasks of both PR and conflictology. Within the
framework of our accepted paradigm, conflict is sometimes considered as a "disease"
(of the system, communication, etc.). The Western paradigm, on the
contrary, fundamentally considers conflict as a natural state of the system.
Only in a dead system there will be no more conflicts. Even the names
adopted in our country and in the West seem to set two different approaches.
We have called this field "conflictology", which clearly shows its certain
academism. Zapady calls this area "Conflict Analysis and Resolution", which
shows a purely utilitarian view, aimed not so much at studying as at
resolving conflicts. we, as a rule, always sin by going into the dark.
"sky-high heights", forgetting what this direction is actually created
for. Perhaps this is also due to the fact that innovation trends were
not so significant for us, since traditional types of societies are more
focused on the past than on the future. The Western paradigm,
starting from setting the axiomatics of the naturalness of conflict for any living
system, then proceeds to delineate the levels of conflict resolution.
There are three possible options: the level of interests, the level
of law, and the level of power (Ury W.L. a. o. Getting disputes resolved. -
Cambridge, Mass., 1993). Schematically, each subsequent level
seems to "overlap" the previous one:

power right interests

Interses are defined asI am our needs, desires, and fears. Everything that
we think about or wish for. Including in the production plan. For example,
the director of a TV factory wants to produce more TV sets. On the other
hand, the commercial director wants more different brands of TV sets,
because different models will be easier for him to sell. For the plant
manager , different models mean more expenses. This is clearly a conflict
situation. How can they reach agreement? By negotiations, as we have already
defined above. Often negotiations don't help. Then we resort to
intermediaries, to arbitrators, that is, to some third party to whom
the corresponding powers are delegated. But the
conflict can be resolved in a different way. You can adjust it to pre-defined
standards that already exist. Such a standard can be right. This may
be a precedent from the past. But the law is also not so clear and
unambiguous category. Sometimes you should also resort to intermediaries,
i.e. third parties who are not interested in the outcome of the
case. Using forces to resolve conflicts, it involves transferring all
costs to another. A strike is a classic example of the use of force-an
attempt to forcibly resolve an issue, an attempt to force the other side to
accept my point of view. However, it is not words that become
my main argument. Whoever is stronger is right, which is especially
dangerous when applying this principle of resolution in the international
sphere between individual States. Let's now look at some simpler
examples. There's a queue ahead of us. Natural satisfaction of interests
(however, from the point of view of only those who are standing) - who
is longer in line, he gets. But there may also be a problem of legal solution.
This is a participant in the war, this is invalead. And it is possible to solve
the power order - having outflow all, take (enter and under.). Or
the loss of a miner's boots. He complains to the foreman. The foreman can
satisfy his interests and give him new ones. Then the conflict is self-evident
it will end exactly at this level. But it can also be solved at the legal level, if the
miner's contract states, for example,that the administration is responsible for
the loss . But it may not be recorded. And if the worker is not
satisfied, a strike may occur. If the enterprise loses
more than the workers, it will be more dependent and will seek a way out of this
strike. Today's miners ' strikes demand payment of wages,
which is generally the norm of work.
In Kiev, there was an example of a student strike in 1990. Students went on a
hunger strike. There were no economic losses. There were losses of material
order. Informationally, they also attracted attention. And after a certain
period of time, it was decided to meet this power requirement.
That is, we see that the conflict can be satisfied at any of the three levels.
The only thing to keep in mind is that the higher we go,
the more expensive this satisfaction is, since material
resources are no longer being developed, and the resource of time is being
spent. Moreover, resolving a conflict at the level of strength is not only the most
expensive, but also the least persistent. we can see this in many examples.
Prime Minister V. Masol, who was removed from the student hunger strike,
then returned again. The United States has to expend a lot of resources to keep
Iraq from starting new hostilities again. If we also rightfully
force someone to back down, then this also does not mean that the problem
can not happen again. Mom took the toy from the fighting children, saying
that fighting isn't good. But the fight may break out again after a while. And
if the mother gives one a doll and the other a car, she will satisfy their interests
and can be calm until the evening. In other words, the most important and
timely level of conflict resolution is the level of interests. Not the right and not
even the power. Only the satisfaction of interests can destroy the conflict for a
longer period of time. Often you can't
go straight to the level of interests. It can lead to negotiations about interests
after a show of force or a reference to the right. Such a demonstration shows
the opponent what the other side has. Then the other side will be more willing
to operate at the level of interests. An example is a preliminary one-hour strike,
which shows possible unity of action between workers and their employers. Or
an example of a Japanese strike. when workers are working, doing everything.
but they do it with black bandages on their hands. Thus , they demonstrate the
possibility of a forceful development of events. Sometimes the disputants don't
know who is right, who is stronger. Some believe that we are stronger, others
that they are. There is a show of strength that puts everyone in their place.
And again, you can continue to talk at the level of interests. When searching
for alternative ways to resolve the conflict, the following factors are taken into
account: prices and long-term performance. An interest-based solution is always
cheaper than any other. A right-level solution is cheaper than
a force-level solution. But if the other party is stronger, they will strive to show their
strength. Let's take for example the relationship between the state and its citizen.
Even today, it is easier for us to retreat than to prove our case. But the exercise of
power may still be ultimately unprofitable. Vse vremyaI need
to maintain this power imbalance and demonstrate it. So, even in this case,
it is more profitable to find a resolution at the level of interests. This is an example
of the architectural layout of laying lawns strictly geometrically, and people
they still walk as close as they can get. Every year, grass is sown,
threatening signs are set up, even to the point of barbed wire, and
all to no avail, since the interests of a person come into conflict with
the geometry of the architect. It is easier to satisfy your interests by
renting out paths in a way that is more convenient. Thus, the level
of interests is the cheapest and most durable way to resolve a
conflict. Conflict is a complex social action, so it lends itself to a
certain structuration, reducing it to more elementary components,
which are characterized by their own characteristics. Finding the bb of
each of these components requires its own type of behavior. The structure
of the conflict can be represented within a time sequence. For
example, an Australian school offers such a linear series (Cornelius H.
etc. Everyone can win. How to resolve conflicts, Moscow, 1992):

Nothing has been said yet, the problem is not clear. But there is a feeling,
discomfort
that something is going wrong.
The first collision occurs, but it is not perceived as an error.
incident
typical. Therefore, a reaction to it is not yet developed.
Participants begin to form a negative image of each other.
misunderstanding
However, even at this level, it is not too late to correct the situation.
Negative attitudes are added to the negative image
voltage and become permanent. Problem resolution already
complicated.
Normal operation is no longer possible, since both
crisis
the parties are waiting for radical steps

We can also put the conflict within a certain paradigm, which

allows us to more reasonably predict certain behavior of the participants
in the conflict.
R. Rubinstein considers three similar paradigms in this context:
economic or geopolitical interests, emotional or moral
identification, and structural role. R. Rubinstein analyzes these paradigms using the
example of the Gulf War (Rubenstein R.E. On taking sides: lessons of the
Persian Gulf war. - Fairfax, 1993 / George Mason University; русск. transl. see in Pocheptsov
G. G. National security of transition countries. - Kiev, 1996).
At the same time, it should be emphasized that the Americans are very active
in analyzing all existing world crises, including the war of 1914 and the Cuban
crisis of 1962.
The paradigm of interests
The Bush administration is coming to the decision to bomb Iraq,
even though there was a possibility of a peaceful negotiated solution to the problem.
What could this be related to? Analysts believe that if the negotiations developed, Iraq
would be recorded as a strong power in the Persian Gulf, which the United States was
not interested in. Here, however, purely economic interests were
also connected: Saddam Hussein opposed the overproduction of oil in the region, which
led to low prices for it. The above-mentioned arguments did not even come
to the surface in the public rhetoric of the United States, but they were decisive for
making a decision. Therefore, the conclusion made by many analysts was as follows: :
the national interests of a particular country are actually the interests
of one or another influential group within the country.
Identification paradigm
In order for a third party to act on the side of one of the parties to the conflict,
it must solve the identification problem for itself. With whom, culturally,
politically, or ideologically, she has a closer
relationship. For example, in the case of Afghanistan, the USSR changed this
identification paradigm several times, bringing new regimes to power. Turkey
is on the side of Muslim Azerbaijan in the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict.
Russia declares support for the Russian-speaking population of the Baltic
States, which leads to a conflict with Latvia. During World War II, Americans
mobilized for war with Japan, as the Japanese were modeled as
others, like the "yellow devil". Germans, being racially the same, were presented
as "undemocrats". In the case of the Persian Gulf, the rationale for the decision
was difficult for the United States, since both sides were Muslim countries.
Therefore, quite controversially, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait began to be presented
by propaganda as "potentially democratic countries".
If ethnic identification fails, then moral
identification takes effect, dividing the world into two categories: aggressive
militarists and civilians. We have always classified Americans as the first type,
and ourselves as the second. They are the opposite. The Americans did the
same with Saddam Hussein, portraying him as an Arabic-speaking Hitler. If you
negotiate with him, then what happened to Europe will happen later. Actively
modeling the image of the enemy, the United States completely ignored the
proposals of the ambassadors of Algeria and Jordan. The Soviet Union on the
minimum concessions on which Iraq would withdraw its troops, while preserving
its face. Analysts believe, that the forceful resolution in the Persian Gulf was
the biggest mistake in modern history. As a result, the balance of power was not
changed, and the source of conflict tension was preserved. Moreover, they
believe that there is a certain analogy not so much between Hitler and Hussein,
but between Iraq and the pre-fascist regimes in Europe. Both after the First
World War and after the Iran-Iraq War, the possibilities
of socio-economic development, national identity and regional
autonomy are unsatisfied. If the Germans had not been subjected to such
inadequate foreign control after the First World War, they would not
have chosen an aggressive Fuhrer as a result.
The structural role paradigm
The United States has covered up the UN's structural role in this conflict, thereby
legalizing its intervention. Analysts, on the contrary, emphasize the
resulting underestimation of the UN's importance as a neutral
organization, which is able to satisfy all parties. What were the overall
results of the US intervention? They were very positive for America. The US
managed to overcome the Vietnam syndrome, which, by the way, is also a type
of PR task. Even anti-war activists in the United States were no longer opposed
to the Gulf War. The nation has united under the flag of fighting an external
enemy. The same R. Rubinstein saw the following components in the reasons
for the forceful, rather than negotiated solution of the problem::
economic security, cultural identity, and political autonomy.
What was the role of each of them?
Economic security. America was in a certain economic
stagnation, and petrodollars were of sufficient interest to it to
justify its intervention. In this situation, it could not allow the other
side to dictate an increase in the price of oil.
Cultural identity. The widening gap between rich and poor, and increased immigration
to the United States from Latin America and Asia, is gradually leading to a loss
of the concept of nation. The well-known understanding of America as a "cauldron"
probably could no longer" digest " such an understanding. As R. Rubinstein
writes: "If we can't live peacefully at home, we can at least fight together against a
common enemy." Political autonomy. War, according to analysts, is, as a rule,
bringing out the inability to solve their internal problems. Nations
need personalized enemies to protect their group
identity.
The general conclusions drawn by the analysts were as follows:
- a serious conflict cannot be resolved if all its participants do not have
the opportunity to meet their basic interests in the field of their
identity, recognition, security and development. Interestingly, the situation in
Chechnya corresponds very well to the proposed parameters;
- elites are trying to manipulate the population by relying on national
interests, which are actually their interests. Therefore, working in the field
of resolving such conflicts, it is necessary to lower yourself to the level of basic
human needs that are not met by existing
bureaucratic elites. The movement in support of a peaceful resolution has
almost no success in appealing to the upper echelons. By the way, this is purely
PR-inference. References
Dmitriev A. et al. Introduction to the general theory of conflicts, Moscow, 1993
Zdravomyslov A. G. Interethnic conflicts in the post-Soviet space, Moscow,
1997
Zdravomyslov A. G. Sociology of Conflict , Moscow, 1996
Siegert V., Lang L. Lead without conflicts. - M., 1990
Karakurt T. Interethnic conflicts and their solutions in New Independent
States. - Warsaw, 1992
Cornelius H. etc. Everyone can win. How to resolve conflicts, Moscow, 1992
Lebedeva M. M. Political settlement of conflicts, Moscow, 1997
Mastenbrook W. Management of conflict situations and development of the
organization, Moscow, 1996 Osnovy konfliktologii
[Fundamentals of Conflictology]. Edited by V. N. Kudryavtsev, Moscow, 1997
Pocheptsov G. G. National security of transition countries. - Kiev, 1996
Sorokin Yu. A. Ethnic conflictology. - Samara, 1994
Ushakova T. N. et al. Conducting political discussions. Psychological analysis
of conflict speeches, Moscow, 1995
Legal conflictology . - M., 1995
Cashman G. What causes war? An introduction to theories of international conflict. -
New York etc., 1993 Conflict
and coexistence in Belgium. The dynamics of a culturally divided society. Ed. by A.
Lijphart. - Berkeley, 1981
Conflict resolution technology. Ed. by D.W. Cole. - Cleveland, 1983
Conflict resolution theory and practice. Integration and application. Ed. by J.D.
Sandole, H. van der Merve. - Manchester etc., 1993 Conflicts in Europe.
Ed. by R. Ragionieri // Quaderni. - 1994. - Vol. VIII. - N 1-2. Regional
conflicts: the challenge to US-Russian co-operation. - Oxford, 1995
Rubenstein R.E. Conflict resolution and power politics. Global conflict after the
cold war. two lectures. - Fairfax, 1996 / George Mason University
Rubenstein R.E. On taking sides: lessons of the Persian Gulf war. - Fairfax, 1993
/ George Mason University The art
of conflict prevention. Ed. by W. Bauwens, L. Reychler. - London etc., 1994
Ury W.L. a.o. Getting disputes resolved. Designing systems to cut the costs of
conflict. - Cambridge, 1993

§12. Organizational development

Organizational development as a professional activity is largely

focused on the same goals as PR in the case of working with an internal
audience. For the first time, the effectiveness of this direction was
demonstrated in the well-known experiments of E. Mayo, conducted in the
pre-war period in Hawthorne. In this sense, we even have a convergence in the
names-public relations-for us and human relations-for E. Mayo. Experiments
were conducted to change the lighting, in which two groups of female
employees participate. In one group , there were actual changes in lighting,
while in the other group, there were no changes . But to the surprise of the
researchers, both groups were experiencing changes in labor productivity.
Moreover, as it turned out, it did not depend on changes in lighting, since it was
then increased, then decreased, then left at the same level, and productivity
still increased. So the researchers came to the conclusion that some other
factor is involved. It turned out to be the human factor. Female employees,
feeling the attention to themselves, in response increased productivity, while the
actual illumination may even worsen. E. Mayo was a professor of industrial
research at Harvard. He came to America from Australia on a Rockefeller grant.
An analysis of his experiments showed that the factory not only performs
economic functions, producing goods, but also has certain social functions, creating
and distributing people's satisfaction. Organizational
development deals with planned changes in complex organizations, this
is change management. Operating in a competitive environment, organizations
must constantly change in order not to lose the fight. In addition , the dynamics
of the modern world have changed dramatically, which again requires making
changes a serious component of successful work. Changes
are counteracted by many technological and psychological barriers. naS.
Tichy and M. Devanna list a large number of different reasons
for resistance to change, including: organizational, technical,
political, cultural (Tichi N., Devanna M. A. Leaders of Reorganization
, Moscow, 1990). F. Luthans
divides the reasons that push organizations to change into internal and external
ones (Luthans F. Organisational behavior. - New York etc., 1977. - p. 530), among
the external reasons he names the following:
1. High competition in the market.
2. Increased speed of technological change.
3. Variability in the physical and social environment.
Changes become an object of organizational development (OR) and
are characterized as follows:
1. Changes should be planned in nature, since they should
differ from a random set of actions.
2. Changes should cover the entire system.
3. Focus on the group, which is more effective than
focusing on individuals or organizations.
4. Changes should be built in the long-term perspective, although
there is always pressure to go for immediate results.
5. The involvement of a "change agent", a third person, who will act as a
"catalyst" is necessary, because when viewed from the inside, it is quite
difficult to see the points of change. At the same time, a paradoxical
situation arises when changes within the substructure encounter
not only serious opposition, but also have a number of unpredictable
consequences in terms of mutual relations with other substructures.
On the other hand, changes in the overall structure may become
so general that they will not affect your specific work each day. There is also
a very similar problem concerning the creation of a corporate culture, the
development of a unified ideology of the group. According to experts (Cohen
A.R. a. o. Effective behavior in organisations. - Homewood, 1976. - p. 234)
groups with a strong sense of their own identity follow the following
trends: 1. Your own group is perceived
as "the best" compared to others. 2. Your own group's ideas are
overestimated, while others ' ideas are underestimated. 3. There is an
overestimation of one's own competence and an understatement of the
competence of others. 4. Re-registrationvaluing
your own leaders and underestimating other people's leaders.
5. Reduce interaction and communication with the other group. 6.
Misrepresentation of information about another group in the direction of
presenting it in an unfavorable light. 7.
Distrust of members of another group. It is interesting that if we transfer
these trends to the time of perestroika, we can see how identity was
destroyed in the former USSR, since in all these parameters there was
a reorientation to the opinion of another group- the Western model of the
world, while its own model was rejected for unsuitability. This may also
be related to another principle of intergroup interaction: the more active
the interaction between the two groups, the greater the tendency to
cooperate. The more frequent and open the flow of information between
groups becomes, the sooner common goals develop. The tendency
to cooperate also increases when there is (a) a common enemy, and (b)
shared responsibility for solving the problem. An important
component of enterprise analysis is the search for points of tension,
since it is easier to direct people to change when they feel
a certain discomfort, lack of creativity. A. Cohen et al. offer a series
of questions for such analysis (Cohen A.R. a.o. Effective behavior in organisations.
- Homewood, 1976. - Р. 247):
1. Where is the tension in the system?
2. How is the department (person, group, etc.) that has a
problem related to other organizational units? 3. To what extent
does an organization function as a hierarchy? 4. Where is the
system most ready for change? This analysis allows you to start
making changes with the lowest degree of pressure, which
is usually the case. causes the opposite effect. As a result,
we suggest the following way to find a diagnosis for changes:

Functional Dysfunctional
Easily changeable Are not A. Support B. Concentration
so easily changeable B. Protection of G. Fencing off

A. Functional behavior of the system that can be changed

should be supported and stimulated.
b. Functional behavior that should not be changed can be
ignored or protected from interfering influences.
B. You should focus as much energy as possible on
dysfunctional behavior that is easily changeable .
D. Dysfunctional behaviors that are not easily changed
should be isolated, since it makes no sense to spend any
effort in this area. As we can
see, almost all the problems of "organizational change" are
very much in line with the tasks of PR. This also applies to
certain methods of analysis used in the framework of
organizational development. Literature
Kazmirenko V. P. Social psychology of organizations. - Kiev, 1993
Rogers E., Argvala-Rogers R. Communications in organizations, Moscow,
1980 Tichi N., Devanna M. A. Leaders of reorganization , Moscow, 1990
Foster R. Production update: attackers win. - Moscow, 1987
Waterman R. Update factor. How do the best
companies maintain their competitiveness? - Moscow, 1988
Brown J.A.C. The social psychology of industry. - Harmondsworth, 1969
Cohen A.R. a.o. Effective behavior in organisations. - Homewood,
1976 Luthans F. Organisational behavior. - New York etc., 1977
*

Conclusion

Public Relations is taking its first steps in the CIS countries. But if the theory
within our context is still maturing, then the practice has matured for a long
time. After all, the first public relations structures have long been functioning
within the framework of law enforcement agencies and special services. Their
focus on working within the framework of crisis situations has forced them to
start their developments in this direction. & If we look at the situation in
Ukraine as a whole, there is no doubt that a society in transition requires
special attention to a person who has really lost many of his social landmarks.
Public relations generates a scientific approach to various problems
of social management. It is necessary to move long ago from accumulating
unsolvable problems to solving them, and in this case public relations can
significantly help society , which takes into account many of the results of
a number of sciences of the communication cycle. Without knowledge of
them, it is impossible to function effectively as PR specialists. Public
Relations is interested in both external and internal audiences. This is
a reflection of society's attention to a person, when a person ceases to be
a silent cog. On the other hand, the conditions of democratic development
allow large groups of people to have autonomous behavior from
others. We are talking about the conscious generation of a variety of
human behavior. All this in response requires strengthening the work of
methods that allow you to reach a certain agreement in behavior. Public
Relations is both a science and an art form. Therefore, it requires a new
generation of professionals, for which we are not yet ready, since we
cannot combine both theoretical knowledge and practical skills.

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Title: Public relations for professionals

Author: G. G. Pocheptsov
Publishing House: REFL-buk, Wackler: Kiev
edition: 6th

Year of publication: 2005

ISBN: 5-87983-083-7

number of pages: 640 pages

circulation: 3000 copies.

Especially for [Link]