NORTHWEST UNIVERSITY, KANO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

BUD 3321 Building Construction Super-Structures (3 Units)

Course Contents
1. Nature and functions of buildings
2. Building superstructures
3. Types of superstructures

• Solid structure
• Skeletal/Frame structure

• Shell structure
4. Advantages of frame structures

5. Classification of frames
6. Choice of structural materials for building frames
7. Factors influencing choice of building frame structural materials

8. Structural members and structural resistance to frames

9. Design loads

1.0 Nature and Functions of Buildings

1.1 Nature of Buildings
The nature of building is its quality or character. Hence, the character of building is
the overall shape of the building, its materials, craftsmanship, decorative details,
interior spaces and features, as well as the various aspects of its site and environment.
Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted
throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to
weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific uses, prestige and
aesthetic reasons.

Some buildings are flat/storey, others are two or multi-storey. A storey is one of its
different levels which is situated above or below other levels. Single storey is having
only one floor or level. It is a building consisting of a ground storey only. Single
storey can also be a double volume storey. Double volume in building construction
refers to a design feature where a space has a ceiling height that is double the standard
height, often around 16-20 feet or more. This design element can create a sense of
openness, grandeur, and airiness in a room. Multi-storey building is a building that
has multiple storeys, and typically contains vertical circulation in the form of ramps
stairs and lifts.
1.2 Functions of Buildings

The basic function of a building is to provide structurally sound and environmentally

controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and contents. A building or edifice is
an enclosed structure with a roof, walls and windows, usually standing permanently in
one place, such as a house or factory. Buildings serve several societal needs –
occupancy, primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store
belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a
physical separation of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) from the
outside (a place that may be harsh and harmful at times). Buildings have been objects
or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable
planning and building practices has become an intentional part of the design process
of many new buildings and other structures, usually green buildings.
In architecture, functionalism (i.e 'form follows function') coined by Arc. Louis
Sullivan (1856-1924), is the principle that rather than buildings being designed in
accordance with past precedents or stylic trends (aesthetics), the underlying purpose
of the building should determine its form. Form follows function articulates the
principle that the shape of a building or object should directly relate to its intended
function or purpose. This principle has been a guiding light of 20th-century modernist
architecture and industrial design. Numerous architectural texts acknowledge the need
for thoughtful integration of structure with building function. At an essentially
pragmatic level, Schodek explains the concept of ‘critical functional dimensions’.
This approach requires a designer to determine the minimum structure-free plan
dimensions for a given space or series of spaces. Once these dimensions are decided
upon, ‘basic functional modules’ can be drawn in plan.

1.3 Types of Buildings

Building type means a classification of buildings by function, disposition and
configuration that provides the norm against which variations are assessed and
classified. Buildings have a wide range of different functions, for instance, a house to
be lived in, an office serves as a place of work for business activities, a shopping
centre is for consumers to access retail outlets, a school is for pupils and teachers to
undertake education, and so on. Depending upon the character of occupancy or the
type of use, buildings can be classified into different categories as follows:
I. Residential Building: a building should be considered residential when more than
half of the floor area is employed for dwelling purposes. Residential building
basically consists of:
• a sleeping room (bedroom)

• a living room
• convinces (toilet and bath)

• cooking area (kitchen)

This type of building includes apartment houses (flats), hotels, dormitories, semi-
detatched buildings etc. Other buildings are considered non-essential.
II. Educational Building: this includes any building used for school, college, or
daycare purposes involving assembly for instructions or recreation.
III. Assembly Building: this may include any building or part of a building where a
group of people gathers for recreation, amusement, social, religious, or such types of
purposes such as theatres, assembly halls, exhibition halls, restaurants, museums, club
rooms, auditoria, gymnasiums, libraries etc.

2.0 Building Superstructures

In architecture, a structure is a body or assemblage of bodies in space to form a
system capable of supporting loads. Built structures are composed of structural
elements such as columns, beams and trusses. The word "superstructure" is a
combination of the Latin prefix, super, (meaning above, in addition) with the Latin
stem word, structure, (meaning to build or to heap up). A superstructure is an upward
extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various
kinds of physical structures such as buildings, bridges, or ships. Building
superstructure consists of walls, floors, columns, beams, doors and windows and
roofings. In other words, superstructure consists of the walls and framing above the
ground level which transmits the loads of the building to the foundation.
Superstructure can be load bearing or non-load bearing. It can be made of several
materials depending upon the function.
2.1 Walls
Wall is a vertical structure which encloses space and divides floor area to serve a
function. Walls serve various functions in buildings such as:
(a) support loads of upper floors and roof (in case of load beating walls),

(b) exterior wall of a building has to give protection against natural elements like
sun, wind, rain, snow etc.

(c) ground floor wall has to resist dampness also,

 (d) provide enclosure for ensuring security -and privacy,
(e) provide support for doors and windows,

(f) provide thermal insulation,

(g) provide sound insulation,

(h) offer adequate resistance to fire, and

(i) serve as a base for suitable aesthetic treatment.

Walls can be constructed in various ways using a variety of building materials. The
common materials used for construction of walls are as follows:

(a) bricks,
(b) stones, and

(c) various types of blocks.

2.2 Floors

There are two main types of floor: ground and upper. Ground floor consists of solid
concrete floor, suspended timber floor and floating floor, see this:

2.3 Beams and slabs

Beam and slab construction involves the use of one or two way spanning slabs onto
beams spanning in one or two directions. The beams can be wide and flat or narrow
and deep, depending on the structure’s requirements. Beams tend to span between
columns or walls and can be simply supported or continuous.
2.4 Roofing

The building roof shall be constructed so that the combined dead, imposed and wind
loads are sustained and transmitted by it to the ground safely; and without causing
such deflection or deformation of any part of the building, or such movement of the
ground, as will impair the stability of any part of another building. Roofs are of
different types, made with different roofing sheets.
2.5 Executing Building Superstructure Work

This is to describe the competency required while executing building superstructure

work which encompasses observing the following process:

• Setting out walls and columns

• Constructing superstructure walls and columns

• Setting out superstructure beams and suspended slabs

• Constructing stair structure

• Casting suspended slabs and beams

3.0 Types of Superstructures

The following are common types of superstructures:

(i) Solid structure

(ii) Frame/skeletal structure

(iii) Shell 🐚 structure

(iv) Load bearing structure

(v) Arch structure
(vi) Cable-stayed structure
(vii) Pre-engineered structure

(viii) Reinforced concrete structure

Our area of interest here, is the three basic types of superstructures: solid, frame and
shell. More complex structures are often combinations of these three forms. Each one
of these forms can withstand different loads. Designers must consider the loads that
the structures will experience before they can decide which forms to use.
3.1 Solid structure
Solid structures are dense structures with very few, or no, open spaces inside them.
Solid structures will not change shape when a load is placed on them. A solid
structure is strong, relying on solid construction materials to support loads. Large,
strong structures have a large mass. A solid structure uses solid construction materials
to support loads. A well-made solid structure can last a long time. A concrete dam, a
wooden telephone pole, and a marble statue are examples of solid structures.
3.2 Frame Structure

A frame is made by joining separate pieces of materials together at joints and is used
to support a load. Frame structures use a network, or skeleton, of materials that
support each other. In building construction, a frame structure consists of beams and
columns that work together to support loads. It's commonly used in high-rise
buildings, industrial buildings, and bridges.
Your body’s skeleton is a frame structure. Other examples are a goalie’s net, a spider
web, and the network of steel or wood beams supporting a bridge or a building. Frame
structures can be very strong if their parts support each other and help resist forces. A
single part of a frame structure cannot support the mass of the structure by itself. The
individual parts of a frame structure are connected to one another. These connections
require special support so that they do not bend and collapse.

A frame structure may have a membrane stretched over it (for example, a tent), but
the membrane does not help support loads. Frame structures are widely used and can
be very sturdy. They have the advantage of being lighter than solid structures.
Concrete frame structures are the most common type of modern building. It usually
consists of a frame or a skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members are beams and
vertical ones are the columns. Concrete Buildings structures also contain slabs which
are used as base, as well as roof/ceiling.
3.3 Shell Structure

A shell structure is a thin, curved structure that provides excellent strength and
stability. It's often used in domes, roofs, and silos. A shell structure is a structure with
a hollow, curved shape that can carry a load. A bird’s beak, a pop can, and a bike
helmet are all shell structures. Shell structures can be very light, and yet have a great
deal of strength and rigidity.

3.4 Combination Structures

The human skeleton is a framework of bones that hold muscles tendons, and
ligaments. The skull is curved, hard, and hollow like a shell structure. The femur,
located in the thigh, can be considered a solid structure. The human body is a
combination structure containing various solid, frame, and shell components. Most
structures are combination structures. Houses, and most other buildings, have a solid
foundation. They also have a frame of wood or metal that supports a shell of brick,
concrete, wood, or metal. Other combination structures include cars (metal frame and
a shell of plastic or metal), some bridges (solid piers and steel frame girders), and
domed stadiums (solid concrete walls and frame and shell roof).
Other types of superstructures can be seen below:

Load bearing structure: A load-bearing structure uses walls to support loads from
the roof and floors. It's often used in residential buildings, such as apartments and
houses.
Arch Structure: An arch structure uses curved members to distribute loads evenly.
It's commonly used in bridges, tunnels, and large-span buildings
Cable-Stayed Structure: A cable-stayed structure uses cables and suspender cables
to support loads. It is commonly used in bridges and large-span buildings.
Suspension Structure: A suspension structure uses cables and suspender cables to
support loads, with the main cables suspended between towers. It's often used in
bridges and large-span buildings.

Pre-Engineered Structure: A pre-engineered structure is a prefabricated building

system that uses standardized components. It is commonly used in industrial
buildings, warehouses, and commercial buildings.
These are just a few examples of the types of superstructures used in building
construction. The choice of superstructure depends on various factors, including the
building's purpose, location, and design requirements.

4.0 Advantages of Frame Structures

4.1 Structural Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Framing

• Design Flexibility: Structural design changes are more easily accommodated

in the field with a reinforced concrete framing system due to the fact that the
system is constructed on-site rather than months ahead of time at a fabricating
plant.

• Shear Wall Design: Reinforced concrete shear walls efficiently carry the
lateral and gravity loads applied to a building while also acting as interior
partitions and sound dampers.
• Structural Integrity: Additional reinforcing steel can be used to prevent
structural failure under extreme conditions (exterior or interior explosions) at a
minimum of cost.

• Maximum Vibration and Earthquake Resistance: Reinforced concrete

buildings are inherently stiffer than structural steel framing systems thereby
eliminating the floor vibration associated with structural steel. Seismic
considerations can also be more easily handled with a reinforced concrete
framing system through the use of shear walls and reinforcing steel detailing
techniques.
 • Sound Isolation: The high mass of a reinforced concrete structure reduces
sound migration from floor to floor and room to room.

• Underground Parking: A reinforced concrete framing system easily allows

for the creation of underground parking structures, thereby maximizing land
use.
• Minimal Staging Areas: Concrete pumping techniques allow for high-rise
construction in busy downtown centres adjacent to existing structures.
• Adaptability to Unforeseen Soil Conditions: Reinforced concrete framing
systems can be modified to meet actual site conditions without extensive
project delays.

4.2 Environmental Considerations of Reinforced Concrete Framing

• Recycled Materials: Recycled materials are used in the production of
reinforcing steel. As well, supplementary cementing materials are waste by-
products from other industrial processes that, in the production of ready mixed
concrete, improve the performance characteristics of the cast-in-place
concrete.

• Transportation Considerations: Since reinforced concrete involves a greater

use of local materials, the overall environmental costs associated with
transportation are reduced.
• Low Energy Intensity: While the production of cement is very energy
intensive, concrete only contains 9% - 15% cement. Concrete’s other major
components, aggregates and water, make concrete a very low energy building
material.

4.3 Local Economy Benefits

• Reinforced concrete framing systems employ the local labour force to
construct the building.
• Local Aggregate and Ready Mixed Concrete Producers are used to supply the
ready mixed concrete for the building frame.
• A greater portion of the economic benefit of the project is concentrated in the
local economy.

5.0 Classification of Frames

The major classification of frames is based on the material used. Some materials are
more common for different structures than others, but steel, concrete, and lumber are
all quality options that will perform well.
5.1 Concrete Frame Structure

Concrete frame structures are the most common type of modern building. It usually
consists of a frame or a skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members are beams and
vertical ones are the columns. Concrete buildings structures also contain slabs which
are used as base, as well as roof / ceiling. Among these, the column is the most
important as it carries the primary load of the building. In RCC framed structure, the
whole load supported on beams and slabs and then transferred from columns to
footings.
1- Slabs: These are the plate element and carry the loads primarily by flexure. They
usually carry the vertical loads. Under the action of horizontal loads, due to a large
moment of inertia, they can carry quite large wind and earthquake forces, and then
transfer them to the beam.

2- Beams: These carry the loads from slabs and also the direct loads as masonry walls
and their Self-Weights. The beams may be supported on the other beams or may be
supported by columns forming an integral part of the frame. These are primarily the
flexural members.

3- Columns: These are the vertical members carrying loads from the beams and from
upper columns. The loads carried may be axial or eccentric. Columns are the most
important when compared with beams and slabs. This is because, if one beam fails,
it‘ll be a local failure of one floor but if one column fails, it can lead to the collapse of
the whole structure.
4- Foundation: These are the load transmitting members. The loads from the
columns and walls are transmitted to the solid ground through the foundations.
Concrete frame construction comes in many forms; here are the typical ones in this
picture:
5.2 Wood-Frame
Prior to the 1900s some significant changes in basic framing practices in the United
Sates were set in motion. Up through most of the 19th century, homes were built
following traditional timber construction known as braced framing adopted from
England (see Figure 4). In this manner, homes used heavy squared timber frames and
beams with diagonal bracing of 4x or larger timbers. Wood joinery methods were
used for heavy connections rather than steel fasteners. Intermediate framing members
of smaller dimension were used within the structural frame to provide for attachment
of finish materials.

In the mid-1900s a new construction method, known as balloon framing, began to be

used in the United States. This method used repetitive light framing members,
generally 2x4s, made available by the proliferation of sawmills. By the start of the
20th century balloon framing had practically replaced the traditional heavy braced
framing technique. The balloon framing technique is illustrated in Figure 5. In some
cases, vestiges of early practices such as the use of 4x corner posts, beams, and sill
framing members existed well into the 20th century in combination with balloon
framing. Balloon framing persisted until after World War II in some parts of the
country.
All timber frame structures shall be designed in accordance with Euro-Code 5.
Structures designed in accordance with BS 5268 may still be acceptable, although
these standards have now been superseded by Euro-Code 5. When published, PD
6693: Complementary information for use with Euro-Code 5 (currently in draft with
BSI) will reference complementary non-contradictory information found in BS 5268.

5.3 Steel Frame

Galvanised strip steel should be designated either grade S280GD or 350GD to BS EN
10326. Structural design should be in accordance with BS 5950 –5:1998, imposed
loads should be calculated in accordance with BS EN 1991, including:

• Dead loads;
• Imposed loads;

• Wind loads.
Steel and fixings should be suitable for the design and adequately protected against
corrosion. Load-bearing walls should be designed to support and transfer loads to
foundations safely and without undue movement. Wall panels may provide resistance
to racking forces using one or more of the following techniques:
• Internal bracing;

• Cross flat bracing;

• External sheathing board;
• Internal sheathing board;

• Rigid frame action.

The design should detail how joints between the wall panels and other elements are to
be securely fixed:

• To the structure;

• To adjacent panels;
• To the floor and roof.

Portal frame is the frame with fixed joint at the junction of beam and columns. They
are used as viaducts. We can use these frames in stiffening large span bridge girder
and also in the construction of industrial buildings. Portal frames are generally low-
rise structures, comprising columns and horizontal or pitched rafters, connected by
moment-resisting connections (Figure 2.1). The frame relies on the bending resistance
of the connections, which are stiffened by a suitable haunch or deepening of the rafter
sections. This form of rigid frame structure is stable in its plane and provides a clear
span that is unobstructed by bracing.

Portal frames may be single bay or double bay. Now days, there are commonly single
storey frames are used. But in many industries, two storey frames are also desirable.
In many cases sloping roofs are provided with the portal frames.

Advantages of Portal Frame

There are following advantages of portal frames.
• Portal frames are easy to construct than walls or any other structures. It require
less time to construct the portal frames.

• They are economic in nature. The cost of maintenance is low.

• They provide good floor to ceiling heights.

• Portal frames saves time and money.

• Portal frames are easily available at all the places.
 • It is easy to carry the Portal frame's equipment's from one place to another
place. The material is easy to carry from one place to another place.

• Portal frame structures provide good ventilation and lighting.

Disadvantages of Portal Frame

Following are some limitations of the portal frames.

• It is not easy to build the portal frame anywhere. They can be constructed only
hill, valley, and sloppy areas.

• Sometime, they also depends on the type of structure. Building shape should
be square, rectangular only. Roof pitch should be shallow, steep, mono-pitch.

• We cannot construct any structure above the portal frames. It is very difficult
to construct structure above the portal frame, due to its sloppy head.

• Only skilled workers are required to construct the portal frames.

• The strength of portal frame structure is less than RCC structure. It is very
difficult to compare it with the reinforcement structure.
• More accuracy required to build these types of structures. The portal frames
are placed at regular intervals.
A portal frame consists of vertical member called Columns and top member which
may be horizontal, curved or pitched. The vertical and top members built
monolithically are considered as rigidly connected. They are used in the construction
of large sheds, bridges and viaducts. The base of portal frame may be hinged or fixed.
The portal frames are spaced at suitable distance and it supports the slab above the top
members. Various forms of RCC portal frames used in practice is shown in Fig.6.1

6.0 Choice of Structural Materials for Building Frames

Some materials are more common for different structures than others, but steel,
concrete, and lumber are all quality options that will perform well. The decision of
what a structure is made of is not usually done by the structural engineer. Typically,
the architect works with the owner to decide what would look best and fit the budget.
This typically is not as problem as structural engineers have access to a wide variety
of solutions to address any problems. However, there may be instances in which an
engineer does not believe a design will work well or at least will not be efficient, and
offer their input about making a change. For example, an architect may want large
open spaces without columns and they chose to use lumber. An engineer could point
out that the spans are likely to be too large for lumber and steel would make a better
choice. From there the architect could accept the change or redesign. There is a
pattern of what materials are used most often for certain structures. Houses, for
example, are almost always made of lumber. The structure typically is not subjected
to any enormous loads and the layout is quite straightforward. For houses and other
smaller, simple structures, lumber is a common choice. Once some complexity or size
is introduced, then steel and concrete begin to be considered. Technically, a
combination of the two materials like concrete columns and steel beams is allowed,
but it is uncommon. For cutting-edge, modern designs like the Walt Disney Concert
Hall, pictured in figure 6 below, steel is the optimum choice given its strong yet
lightweight properties. For large buildings without any complexity, steel or concrete
perform the same. Hotels, office buildings, factories, and other similar buildings fall
into this category. When designing structures like these, the owner must voice their
priorities about cost, construction time, etc. to help make the decision about which
material to use. An important note about the selection of materials is that concrete will
always be used because that is what foundations are made of. Some materials are
more common for different structures than others, but steel, concrete, and lumber are
all quality options that will perform well.

Reinforced concrete is the best choice for the building framing system based upon the
following advantages:
Fast-track construction: quicker start-up times and reduced total construction time
and

Cost savings: favourable cash flow, standard floor layouts, faster forming reuse,
lower floor to floor heights, zoning height restrictions, thermal resistance, fire
resistance, minimal maintenance and architectural finishes.

7.0 Factors Influencing Choice of Building Frame Structural Martials

The shapes which are adopted for structural elements are affected, to a large extent,
by the nature of the materials from which they are made. The physical properties of
materials determine the types of internal force which they can carry and, therefore, the
types of element for which they are suitable. Unreinforced masonry, for example, may
only be used in situations where compressive stress is present. Reinforced concrete
performs well when loaded in compression or bending, but not particularly well in
axial tension. The factors that influence the choice of building frame structural
materials are the properties of the materials.
7.1 Mechanical Properties

7.1.1 Performance in Compression or Tension

Compression and tension are the two most common forces that structural members are
subjected to. Compression can be described as a pushing force, and, conversely,
tension can be described as a pulling force. The force they exert is described in
pounds in the English system and Newtons in the metric system. It is important to
note that the loads being applied to structural members are not what is compression or
tension. The loads can be described based on whether they are a point load or
distributed load or if they are an axial load or a lateral load. Compression and tension
are how the structural member reacts to that load. For example, if a structural member
has ropes tied to each end and those ropes are pulled – this would be an axial load –
then that structural member is in tension. This situation would be described as a
tensile force being applied. This distinction is important in order to understand how
different materials respond to these forces. Another important distinction to make is
that a structural member experiencing bending is actually a structural member
experiencing tension and compression. If a typical beam (or other similar structural
member) has a force applied and begins to bend, the sections above and below its
neutral axis will respond differently. The section above the neutral axis and closer to
the force will begin to compress as the material is forced in on itself. The section
below the neutral axis will stretch as the material is pulled apart. See figure 1 below.
Steel is strong in both tension and compression. Its ultimate compressive strength is
35,000 psi and its ultimate tensile strength is 65,000 psi. An arguably more important
value for steel than its ultimate strength is its yield strength. Since steel has a high
modulus of elasticity of 29,000,000 psi, it can be subjected to a certain level of forces
while maintaining its full strength and recovering from any deformation. This cap of
how much force can be applied it its yield strength. Once the force applied exceeds
this value, steel will begin to permanently deform. Steel’s yield strength is 50,000 psi.
Concrete is known for being strong in compression, but weak in tension. It typically
has a compressive strength of 2500 – 4000 psi. Its tensile strength is significantly less
at about 300–600 psi. This weakness when subjected to tension is why concrete needs
steel reinforcing bars. Concrete does have an ultimate strength and yield strength like
steel does, but they are much closer in value. Since concrete’s modulus of elasticity is
only 4,000,000 psi, there is a more narrow window of forces concrete can take before
it fails completely. How lumber behaves in tension or compression depends on the
direction of the load with respect to the direction of the grain. Figure 2 below shows
the different directions a load can be applied to a standard piece of lumber.

For simplicity, the radial and tangential directions will be referred to as perpendicular
to grain and any values referenced as such will be an average of radial and tangential
values. Lumber, compared to concrete and especially steel, has a low modulus of
elasticity of 1,600,000 psi. As stated before, this means lumber cannot deform much
before it fails completely. Lumber has a compressive strength parallel to grain of
6,000 psi and perpendicular to grain of 700 psi. It has a tensile strength perpendicular
to grain of 400 psi. There is a lack of data about tensile strength parallel to grain,
since it is an uncommon way of loading wood, so it has been excluded.

7.1.2 Resistance to Shear

Shear is another very common force that is often applied to structural members. A
shear force is a combination of two forces offset slightly from one another and acting
in opposite directions. This results in a small section of the structural member being
pushed in two different directions. Figure 3 below illustrates this. An example of
when shear forces are applied in structures are at the bolted connections between a
beam and a column. Bolts are pushed one way from the load of the beam, then
another way from the resistance to that load from the column.

Steel has a shear strength of 50,000 psi. Concrete is weaker than steel with a shear
strength of 900 psi. Lumber’s shear strength parallel to grain is 1,200 psi. Not much
data exists about wood’s shear strength perpendicular to grain, but some data suggests
it is about 2.5-3 times the shear strength parallel to grain. Steel is clearly the best
choice to resist shear forces, with concrete and lumber being not too different from
one another.

7.2 Durability
7.2.1 Resistance to Chemical Changes

There are a few notable types of chemical changes that can harm the performance of
structural materials. Fire, decay, and corrosion will be explained, but there is also
exposure to miscellaneous chemicals in the environment. This is a vast topic due to
the enormous number of chemicals, either natural or man-made, that structures can be
exposed to. While this specific issue will not be addressed, it represents the
complexity of protecting against chemical change. Engineers must be aware of the
environment surrounding the structure, along with any chemicals that will be housed
in the structure. Fire is one of the most common concerns in the construction industry.
There are a wide variety of ways to help keep fire contained, but some materials are
inherently more susceptible to damage than others. Steel and concrete are classified as
noncombustible. This means that they will not actually catch on fire – so the main
concern for these materials is how the high temperatures will decrease structural
capacity. Figure 4 below is an example of how a fire did not turn steel to ash, but
instead caused it to warp. As far as resistance to the incredibly high temperatures from
a fire, concrete is better than steel. For steel, there are options for protection such as
intumescent coatings, gypsum, spray-applied fire-resistive material, and masonry. For
concrete, there are not many options. In fact, it is actually another type of coating that
can go around steel for fire resistance. Lumber is the outlier in fire resistance. Since it
is combustible –meaning it will actually catch on fire– it needs more protection. The
exact chemicals applied varies by manufacturer, but they will all end up being
completely infused into the wood using a high-pressure system. Once the chemicals
are infused, they can help the lumber resist igniting and, if they do ignite, slow how
fast the fire burns through. Lumber can never be made fully noncombustible like steel
and concrete though, so it is unlikely to be used if there is a risk of a large fire like in
factories, warehouses, etc. Fire is one of the most common concerns in the
construction industry. There are a wide variety of ways to help keep fire contained,
but some materials are inherently more susceptible to damage than others.
Steel and concrete are classified as noncombustible. This means that they will not
actually catch on fire – so the main concern for these materials is how the high
temperatures will decrease structural capacity. Figure 4 below is an example of how a
fire did not turn steel to ash, but instead caused it to warp. As far as resistance to the
incredibly high temperatures from a fire, concrete is better than steel. For steel, there
are options for protection such as intumescent coatings, gypsum, spray-applied fire-
resistive material, and masonry. For concrete, there are not many options. In fact, it is
actually another type of coating that can go around steel for fire resistance. Lumber is
the outlier in fire resistance. Since it is combustible – meaning it will actually catch on
fire – it needs more protection. The exact chemicals applied varies by manufacturer,
but they will all end up being completely infused into the wood using a high-pressure
system. Once the chemicals are infused, they can help the lumber resist igniting and,
if they do ignite, slow how fast the fire burns through. Lumber can never be made
fully noncombustible like steel and concrete though, so it is unlikely to be used if
there is a risk of a large fire like in factories, warehouses, etc.

Decay is an issue that only lumber experiences. It is caused by fungi. Certain types of
fungi metabolize the cellulose fraction of the wood, which is the part that gives
lumber its strength. To add to the difficulty, decay is nearly impossible to detect until
it is too late. Just a slight increase from 5% to 10% loss in weight can result in an
increase from 20% to 80% loss in toughness, impact bending resistance, and more.
The best method of combatting decay is simply inspecting regularly and, when
necessary, discarding every piece of lumber that has been affected.
A major change that steel undergoes is corrosion. Corrosion is the destruction of a
material due to a reaction between its surface material and factors such as moisture
and oxygen. The risk of corrosion varies depending on where the steel is located. For
example, a bridge in salt water exposed to stagnant moisture will have a higher risk of
corrosion than a beam on the interior of high-rise building. For lower risks of
corrosion, selecting the right kind of steel can be enough defense. For higher risks of
corrosion, something more protective is needed. Examples include galvanizing, a
polysiloxane coating, an epoxy coating, and an acrylic coating. In almost all instances,
steel will need at least some protection against corrosion and it must be taken into
account during the design process.

7.2.2 Resistance to Physical Damage

Physical damage does not have as many opportunities to become a problem as

chemical changes. Chemical changes happen in a variety of ways due to a variety of
factors while physical damage does not. Physical damage occurs in two ways. The
first is when the material itself fails and the second is when an outside force causes
damage. However, while it may not be the most complex issue, physical damage can
mean complete and immediate failure. Cracking is how a material shows it is starting
to be loaded beyond its capacity. It is one of concrete’s biggest issues that engineers
must account for. An important note is that some cracking in concrete is acceptable
and structural engineers plan on it happening. As stated before, concrete does not
handle tension well and in instances of it being to subjected to slightly too much
tension –like in the bottom portion of a beam– the concrete will crack. As long as
there is steel reinforcing in that bottom portion and the cracks are not too large, the
beam will remain structurally sound. An acceptable crack width can range from 0.016
in. in dry air conditions to 0.004 in. in water retaining structures. Once the cracks
extend beyond this acceptable range, repairs are necessary. A typical repair is an
epoxy injection. These injections are a relatively quick and simple fix; however, if the
concrete is cracking due to being significantly overloaded or another complex
condition, the epoxy will not help and the concrete will crack in another location.
Lumber is similar to concrete in that smaller cracks are often acceptable, but repairs
must take place once they become too large. Repairs for lumber involve gluing nails
or bolts into holes that run perpendicular to the grain or attaching high-strength
patches to the side of the member. Steel is different from concrete and lumber in that
any cracking symbolizing failure. Steel has such a high modulus of elasticity that it
should be able to bend a significant amount before it breaks. Cracking can mean
different things for different materials, but they warrant consistent attention regardless
of the size.
Steel and concrete are incredibly strong so extreme forces must be applied in order to
damage them. Lumber, on the other hand, is relatively soft and so it is more easily
harmed. Insects are one of these forces that would not do any damage to steel or
concrete, but can destroy Lumber. Termites are a notorious problem for wood, but
different kinds of beetles, ants, and bees can also cause a lot of damage. Some insects
can even make their damage hard to detect. Powderpost beetle larvae burrow into
wood through very small holes then proceed to destroy the interior. This leaves
behind a seemingly intact piece of wood with virtually no strength. Figure 5 below
shows the damage powderpost beetle larvae can do. Note how the destruction is seen
only once the outer layer is peeled off. Unfortunately, there is no way of knowing
lumber has been damaged until the outside has been affected or until the member
begins to fail. There are a variety of coatings that can be put on lumber to deter any
insects from doing damage, but there are limitations. If an insect has already managed
to get inside, a coating can do nothing to get rid of it. Additional forms of insecticides
must be used then. Insects have the ability to destroy wooden structures so a great
deal of thought must go into protection.

Masonry

Masonry is a composite material in which individual stones, bricks or blocks are

bedded in mortar to form columns, walls, arches or vaults. The range of different
types of masonry is large due to the variety of types of constituent. Bricks may be of
fired clay, baked earth, concrete, or a range of similar materials, and blocks, which are
simply very large bricks, can be similarly composed. Stone too is not one but a very
wide range of materials, from the relatively soft sedimentary rocks such as limestone
to the very hard granites and other igneous rocks. These ‘solid’ units can be used in
conjunction with a variety of different mortars to produce a range of masonry types.
All have certain properties in common and therefore produce similar types of
structural element. Other materials such as dried mud, pisé or even unreinforced
concrete have similar properties and can be used to make similar types of element.

The physical properties which these materials have in common are moderate
compressive strength, minimal tensile strength and relatively high density. The very
low tensile strength restricts the use of masonry to elements in which the principal
internal force is compressive, i.e. columns, walls and compressive form-active types
such as arches, vaults and domes.
Timber
Timber has been used as a structural material from earliest times. It possesses both
tensile and compressive strength and, in the structural role is therefore suitable for
elements which carry axial compression, axial tension and bending-type loads. Its
most widespread application in architecture has been in buildings of domestic scale in
which it has been used to make complete structural frameworks, and for the floors and
roofs in loadbearing masonry structures. Rafters, floor beams, skeleton frames,
trusses, built-up beams of various kinds, arches, shells and folded forms have all been
constructed in timber. The fact of timber having been a living organism is responsible
for the nature of its physical properties. The parts of the tree which are used for
structural timber – the heartwood and sapwood of the trunk – have a structural
function in the living tree and therefore have, in common with most organisms, very
good structural properties. The material is composed of long fibrous cells aligned
parallel to the original tree trunk and therefore to the grain which results from the
annual rings. The material of the cell walls gives timber its strength and the fact that
its constituent elements are of low atomic weight is responsible for its low density.
Steel
The use of steel as a primary structural material dates from the late nineteenth century
when cheap methods for manufacturing it on a large scale were developed. It is a
material that has good structural properties. It has high strength and equal strength in
tension and compression and is therefore suitable for the full range of structural
elements and will resist axial tension, axial compression and bending-type load with
almost equal facility. Its density is high, but the ratio of strength to weight is also high
so that steel components are not excessively heavy in relation to their load carrying
capacity, so long as structural forms are used which ensure that the material is used
efficiently. Therefore, where bending loads are carried it is essential that ‘improved
cross-sections and longitudinal profiles are adopted. The high strength and high
density of steel favours its use in skeleton frame type structures in which the volume
of the structure is low in relation to the total volume of the building which is
supported, but a limited range of slab-type formats is also used. An example of a
structural slab-type element is the profiled floor deck in which a profiled steel deck is
used in conjunction with concrete, or exceptionally timber, to form a composite
structure. These have ‘improved’ corrugated cross-sections to ensure that adequate
levels of efficiency are achieved. Deck units consisting of flat steel plate are
uncommon.
Concrete

Concrete, which is a composite of stone fragments (aggregate) and cement binder,

may be regarded as a kind of artificial masonry because it has similar properties to
stone and brick (high density, moderate compressive strength, minimal tensile
strength). It is made by mixing together dry cement and aggregate in suitable
proportions and then adding water, which causes the cement to hydrolyse and
subsequently the whole mixture to set and harden to form a substance with stone-like
qualities.
Plain, unreinforced concrete has similar properties to masonry and so the constraints
on its use are the same as those which apply to masonry. The most spectacular plain
concrete structures are also the earliest, the massive vaulted buildings of Roman
antiquity. Concrete has one considerable advantage over stone, which is that it is
available in semi-liquid form during the building process. Concrete, which is a
composite of stone fragments (aggregate) and cement binder, may be regarded as a
kind of artificial masonry because it has similar properties to stone and brick (high
density, moderate compressive strength, minimal tensile strength). It is made by
mixing together dry cement and aggregate in suitable proportions and then adding
water, which causes the cement to hydrolyse and subsequently the whole mixture to
set and harden to form a substance with stone-like qualities.
Reinforced concrete possesses tensile as well as compressive strength and is therefore
suitable for all types of structural element including those which carry bending-type
loads. It is also a reasonably strong material. Concrete can therefore be used in
structural configurations such as the skeleton frame for which a strong material is
required and the resulting elements are reasonably slender. It can also be used to make
long-span structures and high, multi-storey structures.

8.0 Structural Members and Structural Resistance to Frames

8.1 Structural Members to Frames

The basic structural members to frames are:

• Columns
• Members having direct connections to the columns, including girders, beams,
trusses and spandrels.
• Members of the floor construction and roof construction having direct
connections to the columns.

• Members that are essential to the vertical stability of the primary structural
frame under gravity loading, braced frames and moment frames
 • Bearing walls – support gravity loads and transfer them to the foundation.
Whilst the following structural members shall be considered secondary members and
not part of the primary structural frame:
• Members not having direct connections to the columns, roof trusses connected
to a girder truss.
• Members of the floor construction and roof construction not having direct
connections to the columns, roof purlins and subpurlins connected to beams
and floor joists and trusses.

• Bracing members other than those that are not designated as part of the a
primary structural frame or bearing wall (non-bearing walls).

8.2 Structural Resistance to Frames

An essential problem which occurs in all kinds of structural analyses of the existing
structures, is the uncertainty regarding the material parameters adopted at the design
stage. As far as steel structures are concerned, it refers to the strength of the steel used
in load-bearing elements. On the other hand, regarding reinforced concrete structures,
in addition to the uncertain information on the concrete compressive strength, there is
an additional deficit of information on the degree of reinforcement of its load-bearing
elements (Rusek & Kocot, 2017).

8.2.1 Bending resistance

Bending resistance is a critical aspect of structural engineering, particularly for beams
and other members subjected to transverse loads. It refers to a structural member's
ability to withstand bending moments and stresses caused by external loads.
To improve bending resistance, engineers can:

• Optimize cross-sectional shape: Design cross-sections with a high moment

of inertia (I) and section modulus (Z).

• Use stiffer materials: Materials with higher Young's modulus or yield

strength.

• Increase member size: Larger members can provide greater bending

resistance.

• Provide additional supports: Adding supports can reduce bending moments

and stresses.

Some common structural members designed for bending resistance include:

Beams: Horizontal members subjected to transverse loads.

Girders: Large beams that support other beams or loads.

Slabs: Flat, horizontal members that resist bending and other loads.
8.2.2 Shear Resistance
Shear resistance refers to a structural member's ability to withstand shear forces and
stresses caused by external loads.
To improve shear resistance, engineers can:

• Optimize cross-sectional shape: Design cross-sections with a high shear

area.

• Use materials with high shear strength: Materials that can resist shear
stresses effectively.

• Provide shear reinforcement: Add stirrups, links, or other reinforcement to

resist shear forces.

• Increase member size: Larger members can provide greater shear resistance.
Some common structural members designed for shear resistance include:
Beams: Horizontal members subjected to transverse loads.
Columns: Vertical members that resist axial loads and shear forces.

Connections: Joints between members that must resist shear forces.

8.2.3 Buckling Resistance

Buckling resistance is a critical aspect of structural engineering, particularly for

slender members subjected to compressive loads. Buckling is a sudden, lateral
deflection of a structural member under compressive load, often resulting in failure.
The cross-section of most structural members may be considered to be an assemblage
of individual parts. As these parts are plate elements and are relatively thin, they may
buckle locally when subjected to compression. In turn, this may limit the compression
resistance and the bending resistance. This phenomenon is independent of the length
of the member and hence is termed local buckling. Other types of buckling include
Euler buckling and Lateral-torsional buckling.

To improve buckling resistance, engineers can:

• Use stiffer materials: Materials with higher Young's modulus or yield
strength.
• Optimize cross-sectional shape: Design cross-sections with a higher radius
of gyration.
• Reduce slenderness ratio: Use shorter members or increase the cross-
sectional size.
• Provide lateral support: Add bracing or supports to prevent lateral buckling.
8.2.4 Tension Members
Tension members are structural elements that resist tensile forces, which pull the
member apart. These members are crucial in various structures, including:

• Cables: Used in suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and roof structures.

• Ties: Used in trusses, roof structures, and bridges to resist tensile forces.

• Rods: Used in various structures, such as bridges, buildings, and machinery.

• Cable-stayed systems: Used in bridges and buildings to provide support and
stability.
Applications of Tension Members

• Suspension bridges: Cables are used to support the bridge deck and resist
tensile forces.

• Roof structures: Tension members, such as cables or rods, are used to

support roof loads and provide stability.
• Trusses: Tension members, such as ties, are used to resist tensile forces and
provide structural stability.

9.0 Design Load

9.1 Load Transfer Mechanism
Gravity is a powerful enemy of building construction. Its force, among others, must
be counteracted by adequate structural designs to prevent buildings from collapsing.
The structural engineer is responsible for submitting a design that addresses the forces
that are called “loads.” Loads are the environmental and operational stresses to which
a building will be subject during its existence.
Any structure is made up of structural elements and non-structural elements. The
structural elements put together constitute the structural system. Its function is to
resists effectively the action of gravitational and environmental loads and to transmit
the resisting forces to the supporting ground without significantly disturbing the
geometry, integrity and serviceability of the structure. Most of the structural element
may be considered from the viewpoint of simplified analysis as one dimensional
elements. A few structural elements may require more rigorous analysis.
The main parts of a building that are in place to carry a load are said to be in a
constant state of stress.
There are three main types of stress:
• Tension: pulls or stretches a material and can have a lengthening effect.
• Compression: squeezes the material and can have shortening effect.
• Shear: occurs when one part of a component slips or slides over another
causing a slicing effect.
To cause one of these types of stress a component or member must be under the strain
of a load. There are various loads that the engineer must consider. The following table
describes some of these loads based on the definitions of model building codes.

Some texts consider only two main types of loading, they are:
• Dead load: the weight of the building itself and the materials used to construct
the building, covering components such as floors and roofs.
• Live (Imposed) loads: live load is a load produced by the use and occupancy
of the building or other structure that does not include construction or
environmental loads, such as wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load,
flood load, or dead load. Here, live and imposed loads are considered any
moveable load like furniture as well as natural forces such as wind, rain and
snow.
Loads are a primary consideration in any building design because they define the
nature and magnitude of hazards or external forces that a building must resist to
provide reasonable performance (i.e., safety and serviceability) throughout the
structure’s useful life. The anticipated loads are influenced by a building’s intended
use (occupancy and function), configuration (size and shape), and location (climate
and site conditions). Ultimately, the type and magnitude of design loads affect critical
decisions such as material selection, construction details, and architectural
configuration. Thus, to optimize the value (i.e., performance versus economy) of the
finished product, it is essential to apply design loads realistically. Engineers must
design the structure for:
• Safety
 • Serviceability
• Aesthetics
• Economy
• Environmental conditions

Hence, engineers must consider several possibilities for a structure before selecting a
final design based on several performance criteria. To cope with the loads that a
building must withstand there are load-bearing structural members strategically
placed throughout the building.
There are three main types of load bearing members:
• Horizontal members: the most common types of horizontal members are
beams and floor joists. The horizontal member, when under loading, can bend
and be in all the three types of stress, with the top in compression, the bottom
in tension and the ends in shear.
• Vertical members: any walls or columns that are in place to transfer the loads
from above (including horizontal members) down to the substructure and
foundation are vertical members. Vertical members are usually in a
compression state.
• Bracing members: are usually fitted diagonally to form a triangle which
stiffens the structure. Bracing members can be found in roofs and even in
scaffolding. Bracing is usually in compression or tension.

9.2 Assessment of Dead Load

Dead load for a structural member shall be assessed based on the forces due to:
• weight of the member itself,

• weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the building to be

supported permanently by the member,

• weight of permanent partitions,

• weight of fixed service equipment, and

• net effect of prestressing.

9.3 Considering Weight of Materials and Constructions

In estimating dead loads, the actual weights of materials and constructions shall be
used, provided that in the absence of definite information, the weights given in Table
2.2.1 shall be assumed for the purposes of design.

9.4 Bending Moment and Shear Force of Beams

9.4.1 Beams
A beam is a structural member resting on supports to carry vertical loads. Beams are
generally placed horizontally; the amount and extent of external load which a beam
can carry depends upon:
a. The distance between supports and the overhanging lengths from supports;
b. The type and intensity of load;
c. The type of supports; and
d. The cross-section and elasticity of the beam.

9.4.2 Classification of beams

1. Cantilever Beam

A Built-in or encastre' support is frequently met. The effect is to fix the direction of
the beam at the support. In order to do this the support must exert a "fixing" moment
M and a reaction R on the beam. A beam which is fixed at one end in this way is
called a Cantilever. If both ends are fixed in this way the reactions are not statically
determinate. In practice, it is not usually possible to obtain perfect fixing and the
fixing moment applied will be related to the angular movement of the support. When
in doubt about the rigidity, it is safer to assume that the beam is freely supported.

2. Simply Supported Beam

It is a beam having its ends freely resting on supports.

 3. Overhanging Beam

A beam having one or both ends extended over supports is known as overhanging
beam.

4. Propped Cantilever Beam

When a support is provided at some suitable point of a Cantilever beam, in order to

resist the deflection of the beam, it is known as propped Cantilever beam.

5. Fixed Beam

A beam having its both ends rigidly fixed or built-in to the supporting walls or
columns is known as fixed beam.

9.4.3 Types of Beam Loading

There are two main types of beam loading, viz: point or concentrated load and
1. Point Load or Concentrated Load

These loads are usually considered to be acting at a point. Practically point load
cannot be placed on a beam. When a member is placed on a beam it covers some
space or width. But for calculation purpose, we consider the load as transmitting at the
central with of the member.
 2. Uniformly Distributed Load or U.D.L

Uniformly distributed load is one which is spread uniformly over beam so that each
unit of length is loaded with same amount of load, and are denoted by Newton/metre.

9.4.4 Shear force of Beams

At any section in a beam carrying transverse loads the shearing force is defined as the
algebraic sum of the forces taken on either side of the section. Similarly, the bending
moment at any section is the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about the
section, again taken on either side. In order that the shearing-force and bending-
moment values calculated on either side of the section shall have the same magnitude
and sign, a convenient sign convention has to be adopted. Shearing-force (S.F.) and
bending-moment (B.M.) diagrams show the variation of these quantities along the
length of a beam for any fixed loading condition.
9.4.5 Bending Moment
A bending moment is a measure of the rotational force that causes a structural
member to bend or deform. It is measured as the force times the distance from a point
(M = F × d). It’s what you get when a force acts away from a support or pivot, like
pushing down on the end of a ruler sticking off a table. The bigger the force or the
further from the support, the greater the bending moment, usually measured in
Newton-metres (Nm). For instance, a 7kN force applied 3m from a support. Its
bending moment (M) can be calculated as:
M = 7kN × 3m = 21 kNm
The formulae for calculating bending moment of beams are:
• for a simply supported beam with a point load: M = P.a.b/L

• for a simply supported beam with a uniform distributed load: M = w.L2/8

• for a cantilever beam with a point load: M = P.x or M = F.d

 • for a cantilever beam with a uniform distributed load: M = w.x2/2

Where:
o M = bending moment

o P = point load

o w = uniform distributed load

o L = length of the beam

o a and b = distances from the supports to the point load

o x = distance from the fixed end to the point of interest

Example:
Determine the maximum bending moment for a simply supported beam with a length
of 5m subjected to a uniform distributed load of 3kN/m.
Solution:
Data: w = 3kN/m and L = 5m
M = w.L2/8 So, M = 3×52/8 M = 3×25/8 M = 75/8 Hence, M = 9.375kNm