NAME: Aashish Gupta

REG NO: 241080022

NAME: Bhavya Gothi

REG NO: 241080021

NAME: Ganesh Gadhave

REG NO: 241080018

NAME: Shubham Dudhbhate

REG NO: 241080017

OS EXPERIMENT 3

AIM: To study about different types of real time operating systems and the
changes made in them in each version.

1.​ What is an RTOS?

An RTOS is an operating system used for real time computing applications which
processes data and events that have time constraints. It must respond to inputs/outputs
within a guaranteed time.
Key Features:​
a) A task is scheduled which is often priority based.
b) Inter- task communication: Used by multiple tasks to exchange data and co-ordinate
their actions.
Types of RTOS:
1.​ Hard Real-Time Operating System
These operating systems guarantee that critical tasks are completed within a range of time.
2.​ Soft Real-Time Operating System
This operating system provides some relaxation in the time limit.
2.​ What is FreeRTOS?
FreeRTOS is a real-time operating system kernel designed for microcontrollers and small
microprocessors. It's an open-source, lightweight system, popular for embedded systems
and IoT devices.

Key Feature:
Small memory size, low overhead, and fast execution.
Tick-less option for low power applications.
Lightweight and portable.

Versions of freeRTOS:

Early Versions (V1.x to V2.x):

●​ Context switching improvements.

●​ Scheduler optimization reduced switch time (~10%).
●​ Ports added: Flashlite 186, PIC18, AVR.
●​ Support for DMA, Borland compilers, and serial communication.
●​ License changed to GNU GPL.​
 FreeRTOS V3.x:

●​ Major port additions: ARM7, HCS12, MSP430, STR71x.

●​ Introduced Idle Hook and co-routines.
●​ Support for priority inheritance and improved task unblocking.
●​ RAM usage optimizations and improved interrupt handling.​

FreeRTOS V4.x:

●​ Support for Cortex-M3, STM32, STR9.

●​ Introduced mutexes, recursive semaphores, and priority inheritance.
●​ Improved memory management (heap_1 to heap_5).
●​ Enhanced scheduler behavior and task management.
●​ Event list optimizations and tick handling fixes.​

FreeRTOS V5.x:

●​ Support for static memory allocation.

●​ New ports: PIC32, ColdFire, MSP430X, RX600, Virtex5.
●​ New API features: stream/message buffers, xTaskNotify(), stack overflow checking.
●​ Networking and heap diagnostics improvements.​

FreeRTOS V6.x:

●​ Introduced MPU support for Cortex-M3.

●​ Heap pointer protection and task priority improvements.
●​ Support for Cortus APS3, SuperH, SH7216.
●​ Enhanced Windows simulator and compiler compatibility.​

FreeRTOS V7.x:
●​ Added software timers and task notifications.
●​ Updates for STM32, PIC32, MSP430X, RX600.
●​ Preemptive scheduling improvements.
●​ Memory usage and heap enhancements.
●​ Support for FreeRTOS+FAT and FreeRTOS+TCP stacks.​

FreeRTOS V8.x:

●​ Static memory allocation for all kernel objects.

●​ Tickless idle mode improvements.
●​ 64-bit architecture support.
●​ New API functions: vTaskGetTaskInfo(), xTaskAbortDelay(), and others.
●​ Ports for Cortex-M7, IA32/x86, EFM32, and more.​

FreeRTOS V9.x:

●​ Introduced stream and message buffers.

●​ Improved priority inheritance and MPU compatibility.
●​ Cortex-M port optimizations.
●​ Continued development of the TCP/IP stack.
●​ Task notification enhancements.​

FreeRTOS V10.x:

●​ Added Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP) support.

●​ Enhanced heap protection and trace macros.
●​ Task affinity and core binding support.
●​ Expanded ports: ARMv8-M, RISC-V, Synopsys ARC, Renesas RXv3.
●​ More robust error handling and low-power features.​
 FreeRTOS V11.x (2023–2025):

●​ Integrated SMP scheduler with core affinity management.

●​ New ports: ARM_AARCH64, ARMv8-M (with PAC, BTI, PXN), CC-RH (Renesas),
POSIX, Windows (64-bit).
●​ Improved tickless idle behavior and time handling.
●​ Heap_4 and heap_5 enhancements with debug features.
●​ Expanded trace/debug hooks, task notification APIs, and better mutex handling.

3.​ What is Zephyr RTOS?

Zephyr RTOS is a small, scalable, open-source Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)
built for resource-constrained devices, especially in IoT, embedded systems, and edge
devices. It is hosted by the Linux Foundation.
All the versions of Zephyr
Version 1.0.0 (2016): The first official release included the core real-time kernel, basic
threading, interrupt handling, and device drivers.

Versions 1.6.0 to 1.10 (2017–2018): These updates brought ARM64 architecture support,
improved POSIX API coverage, and introduced Zephyr’s own Bluetooth Low Energy
(BLE) stack and networking improvements. Power management also matured during this
period.​

Version 1.14 (2019): Marked as the first Long-Term Support (LTS) version. It featured
API stability and a strong foundation for commercial adoption.​

Version 2.0 (2019): A major redesign of the kernel with cleaner APIs, improved code
structure, and better portability. Deprecated features from earlier versions were removed.​

Versions 2.2 to 2.6 (2020–2021): These versions focused on expanding hardware support,
adding drivers and support for peripherals like USB, CAN, and PWM, and refining
Cortex-M optimizations.​

Version 3.0 (2021): A significant cleanup release that removed all deprecated APIs and
improved SMP (Symmetric Multiprocessing) support, paving the way for multi-core
processors.​
 Versions 3.1 to 3.4 (2021–2022): Brought enhancements in Devicetree handling, logging
system, and build infrastructure. Also introduced improvements in security and testing.​

Versions 3.5 to 3.6 (2022): Focused on MISRA compliance, Bluetooth stack stability, and
extended BLE Mesh features.​

Version 3.7 (2023): Marked as the second LTS release, ensuring long-term support, API
stability, and toolchain compatibility. It also introduced broader board support and better
testing pipelines.​

Versions 3.8 to 3.9 (Late 2023): Continued expanding support for modern
microcontrollers like ESP32-S3, improved build speed, and refined BLE Mesh and
networking stacks.​

Version 3.10 (2024): Brought major improvements in kernel tracing, added new logging
features, and optimized memory usage. Also enhanced support for RISC-V and other
architectures.​

Versions 3.11 to 3.12 (2024–2025): Latest updates include further multi-core scheduling
improvements, advanced memory protection, expanded POSIX compliance, and better
security infrastructure

4.​ Where are FreeRTOS and Zephyr used?

Common Devices Using FreeRTOS:

1.​ Consumer Electronics:​

○​ Smart TVs and remote controls

○​ Set-top boxes
○​ Smart speakers and headphones​

2.​ Industrial and Automation:​

○​ Motor controllers and drives

○​ Factory sensors
○​ Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)​

3.​ Automotive:​

○​ Battery Management Systems (BMS)

 ○​ Infotainment microcontrollers
○​ Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS)​

4.​ Medical Devices:​

○​ Digital thermometers
○​ Portable ECG monitors
○​ Blood glucose meters​

5.​ IoT and Smart Devices:​

○​ Smart plugs and switches

○​ Wi-Fi/BLE connected thermostats
○​ Home automation hubs

Common Devices Using Zephyr:

1.​ IoT Devices:​

○​ Environmental monitoring sensors

○​ Connected door locks and smart lighting
○​ Asset trackers with BLE/GPS​

2.​ Wearables:​

○​ Advanced fitness bands

○​ Smartwatches with BLE and sensors​

3.​ Industrial Equipment:​

○​ Industrial sensors with cloud connectivity

○​ Wireless communication modules (LoRa, NB-IoT)
○​ Motor and vibration sensors with real-time monitoring​

4.​ Medical Devices:​

○​ Smart inhalers
○​ Connected insulin pens
○​ Pulse oximeters
❖​1)What is AlmaLinux?

AlmaLinux (opens new window)

●​ AlmaLinux is a free and open-source Linux distribution designed as an alternative

to CentOS Linux. Developed and supported by the community-driven AlmaLinux
OS Foundation, it aims to provide a stable and reliable operating system with
long-term support, suitable for enterprise environments. AlmaLinux is built from
the upstream source code of Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), ensuring
compatibility and a seamless transition for users who were previously reliant on
CentOS for their server infrastructure. With a focus on delivering a robust and
community-driven alternative, AlmaLinux serves as a compelling choice for
organizations seeking a stable

❖​What was the purpose of designing Alma Linux?

●​ Alma Linux is a stable enterprise distribution developed targeting

businesses and organizations and designed to meet business
goals. Although AlmaLinux is typically considered a free
alternative to Red Hat Enterprise Linux, users can also use it to
build a secure, application-centric operating architecture.
 ●​ AlmaLinux is suitable for both physical and cloud-based
environments, making it ideal for servers due to its stability and
reliability. It can be easily installed on a Linux VPS and is a great
choice for both business and personal use.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3)History of Alma Linux:-

●​ On December 8, 2020, Red Hat announced that development of CentOS, a

free-of-cost downstream fork of the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux
(RHEL), would be discontinued and its official support would be cut short to
focus on CentOS Stream, a stable LTS release without minor releases officially
 used by Red Hat to preview what is intended for inclusion in updates to
[4][5][6]
RHEL.
●​ In response, CloudLinux – which maintains its own commercial Linux
distribution, CloudLinux OS – announced that it would back AlmaLinux to provide
[7]
a community-supported spiritual successor to CentOS Linux, aiming for
[8]
binary-compatibility with the current version of RHEL. A beta version of
[9]
AlmaLinux was first released on February 1, 2021, and the first stable release
[2]
of AlmaLinux was published on March 30, 2021. AlmaLinux 8.x will be
[10]
supported until 2029. Numerous companies, such as ARM, AWS, Equinix, and
[11]
Microsoft, also support AlmaLinux. On March 30, 2021, the AlmaLinux OS
Foundation was created as a 501(c) organization to take over AlmaLinux
development and governance from CloudLinux, which has promised $1 million in
[12]
annual funding to the project.
●​ Following the release of AlmaLinux 8.6, on June 20, 2022, the AlmaLinux OS
[13]
Foundation released the AlmaLinux Build System (ALBS).
[14]
●​ In September 2022, the AlmaLinux OS Foundation held its first election,
[15]
announcing a board of 7 community-elected members on September 19.
Shortly after the election, Igor Seletskiy, the CEO of CloudLinux and then chair of
the board, announced he would be stepping down to allow AlmaLinux to continue
[16]
on as a community-led operating system, and the board chose Benny Vasquez
[17]
as the new chair.
●​ On December 7, 2022, it was announced that CERN and Fermilab would provide
[18]
AlmaLinux as the standard operating system for their experiments.
●​ 3 weeks after June 21, 2023, Red Hat's announcement that new restrictions were
[19]
put on their code, AlmaLinux replied in a blog post that "the AlmaLinux OS
Foundation board today has decided to drop the aim to be 1:1 with RHEL.
[20]
AlmaLinux OS will instead aim to be binary compatible with RHEL".
[21]
●​ In September 2023 the Foundation announced they would expand the board,
and in December 2023 the AlmaLinux OS Foundation held their second election
and announced Alejandro Iribarren of CERN and Jun Yoshida of Cybertrust Japan
[22]
would be joining the board.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
What are the Editions of Alma Linux?
There are 3 main editions of Alma Linux which are discussed below:

1. AlmaLinux OS Stable Release:

● The stable release is the culmination of development efforts, representing a version

​
of AlmaLinux that is deemed ready for production use. It is thoroughly tested and

considered to be reliable and secure. This release is intended for users and

organizations that require a stable operating system for their servers, applications,

and workloads.

● AlmaLinux OS Stable Release is built upon the upstream source code of Red Hat
​
Enterprise Linux (RHEL).

● This means it inherits the stability, security, and features from RHEL, providing
​
● users with a free and open-source alternative to RHEL for their enterprise needs.
​
●
​

2. AlmaLinux OS Beta Release:

 ➔ Beta releases precede the stable releases and serve as a testing ground for new
​
features, improvements, and updates. These versions are made available to the

community, including enthusiasts and developers, who voluntarily participate in

testing, providing feedback, and reporting any issues or bugs they encounter.

➔ Beta releases are crucial for the development process as they help identify potential
​
issues before they reach a stable release.

➔ Users who are comfortable with testing pre-release software can contribute to the
​
improvement of AlmaLinux by participating in the beta testing phase.

3. AlmaLinux OS Release Candidates (RC):

 ➔ Release Candidates are versions of the operating system that are considered
​
feature-complete and stable. At this stage, the development team believes that the

software is ready for release, but they want to subject it to additional testing to

ensure the highest level of quality.

➔ The purpose of the Release Candidate phase is to gather more feedback from a
​
broader audience and catch any remaining issues that might have been overlooked.

➔ It's a final check before declaring the version as the official stable release. Users are
​
encouraged to test the Release Candidate and report any issues they encounter.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
➢ Features of Alma Linux:
​

● RHEL Compatibility: AlmaLinux is binary-compatible with RHEL, meaning applications

​
and workloads developed or tested on RHEL can seamlessly run on AlmaLinux.

● Stability and Reliability: Like RHEL, AlmaLinux emphasizes stability and reliability,
​
making it suitable for use in production environments where a robust and dependable

operating system is essential.

● Long-Term Support (LTS): AlmaLinux provides long-term support for its releases,
​
offering security updates and maintenance over an extended period. This is

particularly important for enterprise users who require a stable platform for an

extended lifecycle.

● Security Features: AlmaLinux inherits security features from RHEL, including SELinux
​
(Security-Enhanced Linux) for access control policies, firewall management tools, and

other security enhancements.

● Enterprise-Grade Package Management: AlmaLinux uses the RPM package

​
management system, providing users with a familiar and powerful toolset for

installing, updating, and managing software packages.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

➢ Advantages of Alma Linux

​
● Binary Compatibility: AlmaLinux maintains binary compatibility with Red Hat
​
Enterprise Linux (RHEL), allowing users to seamlessly transition from CentOS without

concerns about application compatibility.

● Community-Driven: Developed by the AlmaLinux OS Foundation, the distribution is

​
driven by a community-oriented approach, encouraging collaboration, transparency,

and community contributions to shape the direction of the project.

● Free and Open Source: AlmaLinux is freely available and open-source, aligning with
​
the principles of open software development. This accessibility makes it an attractive

choice for individuals and organizations seeking a cost-effective, enterprise-class

Linux distribution.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

➢ Disadvantages of Alma Linux

​
● Limited Track Record: AlmaLinux might lack the extensive track record and history
​
that some other established Linux distributions possess. This can be a concern for

users who prioritize a long and proven history of stability.

● Dependency on Upstream Code: AlmaLinux relies on the upstream source code of

​
RHEL. While this ensures compatibility, it also means that any changes or decisions

made by Red Hat in the development of RHEL could impact AlmaLinux. This

dependency may lead to delays in incorporating the latest features or security

updates.
 ● Evolutionary Changes: As with any evolving project, there could be changes in the
​
development or strategic direction of AlmaLinux. Users should stay informed about

any significant changes that may impact their systems.

❖ ________________________________________________________________________________Ha
​

rdware Requirements:

❖ CPU: 2 GHz dual-core processor or equivalent.

​
❖ RAM: 2 GB of RAM.
​
❖ Disk Space: 20 GB of free disk space.
​
❖ 2. Preferred Specifications:
​
❖ CPU: Multi-core processor
​
❖ RAM: 4 GB or more
​

________________________________________________
 ❖ Rocky Linux:
​

________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
What is Rocky Linux?

● Rocky Linux was founded in 2021 by Gregory Kurtzer, one of the co-founders of
​
CentOS, after Red Hat discontinued CentOS. The OS is under intensive

development by the community, and it is enterprise-ready, with regular updates

and excellent stability. The latest version is 9.0. The lifecycle for each release is

ten years at zero cost.

● Rocky represents what CentOS used to be when it was established - a

​
downstream distribution of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, stable, completely

compatible with RHEL, and it is ideal for servers. Kurtzer took the RHEL

open-source code and, using his background in high-performance scientific

computing, created Rocky Linux as a CentOS doppelganger - but completely free.

● The expertise and time required to produce the builds, servers, and repositories,
​
required to create Rocky Linux are mostly funded by Ctrl IQ (CIQ). It is a company

established by Kurtzer that provides commercial support .

● Who Should Use Rocky Linux?

​
●
Rocky Linux's target groups are private businesses and enterprises which need a
​

reliable, user-friendly, and free Linux distribution. It also targets users looking for

a viable alternative to CentOS, as it offers similar features.

● Rocky Linux's use cases are as follows:

​
● Cloud Computing: Suitable for installations in both public and private clouds,
​

offering a dependable and reasonably priced basis for virtualized environments.

● Desktop Use: Stability, security, and customization possibilities are utilized by

​

developers and power users.

● Server Management: Perfect for database servers and web servers, offering
​

stability, compatibility with RHEL, and a wide software ecosystem.

● Personal Use: Tech-savvy people looking for a reliable and adaptable operating
​

system for daily duties. Rocky Linux is a free and adaptable personal computer

platform.

● Research and Education: Wide range of software solutions, open-source nature,

​

and affordability.
___________________________________________________________________________________

❖​History of Rocky Linux?

❖​ On December 8, 2020, Red Hat announced that they would discontinue

development of CentOS, which had been a production-ready downstream version
of RHEL, in favor of a newer upstream development variant of that operating
[8] [9]
system known as CentOS Stream. In response, Gregory Kurtzer, CEO of CIQ
(a Rocky Linux support provider) and one of the original founders of CentOS,
announced that he would start a new project to achieve the original goals of
[10][11][12]
CentOS. Its name was chosen as a tribute to early CentOS co-founder
[3] [13]
Rocky McGaugh. By December 12, the code repository of Rocky Linux had
[14]
become the top-trending repository on GitHub.
❖​ On December 22, 2020, Rocky Linux community manager Jordan Pisaniello
announced that the target for an initial release was anywhere between March
[15]
and May of 2021. On January 20, 2021, it was announced that a test
repository would be made available to the public by the end of February, and a
[16]
release candidate was on target for the end of March 2021. However, that
[17]
date was slightly pushed back, and on April 30, 2021, the first release
[18]
candidate was officially released. The second release candidate, of version
[19]
8.4, the last before the stable release, was released on June 4, 2021. The high
version number is based on the designation of RHEL. Rocky Linux is a clone of
RHEL, which is also binary-compatible and is already supported by numerous
 [
large, financially strong sponsors. On June 21, 2021, the stable release of Rocky
[22]
Linux 8.4 was released, with the code name "Green Obsidian".
❖​ Rocky Linux 9.0 was released on July 14, 2022, alongside a new reproducible
build system called "Peridot", created to ensure the community can easily create
new RHEL forks if Rocky Linux ever were to be discontinued, and to allow the
Rocky Linux project to make new releases faster. Rocky Linux 9.0 is also the first
version to support little-endian PowerPC processors and IBM Z (s390x)
[1]
mainframes.
❖​ Rocky Linux 10.0 "Red Quartz" was released on June 11, 2025.

______________________________________________________________

★ Features of Rocky Linux:

​

●​ Stability
Rocky Linux's purpose is to replace CentOS, which means it focuses on offering
CentOS's main advantage - stability. Rocky Linux is gaining users' trust by
focusing on stability and ensuring the system runs smoothly and with no sudden
updates.

●​ Compatibility
Rocky Linux is 100% compatible with the Red Hat Enterprise binary code. The
bug-for-bug compatibility vouches for the OS's performance, efficiency, and
stability, which are some of RHEL's key features. Since its release, Rocky has
fixed the issues related to container images and cloud-based offers.

Migrations from CentOS, AlmaLinux, and other distributions are also simplified
using the migrate2rocky tool.

●​ Open Source
Being open-source is one of the key features of Rocky Linux since it benefits the
entire community. An open-source distribution based on stable RHEL code
 ensures a constant community flow of documentation, security management,
and updates that focus on the users' needs.

●​ Support
The OS's popularity is rising, which means community support is also increasing.
Having a large and thriving community means that the OS will remain free and
well-supported, and those who want can also purchase commercial support
provided by several companies.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Drawbacks:
As all operating systems, Rocky Linux also has some drawbacks:

❖​Age

Rocky Linux is still in its initial stages, which is its main drawback.
However, as the community grows and the project matures, it is becoming
less of an issue. Still, some users are concerned about its future as its
maintenance requires a lot of money and committed supporters for
development and updates.

❖​Slow Updates

Since Rocky Linux focuses on stability, the update cycle is slower

compared to CentOS Stream. This may be a downside for developers who
prefer frequent updates. However, it can be a benefit for users more
focused on a stable system with few unexpected updates.
 ❖ What Versions of Rocky Linux are Available?
​

These are the Rocky Linux Release Versions, together with information on their support, release

dates, and user impact.The Rocky Linux versions are shown in the table below, along with the

dates of wide availability and (planned or currently scheduled) end of life.

Release Codename Date of Ends of Active Final Current/Last

Release Support Days of Version

Life

Rocky Green Obsidian 1 May 2021 31 May 2024 31 May 8.10 (May 31,

Linux 8 2029 2024)

Rocky Blue Onyx July 14, May 31, 2027 May 31, 9.5 (November 19,

Linux 9 2022 2032 2024)

Detailed information on Rocky Linux 8 is below.

Version Release the kernel Date of Release Death Encouraged

8.3 4.18.0-240 May 1, 2021 June 21, 2021 NO

8.4 4.18.0-305 June 21, 2021 November 15, 2021 NO

8.5 4.18.0-348 November, 15 2021 May 15, 2022 NO

8.6 4.18.0-372.9.1 May 15, 2022 November 11, 2022 NO

8.7 4.18.0-425.3.1 November 11, 2022 May 20, 2023 NO

8.8 4.18.0-477.10.1 May 20, 2023 November 11, 2023 NO

8.9 4.18.0-513.5.1 November 22, 2023 May 31, 2024 NO

8.10 4.18.0-553 May 31, 2024 May 31, 2029 Yes

Detailed information on Rocky Linux 9 is below.

Version Release the kernel Date of Release Death Encouraged

9.0 5.14.0-70.13.1 July 14, 2022 November 26, 2022 NO

9.1 5.14.0-162.6.1 November 26, 2022 May 16, 2023 NO

9.2 5.14.0-284.11.1 May 16, 2023 November 20, 2023 NO

9.3 5.14.0-362.8.1 November 20, 2023 May 09, 2024 NO

9.4 5.14.0-427.13.1 May 09, 2024 November 19, 2024 NO

9.5 5.14.0-503.14.1 November 19, 2024 May 2025 Yes

Is Rocky Linux Replacing CentOS?

Yes. Rocky Linux, developed by Gregory Kurtzer, one of CentOS's initial inventors, is a good

replacement for CentOS. Rocky Linux is an enterprise-class Linux distribution built on top of
the RHEL binaries. For anyone switching from CentOS, Rocky Linux is an appealing option.

The distribution maintains the open source ethic while claiming to be "bug-for-bug"

compatible with RHEL.

Introduction to Linux Distributions

What is Linux?
Linux is a free and open-source operating system that belongs to the Unix-like family of
systems. It is based on the Linux kernel, which was first released by Linus Torvalds on
September 17, 1991. The kernel is the core part of the operating system that manages
hardware resources and allows software applications to communicate with the hardware.

Unlike proprietary operating systems (like Windows or macOS), Linux is developed

collaboratively by programmers around the world and released under the GNU General Public
License (GPL). This means anyone can freely use, modify, and distribute it.

Over the years, Linux has evolved into a highly versatile OS used across many platforms:

●​ Personal computers and laptops​

●​ Servers and data centers​

●​ Smartphones (via Android)​

●​ Supercomputers (used in all of the top 500 supercomputers globally)​

●​ Embedded systems (like routers, smart TVs, etc.)​

It is considered a powerful, secure, and stable operating system, making it popular in both
academic and enterprise environments.
What are Linux Distributions (Distros)?
​
A Linux Distribution (or Distro) is a packaged version of the Linux operating system that
includes:

●​ The Linux kernel

●​ System libraries and utilities
●​ A package manager
●​ A user interface (GUI or CLI)
●​ Optional software and tools​

Distributions are created to serve different purposes and user bases—ranging from general use
and education to advanced enterprise management and security.

Popular Linux Distributions:

●​ Ubuntu – User-friendly, good for beginners and general use.

●​ Debian – Known for stability and strong community support.
●​ Fedora – Focuses on the latest features, often used by developers.
●​ Arch Linux – Lightweight and customizable, for advanced users.
●​ Linux Mint – Designed for ease of use, especially for users transitioning from Windows.​

Specialized and Commercial Distros:

●​ Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) – Commercial, used in enterprise environments.

●​ SUSE Linux Enterprise (SLE/SLES) – Focused on business solutions with support.
●​ Kali Linux – Designed for penetration testing and security research.
●​ ChromeOS – A Google-made Linux distribution used in Chromebooks.​

Each distribution may differ in package management (e.g., .deb vs .rpm), user interfaces, and
system performance, allowing users to choose based on their needs.
Importance of enterprise-level Linux (SUSE & RHEL)

Enterprise-level Linux distributions are designed to offer security, reliability, long-term

support, and scalability for businesses and organizations. Two of the most widely used
enterprise Linux distros are SUSE Linux Enterprise and Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).

Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL):

●​ Developed by Red Hat Inc., now part of IBM.​

●​ Provides paid support, certified software, and regular security updates.​

●​ Widely used in banking, government, cloud services, and data centers.​

●​ Uses the RPM Package Manager and supports automation tools like Ansible.​

●​ RHEL versions have long-term support cycles (up to 10 years), essential for critical
systems.​

SUSE Linux Enterprise (SLE):

●​ Developed by SUSE, one of the oldest Linux companies.​

●​ Known for its flexibility, modular architecture, and support for SAP applications.​

●​ Commonly used in enterprise servers, mainframes, and IoT devices.​

●​ Offers YaST (Yet another Setup Tool) for simplified system management.​

●​ Also supports containers, cloud computing, and high-performance computing.​

Why Enterprises Prefer SUSE & RHEL:

●​ Stability and Performance: Essential for running mission-critical applications.

●​ Security Compliance: Meet industry standards (e.g., PCI-DSS, HIPAA).
●​ Vendor Support: Access to certified hardware, updates, and expert support.
●​ Integration with Modern Technologies: Kubernetes, OpenStack, DevOps, Cloud
platforms.
●​ Predictable Life Cycles: Enables long-term planning and minimal downtime.
SUSE
History & Background
SUSE was founded in 1992 in Nuremberg, Germany, under the name Software und
System-Entwicklung (S.u.S.E.). Initially, it partnered with Slackware for early Linux distribution
work but soon began creating its own Linux system.

Key historical points:

●​ First commercial SUSE Linux distribution released in 1994.​

●​ Acquired by Novell in 2003, which launched SUSE Linux Enterprise (SLE) for business
use.​

●​ Novell itself was acquired by The Attachmate Group in 2011, making SUSE an
independent business unit.​

●​ In 2014, Micro Focus took over, and in 2019, SUSE was sold to EQT, a private equity
firm.​

●​ SUSE is currently an independent, enterprise-focused open source company.​

Key Versions
SUSE Linux is offered in two primary forms—an enterprise edition and a community version.

SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) is the main commercial product tailored for server
environments. It has been used in enterprise workloads, mainframes, and high-performance
computing since its first release in 2000.

SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop (SLED) is the desktop-oriented version aimed at professional
workstations. It includes tools like LibreOffice, GNOME, and Evolution and is built on the same
codebase as SLES.

openSUSE is the free, community-maintained version. It comes in two branches:

●​ Leap: stable version aligned closely with SLE.​

●​ Tumbleweed: rolling-release version for advanced users and developers.​

SLES and openSUSE Leap share a common codebase, allowing easier migration from
community to enterprise versions.

Features and Architecture

SUSE Linux Enterprise systems are designed with stability, configurability, and enterprise
readiness in mind.

●​ YaST (Yet another Setup Tool): A central configuration tool that handles system setup,
software management, networking, partitioning, and user controls via GUI or CLI.​

●​ Zypper: A command-line package manager used for installing, updating, and removing
software using RPM packages.​

●​ Btrfs and Snapper: SUSE uses Btrfs as the default filesystem for the root partition,
offering snapshot capabilities managed via Snapper. This allows administrators to roll
back system changes easily.​

●​ High-availability extensions: Available for clustering and failover configurations in

mission-critical environments.​

●​ System compatibility: Designed for broad hardware support including x86_64, ARM64,
IBM Z, and POWER architectures.​

The architecture also includes support for technologies like Docker, Podman, transactional
updates, and secure boot environments.

Use Cases

SUSE Linux Enterprise is widely adopted in industries that require robust, scalable, and secure
systems.

Typical use cases include:

●​ Enterprise servers and data centers​

●​ Cloud platforms (SUSE is available on AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud)​

●​ SAP workloads, with SLES being a preferred OS for SAP HANA​

●​ High-performance computing and AI systems (e.g., IBM Watson, HPE Frontier)

Community and Support
SUSE maintains a strong community presence through the openSUSE project, which enables
experimentation and early testing of features before they are integrated into SLE.

Support structure:

●​ SUSE offers commercial support under Standard and Priority subscriptions.​

●​ Customers receive access to patches, updates, security advisories, and

enterprise-grade technical assistance.​

●​ Long-Term Service Pack Support (LTSS) is available for up to 13 years for selected
versions.​

openSUSE Leap users benefit from regular updates and can migrate to SLE if enterprise-level
support is later required.
RHEL
History & Background
Red Hat Linux was one of the earliest Linux distributions, founded in 1993 by Bob Young and
Marc Ewing. It became popular in both academic and enterprise settings due to its simplicity,
documentation, and commercial support model.

Key historical milestones:

●​ In 2003, Red Hat split its product line into two: the community-driven Fedora Project
and the commercially supported Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).​

●​ RHEL quickly became the industry standard for enterprise Linux deployments.​

●​ Red Hat was acquired by IBM in 2019 for $34 billion, marking one of the largest tech
acquisitions focused on open source.​

Key Versions
Red Hat follows a structured release cycle, with major versions supported for up to 10 years
under the standard subscription model.

Notable versions:

●​ RHEL 5 (2007): Introduced virtualization with Xen.​

●​ RHEL 6 (2010): Moved to KVM for virtualization.​

●​ RHEL 7 (2014): Introduced systemd, firewalld, and Docker support.​

●​ RHEL 8 (2019): Added AppStreams, modular content, and cockpit web console.​

●​ RHEL 9 (2022): Based on Fedora 34, supports newer kernel, SELinux improvements,
and container updates.​

RHEL also offers minor point releases (e.g., 8.9, 9.3) with updated packages and backported
features.
Features and Architecture
RHEL is designed for stability, security, and long-term enterprise support. It is built on RPM
packages and uses the DNF/YUM package manager.

Key features:

●​ SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux): Mandatory access control for enhanced system

security.​

●​ Cockpit: A web-based interface for managing servers, services, storage, and

containers.​

●​ Systemd: Replaces init for faster and more reliable system startup and service
management.​

●​ AppStreams: Allows multiple versions of packages (like Python or Node.js) to coexist.​

●​ Podman and Buildah: OCI-compliant tools for managing and building containers
without requiring a daemon (unlike Docker).​

●​ Red Hat Insights: A predictive analytics tool for risk identification and system health
checks.​

RHEL is available for x86_64, ARM64, IBM POWER, and IBM Z architectures.

Use Cases
RHEL is the go-to Linux distribution for mission-critical systems and regulated industries.

Common use cases:

●​ Enterprise application servers (e.g., for finance, banking, telecom)​

●​ Hosting SAP, Oracle, and other commercial enterprise software​

●​ Cloud-native infrastructure (OpenShift, Kubernetes)​

●​ Scientific computing and government defense systems​

●​ Public cloud environments (AWS, Azure, GCP)

Community and Support
RHEL has a strong ecosystem, combining community involvement with enterprise-grade
support.

Support system includes:

●​ Red Hat Customer Portal: Access to updates, security advisories, and certified
software.​

●​ Subscription tiers: Based on support level (Standard, Premium) and systems

managed.​

●​ EUS (Extended Update Support) and ELS (Extended Life Support) are available for
older versions needing longer support cycles.​

Red Hat also supports:

●​ CentOS Stream: A rolling preview of RHEL before official releases.​

●​ Fedora: The upstream project where new technologies are first introduced and tested.
AIX (Advanced Interactive eXecutive)

Early Days and Foundational Development (1980s)

●​ Initial Development: AIX was first introduced in 1986 for the IBM 6150 RT PC
workstation. The system was a collaboration with Interactive Systems Corporation, and it
was a hybrid Unix, combining features from both AT&T's System V and Berkeley
Software Distribution (BSD) Unix. This gave AIX a rich set of features and a familiar
environment for a broad range of Unix users.
●​ RS/6000 Era: In 1990, IBM launched the RS/6000 series, a family of servers and
workstations based on its new POWER (Performance Optimized With Enhanced
RISC) architecture. AIX was the native operating system for this new hardware, and this
partnership would define its future. The RS/6000 and AIX became the foundation for
IBM's enterprise computing business, competing directly with other commercial Unix
vendors like Sun Microsystems and Hewlett-Packard.

Key Milestones and Feature Advancements (1990s - 2000s)

●​ Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): AIX Version 4, released in 1994, was a significant

step forward. It introduced support for symmetric multiprocessing, allowing the OS to
efficiently utilize multiple processors on the new SMP servers in the RS/6000 line.
●​ Consolidation and Unification: In the year 2000, IBM consolidated its various server
brands (including the AS/400 and RS/6000) under the eServer brand. The RS/6000
became the eServer pSeries. This move paved the way for the development of a unified
hardware platform, and by 2001/2002 with the POWER4 processor, the "pSeries" and
"iSeries" servers began to share a common hardware architecture.
●​ Virtualization Technology: The mid-2000s were a pivotal time for AIX. With the
introduction of the POWER5 processor in 2004, IBM began to integrate advanced
virtualization features directly into the hardware. AIX 5.3 was a key release that
leveraged these capabilities, including:
○​ Micro-partitioning: The ability to share a single CPU core among multiple
logical partitions (LPARs).
○​ Live Partition Mobility (LPM): A groundbreaking feature that allows a running
LPAR to be moved to a different physical server without any downtime.

Modern Era and Hybrid Cloud (2010s - Present)

●​ Power Systems: In 2008, IBM officially merged the "pSeries" and "iSeries" lines into a
single, unified brand: Power Systems. This platform could run AIX, IBM i (the successor
to OS/400), and Linux on the same hardware. This move reflected the growing
importance of Linux in the enterprise market.
●​ Continuous Innovation: IBM continues to actively develop AIX, with a focus on modern
features and integration with emerging technologies.
 ○​ AIX 7.3 (released in 2021) brought enhancements for hybrid cloud, security, and
enterprise AI. It offers integration with Red Hat OpenShift, allowing AIX
applications to coexist with containerized workloads.
○​ Live Kernel Update: A key feature in recent versions that allows for system
updates without requiring a system reboot, further enhancing its reputation for
high availability.
●​ Future Roadmap: Unlike other commercial Unix systems that have been retired, AIX
has a clear and committed roadmap from IBM that extends well into the 2030s. IBM's
strategy is to position AIX as a secure, reliable, and high-performance platform for
mission-critical workloads within a hybrid cloud environment.

Pros & Cons

●​ Pros:

●​ Exceptional Stability: Known for its rock-solid reliability and uptime, making it a
top choice for mission-critical applications.
●​ Advanced Virtualization: Features like micro-partitioning and Live Partition
Mobility (LPM) allow for flexible resource allocation and seamless system
maintenance without downtime.
●​ Excellent Administration Tools: The SMIT (System Management Interface
Tool) simplifies complex administration tasks by providing a menu-driven
interface that generates command-line scripts.
●​ Performance: It's highly optimized for IBM's Power hardware, providing excellent
performance and scalability for demanding workloads.

●​ Cons:

●​ Hardware Lock-in: AIX is exclusively tied to IBM Power Systems, limiting

hardware choices and potentially leading to higher costs.
●​ Proprietary: Being a closed-source system means it lacks the flexibility and vast
community support of open-source alternatives like Linux.
●​ High Cost: The total cost of ownership is often higher due to the expense of the
hardware, software licensing, and support.

Uses & Future :

●​ Historically, AIX has been the operating system of choice for enterprises
running large-scale databases (like Oracle and SAP), financial trading
systems, and telecommunications infrastructure. Despite the rise of Linux,
AIX is actively supported and developed by IBM.

●​ The future of AIX is tied to a hybrid cloud strategy, where it runs

alongside Linux on IBM's Power Systems, with a roadmap extending well
into the 2030s.
HP-UX (Hewlett Packard Unix)
HP-UX, a proprietary Unix operating system from Hewlett-Packard Enterprise (HPE), has a
history marked by a strong focus on high-end, mission-critical computing, but its story ultimately
concludes with its planned end of life.

The PA-RISC Era: A Focus on Performance and Reliability

(1980s-1990s)

●​ Early Releases: HP-UX was first launched in 1983 and was based on Unix System V.
Initially, it ran on HP's proprietary Motorola 68000-based workstations and HP's own
FOCUS architecture.
●​ The PA-RISC Architecture: The system's true identity was forged with the introduction
of HP's PA-RISC (Precision Architecture-RISC) in the mid-1980s. HP-UX became the
native operating system for the highly successful HP 9000 series of servers and
workstations. This period saw HP-UX become a major player in the commercial Unix
market, competing directly with systems from Sun Microsystems and IBM.
●​ Key Innovations: During this time, HP-UX introduced several advanced features that
made it stand out:
○​ Access Control Lists (ACLs): HP-UX was one of the first Unix systems to
implement ACLs, providing more granular control over file permissions than the
standard Unix model.
○​ Logical Volume Manager (LVM): It was also a pioneer in integrating a built-in
LVM, which simplified disk management and offered flexibility for enterprise
storage.
○​ High-Availability Clustering: HP-UX was renowned for its high-availability
solutions, particularly with HPE Serviceguard, which provided clustering and
automatic failover for mission-critical applications.

The Transition to Itanium (2000s)

●​ The HP-Intel Partnership: In the late 1990s, HP partnered with Intel to develop a new
64-bit architecture called Itanium (IA-64). The goal was for Itanium to be the
next-generation platform for both companies, eventually replacing both HP's PA-RISC
and Intel's x86-based systems for high-end computing.
●​ HP Integrity Servers: HP-UX was ported to the Itanium architecture, and the new
servers were branded as HP Integrity Servers. For a time, HP offered versions of
HP-UX that ran on both the legacy PA-RISC and the new Itanium-based platforms,
providing a migration path for customers.
 ●​ The Decline of Itanium: Despite initial high hopes, the Itanium architecture failed to
gain widespread adoption. It struggled with performance, especially when running legacy
x86 code, and it faced fierce competition from the increasingly powerful and
cost-effective x86-64 architecture from Intel and AMD. This strategic misstep sealed
HP-UX's fate.

End of Life (2010s - Present)

●​ Migration to Linux: As the Itanium platform's future became uncertain, many HP-UX
customers began planning migrations to other operating systems, with Linux on x86-64
hardware becoming the most popular choice. HPE itself began to focus more on its x86
server portfolio running Linux and Windows.
●​ End-of-Support Announcement: In a clear signal of the platform's decline, HPE
announced the official end of standard support for HP-UX and HPE Integrity servers
on December 31, 2025. While there might be options for "mature support" without new
fixes or security updates for a limited period, this marked the end of new development for
the operating system.

HP-UX leaves a legacy as a highly reliable and secure enterprise OS, but its history ultimately
serves as a cautionary tale about the risks of a proprietary, hardware-specific operating system
in a world that has overwhelmingly embraced open-source and commodity hardware.

Pros & Cons

●​ Pros:
○​ High Availability: With its clustering solution, HPE Serviceguard, HP-UX was
designed for minimal downtime and quick failover.
○​ Security: It was a pioneer in security, offering ACLs and other robust security
features for protecting critical data.
○​ Proven Reliability: The OS has a long history of powering mission-critical
environments in industries like telecommunications and finance.

●​ Cons:
○​ Hardware Dependencies: HP-UX is tied to HPE hardware, particularly the
now-discontinued Itanium architecture. This has created a path toward
obsolescence.
○​ High Cost: Like AIX, the total cost of ownership is very high, making it difficult to
compete with more affordable x86/Linux solutions.
 ○​ End-of-Life: HPE has announced the end of life for HP-UX on December 31,
2025, which is the most significant disadvantage.

Uses & Future:

●​ HP-UX was once a dominant force in enterprise computing, running large databases
and other demanding applications.
●​ However, due to its reliance on the Itanium architecture and HPE's official end-of-life
announcement, HP-UX is now considered a legacy system.
●​ Organizations still running it are in the process of migrating to other platforms,
predominantly Linux, or are using emulation software to keep their critical applications
running on modern hardware.
 Feature Point AIX (Advanced Interactive HP-UX (Hewlett Packard
eXecutive) Unix)

Administration Philosophy ●​ "The Black Box" ●​ "The System V"

Approach. AIX is Approach. HP-UX
managed through the adheres to traditional
SMIT (System Unix principles,
Management managing
Interface Tool), a configurations via
menu-driven interface standard
that abstracts command-line tools
complexity and and plain text files,
shields administrators making it more
from command-line transparent to
specifics. experienced
administrators.

Configuration Storage ●​ Proprietary Database ●​ Traditional Flat Files.

(ODM). System Configurations are
configurations are stored in standard
stored in the Object Unix text files,
Data Manager allowing for easy
(ODM), a viewing and
non-standard modification with
database, requiring common text editors
specialized AIX tools and tools.
for viewing and
modification.

Virtualization Strategy ●​ Deep Hardware ●​ OS-Centric &

Integration Itanium-Dependent.
(PowerVM). AIX's HP-UX's virtualization
virtualization is tightly was tied to the Intel
integrated with the Itanium architecture.
Power Systems This strategic decision
hardware and led to the platform's
PowerVM hypervisor, decline when the
enabling advanced Itanium processor
features like Live failed and was
Partition Mobility ultimately
(LPM) and ensuring discontinued.
long-term platform
viability.

Conclusion: We have learnt about different types of OS like FreeRTOS, Zephyr and all. We have seen
different versions of the RTOS and what changes were made in them in each of the versions.