PEC 102 MODULE 3

MODULE 3 REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO

THE LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT

Take the

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

 Explain the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories.
 Apply these theories to teaching-learning situations.

INTRODUCTION

The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking researches tells that
one can be an effective facilitator or learning of one has a good working knowledge of the
learners; development. Previously in your Child and Adolescent Development course, the
foundational theories related to the learners; development were discussed. This Module
aims to help you think about and review these theories that you have taken up and
connects them to learning.

Advance Organizer

Freud
Erikson
3 components of Piaget
personality 8 Psycho-social
4 Stages of Cognitive
Stages of
5 psychosexual Development
Development
stages of
Development

Theories Related
to the Learners’
Development

Vygotsky
Kohlberg
Bronfenbrenner
 On Language
3 Levels and 6
 Zone of Bio-Ecological
Substages of Moral
ENGAGE Proximal System
Development
Development
 Who said what?
1. “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in the child but on
tomorrow’s. - Lev Vygotsky
2. “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.” -
Erik Erikson
3. “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that
have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.” - Lawrence Kohlberg
4. “The principal goal of education in the school should be creating men and women who are
capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generation have done.” - Jean
Piaget
5. “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one - seventh of its bulk above water.” -
Sigmund Freud
6. “We as a nation need to reeducate about the necessary and sufficient conditions for making
human beings human. We need to be reeducated not as parents- but as workers, neighbors,
and friends; and as members of the organizations, committees, board and especially, the
informal networks that control our social institutions and thereby determine the conditions of
life for our families and their children.” - Urie Bronfenbrenner

EXPLORE

Challenge your stock knowledge! After answer the short exercise above, write what
you remember most about the ideas of the following theorists. Focus on what you think are
their most important ideas about the development of learners.

Sigmund Freud
Freud focused on how unconscious desires and childhood experiences shape behavior.
He proposed the three components of personality: id (instincts), ego (reality), and superego
(morality). He also introduced five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital) which must be properly resolved to avoid fixation.
Erik Erikson
Erikson emphasized psychosocial development across the lifespan. He outlined eight
stages, each involving a conflict (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion) whose
resolution leads to development of a core virtue (e.g., hope, fidelity).

Jean Piaget
 Piaget developed the cognitive development theory, where children progress through
four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Each stage reflects increasing sophistication in thinking and problem-solving.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s ideas to form a theory of moral development with
three levels and six stages: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. He
believed that moral reasoning develops gradually as cognitive ability increases.
Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in learning. He
introduced the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding—where learning
happens best when guided by a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
Urie Bronfenbrenner
Bronfenbrenner introduced the bioecological systems theory showing that a child
develops within nested systems: microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macro system, and
chronosystem. These systems interact with the child’s biology and influence development.

EXPLAIN

The ideas of the theorists, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bronfenbrenner
remain to be foundational in the teacher’s understanding of the learners’ development. Let us
recall highlights of their theories.
Freud said, “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above
water.” This is if course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to when he explained the
subcutaneous mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about, is not what we
see in the outside and what is conscious, but what Is there hidden in the subconscious mind.
As teachers, it is important that we remember not to be quick in making conclusions about
our students’ intentions for their actions. Always consider that there are many factors that
may influence one’s behavior.
Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s personality, the id,
ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego, reality centered and the superego,
which is related to the ego ideal or conscience.
Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of
development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. Each stages
demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in fixations.’
Erikson said, “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough
not to fear death.” He believed in the impact of the significant others in the development of
one’s view of himself, life and of the world. He presented a very comprehensive framework
 of eight psycho-social stages of development. It is Erikson who describe the crisis (expressed
in opposite polarities) that a person goes through; the maladaptation and malignancies that
result from failure to effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance
and resolution of the crisis is attained.
Piaget said, “The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men
and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other
generations have done.
Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He described four
stages of cognitive development, namely the sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete-
operational and formal operational stages. Each has characteristic way of thinking and
perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive abilities develop.
Kohlberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights
and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”
Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral development (pre-conventional, conventional and
post-conventional) which are further subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget,
Kohlberg believed that one’s cognitive development influenced the development of one’s
moral reasoning.
Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in
the child but on tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in learning
and development. Scaffolding is the systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner
that helps the learner to effectively acquire skill. He believed that guidance from a more
knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead to a learner to a higher level of performance than if
he were alone. This higher level of performance then eventually becomes the learner’s actual
performance when he works independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal
development (ZPD) illustrates this.
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems Theory presents
child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s
environment. The model is composed of microsystem, mesosystem, ecosystem, macro
system and the chronosystem. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
“bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts on his/her
development. The child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his/her
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuel and steer his/her
development. Changes or conflicts in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To
study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate
environment, but also at the larger environment with which the child interacts. What follows
are graphic organizers that will help you review the principles of these important theories.
You may refer to any Child and Adolescent Development book or other resources to complete
EXTEND WITH SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
them.

Freud’s Component of the Personality

Review the three components and write important concepts about them in the space provided.
 Id Ego Superego
 Present from birth.  Emerges around age 2–3.  Develops around age 5.
Operates on the pleasure Operates on the reality Represents the internalized
principle, seeking principle, helping the moral standards and ideals
immediate gratification individual satisfy the id’s from parents and society (the
of basic needs and demands in a socially conscience).
desires (e.g., hunger, acceptable way. It is
thirst, comfort). rational and logical.  This shapes moral behavior.
Praise and discipline from
 Young children are  As children mature, the adults help develop a strong
dominated by the id, ego helps them follow superego, influencing
which explains impulsive rules and manage honesty, empathy, and social
behavior. Teachers and impulses. It is conduct.
parents must set strengthened through
boundaries and teach routines and problem-
self-control. solving activities.

Stage Description
Oral (0–1 yr) Focus on oral pleasures (sucking, eating). Fixation can lead to dependency o
aggression.
Anal (1–3 yrs) Focus on controlling bladder/bowel movements. Fixation may cause orderliness o
messiness.
Phallic (3–6 yrs) Focus on genitals; development of sexual identity. Oedipus/Electra complex arise
here.
Latency (6–12 yrs) Dormant sexual feelings; focus shifts to school, friendships, and hobbies.

Genital (12+ yrs) Maturation of sexual interests and capacity for healthy relationships.

Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

Review the psycho-social stages and fill out the matrix below.
Stag Crisis Significant Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue
e Person
1 Trust vs. Mistrust Mother Sensory distortion Withdrawal Hope
(overtrust) (mistrust)
2 Autonomy vs. Parents Impulsivity Compulsion Will
Shame/Doubt
3 Initiative vs. Guilt Family Ruthlessness Inhibition Purpose
4 Industry vs. School, Narrow Virtuosity Inertia Competence
Inferiority Teachers
5 Identity vs. Role Peers Fanaticism Repudiation Fidelity
Confusion
6 Intimacy vs. Isolation Partners, Promiscuity Exclusion Love
Friends
7 Generativity vs. Family, Society Overextension Rejectivity Care
Stagnation
8 Integrity vs. Despair Mankind Presumption Disdain Wisdom

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages of Development

Stage Age Characteristics Key Teaching Strategies
Sensorimotor 0–2 yrs Learns through senses and motor Use toys, physical interaction, and
activity; object permanence develops. sensory play.
Pre-operational 2–7 yrs Egocentric thinking; use of symbols; Use visual aids, play-based
limited logic. learning, and storytelling.
Concrete 7–11 yrs Logical thinking with concrete objects; Hands-on activities, step-by-step
Operational understands conservation. instructions, group work.
Formal 12+ yrs Abstract and hypothetical thinking; Use debates, real-world scenarios,
Operational problem-solving. experiments.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Review the moral stages and identify and describe each using the graphic organizer below.

Level Stage Description

Pre-Conventional 1. Obedience and Punishment Right = avoiding punishment.
2. Individualism and Exchange Right = what benefits self.
Conventional 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships Good = what pleases others.
4. Maintaining Social Order Right = obeying laws and duties.
Post- 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights Right = upholding human rights.
Conventional
6. Universal Ethical Principles Right = justice, even against laws.

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Define or describe the words below.
  More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): A person with more experience or knowledge
(e.g., teacher, parent, peer) who helps the learner.
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a learner can do
alone and what they can do with help.
 Scaffolding: Support provided by the MKO which is gradually removed as the
learner becomes more competent.

Interpret Vygotsky’s views about the teaching and learning process by drawing a diagram
showing the relationships of MKO, ZPD and Scaffolding.

More
Knowledgeable
Other (MKO)

Provides
Scaffolding

Helps Learner
operate within
Zone of Proximal
Development
(ZPD)

Learner
eventually
performs
independently

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory

Describe each of the systems in the theory.
 CHRONOSYSTEM
Time-based changes (e.g., life
transitions, historical context).

MACROSYSTEM
Cultural values, laws, societal
norms.

EXOSYSTEM
Indirect environments (e.g.,
parent’s job, media).

MESOSYSTEM
Interactions between
microsystems (e.g., parent-
teacher relationship)

MICROSYSTEM
Immediate environment
(family, school, peers)

INDIVIDUAL
The child's
personal
characteristics
(e.g., age, sex)

Name: ASENTISTA, MARS GILLANNE B. Yr. & Sec.________________

EXTEND BY APPLYING
 Describe what parents and teachers should do to help children develop into the person
that they are meant to be from the point of view of.
1. Freud
Understand that children's behaviors may be driven by unconscious needs. Provide
emotional support to prevent fixations and encourage healthy personality
development.

2. Erikson
Help children resolve crises by giving those opportunities to trust, be autonomous,
and find identity. Support their social and emotional development through healthy
relationships.

3. Piaget
Match teaching strategies to the child's cognitive level. Use concrete experiences for
younger children and critical thinking for adolescents.

4. Kohlberg
Encourage moral reasoning by discussing ethical dilemmas and promoting justice and
fairness in classroom rules.

5. Vygotsky
Offer support through scaffolding and engage students in social learning activities.
Recognize each child’s ZPD.

6. Bronfenbrenner
Build a strong, positive microsystem (home/school). Understand how family, culture,
and community influence the child. Create a supportive and inclusive environment.

EXTEND BY RESEARCHING
 Read a research or study related to child development. Fill out the matrix below.

PROBLEM RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

How do parenting styles influence moral Mixed methods: Surveys of 150 adolescents and
development in early adolescence? interviews with 30 parents.

Title and Source: Santos, R. (2021). Parenting Styles and

Adolescent Moral Development. Philippine Journal of Child
Development, 12(2), 44–61A

FINDINGS CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS

Authoritative parenting was linked to higher Parenting style significantly influences a child’s
levels of post-conventional moral reasoning. moral development. Parents should be educated on
Neglectful parenting was linked to poor social balancing discipline with emotional support.
behavior.

EVALUATE

1. Identify one concept form the theories reviewed and describe how this can be applied in
teaching and learning.

Theory Key Concept Application in Teaching

Freud Unconscious mind, personality Understand underlying causes of behavior;
structure, psychosexual stages support emotional needs
Erikson 8 psychosocial stages of identity Promote social-emotional development and
development confidence through responsibility and trust
Piaget 4 stages of cognitive development Use developmentally appropriate teaching
strategies; hands-on learning
Kohlberg 3 levels of moral development Encourage ethical thinking and class
discussions on values
Vygotsky Social interaction, ZPD, Use peer support, guided learning, and
 scaffolding gradual release of responsibility
Bronfenbrenner Environmental systems influencing Build inclusive, supportive environments;
development involve families and communities

5- MINUTE NON-STOP WRITING

Your 5-minute non-stop writing begins NOW!

From the review of theories related to learner’s development I realized that……..

I realized that educating a child involves far more than just delivering academic content. Each learner is
influenced by a complex web of internal processes, social interactions, family dynamics, and broader
cultural and environmental factors. These theories help us, as future educators, understand that
development is not linear or isolated but multi-dimensional and deeply interconnected.

Sigmund Freud taught me that early childhood experiences and unconscious motivations play a crucial
role in shaping a learner’s personality and behavior. His ideas on the id, ego, and superego explain why
some students may act out or struggle with impulse control—not because they are inherently bad, but
because of unresolved emotional conflicts or unmet developmental needs. As a teacher, I must
remember to approach student behavior with empathy and insight, rather than immediate judgment.

Erik Erikson highlighted the importance of social relationships and identity formation across eight
psychosocial stages. His theory reminded me that each stage of life presents specific challenges that
learners must overcome to develop essential virtues like trust, autonomy, and identity. I now understand
that my role includes helping students build confidence, social skills, and a sense of purpose, especially
during the critical adolescent years.

Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory emphasized that children do not think like adults. Instead,
their thinking evolves through stages—each requiring appropriate teaching strategies. I must respect the
cognitive limitations and strengths of each age group, using concrete experiences for younger children
and abstract, hypothetical reasoning for older students. This helps ensure that I am teaching “with the
child in mind,” not just delivering content.

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded my understanding of how children’s moral reasoning develops over
time. His theory taught me that morality is not simply taught but grows as cognitive abilities mature. In
the classroom, I should provide opportunities for students to engage in moral discussions, solve ethical
dilemmas, and reflect on fairness, justice, and responsibility—developing their moral compass, not just
their academic ability.

Lev Vygotsky profoundly reshaped how I view learning—as a social process. His concept of the Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD) and the use of scaffolding reminded me that learning is most
effective when students are supported by others, such as peers, teachers, or parents. I must become a
"more knowledgeable other" who guides students until they can perform independently, promoting not
just learning but confidence and competence.

Finally, Urie Bronfenbrenner made me realize that no child exists in a vacuum. Each learner’s
development is influenced by multiple systems: their family, school, neighborhood, media, and culture
—all of which interact over time. His bioecological model urged me to understand my students within
the larger social context. Their behavior, attitudes, and learning styles are shaped by forces both near
and far, immediate and long-term.

Overall, these theories have deepened my awareness of the “whole child”—intellectually, emotionally,
socially, and morally. As a future educator, I now see my mission not just as a transmitter of knowledge
but as a facilitator of development. To truly make a difference in my students’ lives, I must create a
safe, responsive, and supportive learning environment that respects their individuality, culture, and
personal journey. Only then can meaningful learning take place.