How to Prove It PDF

Daniel J. Velleman

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 How to Prove It
Mastering the Art of Mathematical Proofs and
Logical Reasoning
Written by Bookey
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About the book
"How to Prove It" by Daniel J. Velleman is an essential
resource for students navigating the challenging shift from
problem-solving to theorem proving in advanced mathematics
and theoretical computer science. This bestselling third edition
equips learners with the foundational techniques necessary for
reading and writing proofs, featuring over 150 new exercises
and a fresh chapter on number theory. Starting with the
fundamentals of logic and set theory, the text introduces the
language of mathematics and its interpretation, laying the
groundwork for in-depth exploration of complex
proof-building techniques. With detailed 'scratch work'
sections that demystify proofs about numbers, sets, relations,
and functions, this book is accessible to anyone with a high
school mathematics background and will be invaluable to
aspiring mathematicians, computer scientists, philosophers,
and linguists alike.

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About the author
Daniel J. Velleman is a distinguished mathematician and
educator known for his engaging approach to teaching
mathematical proofs and logical reasoning. With a robust
academic background that includes a Ph.D. in mathematics,
Velleman has dedicated much of his career to elucidating
complex concepts in a clear and accessible manner. He has
authored several influential texts, including "How to Prove It,"
which serves as a pivotal resource for students transitioning
from high school mathematics to more abstract
university-level studies. In addition to his work as an author,
Velleman has been an active member of the academic
community, contributing to the development of mathematics
education and inspiring a generation of students to appreciate
the beauty and intricacies of mathematical thought.

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Summary Content List
Chapter 1 : 1 Sentential Logic

Chapter 2 : 2 Quantificational Logic

Chapter 3 : 3 Proofs

Chapter 4 : 4 Relations

Chapter 5 : 5 Functions

Chapter 6 : 6 Mathematical Induction

Chapter 7 : 7 Infinite Sets

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 Chapter 1 Summary : 1 Sentential Logic

Section Key Points

1.1 Deductive Reasoning and Logical

Connectives
Introduction to deductive reasoning with a focus on proofs and valid
arguments.
Validity of arguments ensures conclusion truth if premises are true.
Invalid arguments lack logical connection between premises and
conclusion.
Analytical approaches using letter replacements to assess validity.
Introduction of logical connectives: "( (or), "' (and), ¬ (not).
Example analysis for symbolic representation of statements.
Well-formed formulas adhere to strict syntactical rules.
Discussion on symbols for statements and their clarity.
Translation of complex statements into logical symbols.

1.2 Truth Tables

Truth values of statements are determined by their components.

Steps for constructing truth tables with composite formulas are
provided.
Truth tables verify argument validity across premises.
Discussion of logical equivalences and specific laws like
DeMorgan's.
Examination of truth tables for conditionals and biconditionals.

1.3 Variables and Sets

Variables represent objects; conditions attach to logical statements.

Sets are defined using curly braces, leading to elementhood tests.
Truth sets encompass all values making a statement true.
Free vs. bound variables distinction is explored regarding truth sets.

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Section Key Points

1.4 Operations on Sets

Basic set operations include union ("*), intersection (")), and

difference (\).
Venn diagrams aid in visualizing set relationships and operations.
Links between logical statements and operations on sets are
discussed.
Theorems establish important rules and relationships in set theory.

1.5 The Conditional and Biconditional

Connectives
Analyzing conditionals emphasizes the importance of "if-then"
structures.
Biconditionals introduced with discussions on converses and
contrapositives.
Exploration of statement implications and precision in mathematical
language.
Exercises to reinforce understanding of concepts in logical contexts.

Chapter 1: Sentential Logic

1.1 Deductive Reasoning and Logical Connectives

-
Introduction to Deductive Reasoning
: Proofs are integral to mathematics, relying on deductive
reasoning. Conclusions arise from premises, and a valid
argument maintains that all premises must be true if the
conclusion is true.

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-
Validity of Arguments
: An argument is valid if it guarantees the truth of the
conclusion when all premises are true. Example arguments
demonstrate this (e.g., it will either rain or snow tomorrow).
-
Invalid Argument Example
: An argument can be invalid if the conclusion does not
logically follow from the premises, demonstrated through
examples of faulty reasoning.
-
Analytical Approach
: By replacing statements in arguments with letters, one can
analyze validity without distraction from context.
-
Logical Connectives
: The chapter introduces symbols for key words:
- "( (or)
- "' (and)
- ¬ (not)

-
Example Analysis
: Readers practice analyzing statements and representing

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them symbolically.
-
Well-formed Formulas
: Expressions must follow strict forms (e.g., syntactical
rules) to be meaningful.
-
Symbols for Statements
: Connective symbols and logical notation are discussed,
adding clarity to logical reasoning.
-
Sentence Representation
: The process of translating complex statements into logical
symbols is illustrated.

1.2 Truth Tables

-
Understanding Truth Values
: Statements take on truth values based on the truth of their
components, summarized by truth tables.
-
Constructing Truth Tables
: Steps are provided on how to create truth tables for logical
expressions, with examples illustrating the process with

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composite formulas.
-
Analyzing Arguments with Truth Tables
: Truth tables help verify argument validity by showing
whether the conclusion holds consistently across premises.
-
Logical Equivalence and Laws
: The chapter discusses logical equivalences (e.g.,
DeMorgan's laws) through examples, demonstrating how
certain logical forms relate.
-
Truth Tables for Conditionals and Biconditionals
: A comprehensive exploration of logical connectives,
examining structures like conditionals (!’) and biconditionals
(!”).

1.3 Variables and Sets

-
Introduction to Variables
: Variables can represent any object, and statements about
variables come with conditions tied to logical expressions.
-
Sets and Elementhood

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: Definitions of sets (e.g., using curly braces) lead to concepts
like elementhood tests, allowing for analysis of mathematical
objects systematically.
-
Truth Sets
: Defined as encompassing all values that make a statement
true, truth sets utilize the preceding principles on variables
and sets.
-
Free vs. Bound Variables
: Distinctions between free (context-dependent) and bound
(context-independent) variables are examined, particularly in
relation to truth sets.

1.4 Operations on Sets

-
Basic Set Operations
: Includes the union ("*), intersection (")), and difference (\) of
sets.

-
Venn Diagrams
: Visual representations assist in understanding the

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relationships between sets and the results of operations.
-
Truth Sets and Set Operations
: Discusses how operations on sets correspond to logical
statements, leading to an understanding of how truth sets
interact with logical connectives.
-
Theorems and Identities
: Various theorems about sets are explored, establishing
important rules and relationships through logically deductive
reasoning.

1.5 The Conditional and Biconditional Connectives

-
Analyzing Conditionals
: The significance of the "if-then" structure is illustrated,
showing how to construct truth tables and analyze validity.
-
Understanding Biconditionals
: Introduces converses and contrapositives, establishing their
equivalences and significance in logic.
-
Equivalence in Statements

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: Explores various ways statements can imply each other,
emphasizing the need for precision in mathematical
language.
-
Exercises
: The chapter concludes with exercises that challenge readers
to solidify their understanding of concepts discussed,
applying logic to both mathematical and linguistic contexts.

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Chapter 2 Summary : 2 Quantificational
Logic

2 Quantificational Logic

2.1 Quantifiers

Quantifiers extend our ability to express statements about

variables. Two key quantifiers are:
-
Universal Quantifier (")
: Represents that a statement is true for all values in a set,
e.g., "x P(x), meaning "For all x, P(x) is true." This implies
that the truth set of P(x) is equal to the universe of discourse

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(U).

-
Existential Quantifier (")
: Indicates there exists at least one value for which a
statement is true, e.g., "x P(x), meaning "There exists an x
such that P(x) is true." This means the truth set of P(x) is not
empty.
Examples:
1. "x (x² "e 0) is true for all real numbers.
2. "x (x² - 2x + 3 = 0) is false since there are no real
solutions.
3. "x (M(x) "' B(x)): True if at least one man has brown hair.
4. "x (M(x) !’ B(x)): False if there's a man who doesn’t have
brown hair.
Bound variables change meaning based on quantifiers, which
can be replaced without altering the statement's meaning.

Example 2.1.2
- Analyze logical forms of English statements:
1. "Someone didn’t do the homework": "x(¬H(x)).
2. "Everything in that store is either overpriced or poorly
made": "x(S(x) !’ (O(x) "( P(x))).
3. "Nobody’s perfect": "x(¬P(x)).

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4. "Susan likes everyone who dislikes Joe": "x(¬L(x, j) !’
L(s, x)).
5. "A "† B": "x(x " A !’ x " B).

2.2 Equivalences Involving Quantifiers

There are important equivalences involving quantifiers:

1. ¬"x P(x) is equivalent to "x ¬P(x).
2. ¬"x P(x) is equivalent to "x ¬P(x).

Example 2.2.1
- Negate and express as positive statements:
1. A "† B becomes "x(x " A "' x /" B).
2. Everyone has a relative he doesn’t like becomes "x"y(R(x,
y) !’ L(x, y)).
Switching the order of quantifiers of the same type doesn’t
change their meaning. For instance, "x"y P(x, y) means
"there are objects x and y such that P(x, y)."

2.3 More Operations on Sets

Introducing set operations like union ("*) and intersection ("))

with quantifiers:
- ")F is defined as {x | "A " F (x " A)}, while "*F is defined as

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{x | "A " F (x " A)}.
- For any sets A and B, the intersection of their power sets is
given by P(A ") B) = P(A) ") P(B).
This section also addresses special cases like the empty set,
noting that ")" could be defined differently in contexts.
In learning to analyze sets and set operations logically, using
existential and universal quantifiers is crucial for expressing
complex relationships in mathematics.

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Example
Key Point:Understanding Quantifiers
Example:Recognizing how universal (") and existential
(") quantifiers shape logical statements is essential;
imagine assessing any variables in a math context,
where grasping that a function holds for all entries or at
least one instance drives your argument.

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Chapter 3 Summary : 3 Proofs

3 Proofs

3.1 Proof Strategies

Mathematicians are skeptical and rely on proofs rather than

experimentation or guesswork. This chapter teaches how to
construct proofs, analogous to assembling jigsaw puzzles.
While various proof techniques exist, they do not guarantee a
step-by-step solution to every problem; practice improves
one's proof-writing skills.
In mathematics, theorems state that under certain conditions
(hypotheses), a certain conclusion must be true. An example
highlights that examining specific instances is not enough;
one must prove that all instances satisfy the theorem. A proof
is a valid deductive argument concluding from the
hypotheses.
Many proof-writing techniques are based on the logical
forms of hypotheses and conclusions, guiding how to draw
inferences. Fundamental rules include never asserting
anything until it's justified and being skeptical of every

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inference.

3.2 Proofs Involving Negations and Conditionals

When faced with goals of the form ¬P, reexpressing the goal
positively can simplify the proving process. If reexpression is
not possible, proof by contradiction can be effective.
Additionally, assumptions can be useful for drawing out
implications.
Proof techniques can include using moduses ponens and
tollens for given conditional statements. The section presents
examples showcasing these techniques in action.

3.3 Proofs Involving Quantifiers

To prove goals of the form "x P(x), introduce x as an

arbitrary object to show P(x) holds for all. Proofs of goals "x
P(x) require finding a specific value x. The uniqueness of
solutions can be demonstrated through careful construction
and validation of assumptions.

3.4Install Bookey Conjunctions

Proofs Involving App to Unlock
and Full Text and
Biconditionals Audio

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Chapter 4 Summary : 4 Relations

4 Relations

4.1 Ordered Pairs and Cartesian Products

In this section, we expand the concept of truth sets from

single-variable statements to those with multiple free
variables. For a statement P(x, y) with two free variables, we
represent valid assignments of values with ordered pairs (x,
y). The Cartesian product A × B consists of all ordered pairs
(a, b) where a is an element of set A and b is an element of
set B.

Definition 4.1.1:
The Cartesian product A × B is defined as
\[ A × B = \{(a, b) | a \in A \text{ and } b \in B\}. \]

Example 4.1.2:

1. If \( A = \{ \text{red}, \text{green} \} \) and \( B = \{ 2, 3,

5 \} \), then \( A × B = \{ (\text{red}, 2), (\text{red}, 3),

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(\text{red}, 5), (\text{green}, 2), (\text{green}, 3),
(\text{green}, 5) \} \).
2. The product of a set of people P and natural numbers N
results in the pairs \( (p, n) \) corresponding to each person
and each natural number.
3. The product of the real numbers R with itself consists of
all pairs \( (x,y) \) in R².

Theorem 4.1.3:
This theorem describes various properties of Cartesian
products, such as distributive laws with respect to set
operations and relationships involving the empty set.
To further reinforce these concepts, proofs of parts of the
theorem are provided in the text, including details on set
containment and element representation.

4.2 Relations

A relation R from set A to B is defined as a subset R of the

Cartesian product A × B. If P(x, y) describes a relationship
between x and y, the truth set comprises pairs (x, y) that
satisfy the statement.

Definition 4.2.1:

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A relation R is defined as \( R \subseteq A × B \).

Key Concepts:

- The
domain
of a relation is defined as the set of first elements from its
ordered pairs.
- The
range
is the set of second elements.

Composition of Relations:
Given relations S from B to C and R from A to B, the
composition S " R includes pairs (a, c) such that there exists
an element b in B making both (a, b) in R and (b, c) in S.

4.3 More About Relations

Relations can be visually represented and understood through

graphs that illustrate connections between set elements.

4.4 Ordering Relations

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Ordering relations introduce the concepts of reflexivity,
transitivity, antisymmetry, partial orders, and total orders.

Definition 4.4.2:
A partial order satisfies reflexivity, transitivity, and
antisymmetry.
A total order is a partial order wherein every pair of elements
is comparable.

Key properties include:

- Minimal and maximal elements in the context of a partial

order.
- Upper bounds and lower bounds for sets defined under a
partial order.

4.5 Closures

Closures extend relations while preserving specific properties

like reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity, leading to the
definitions of reflexive closure, symmetric closure, and
transitive closure.

Theorems 4.5.5 and 4.5.6

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 state that every relation has symmetric and transitive
closures, respectively.

4.6 Equivalence Relations

An
equivalence relation
is defined as a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive. Each equivalence relation partitions the set into
equivalence classes.

Definition 4.6.1:
An equivalence relation R satisfies:
1. Reflexivity: "x (x R x).
2. Symmetry: "x"y ((x R y) !’ (y R x)).
3. Transitivity: "x"y"z ((x R y) "' (y R z) !’ (x R z)).
The set of all equivalence classes is recognized as A/R,
which serves as a partition of A. The relationship between
equivalence relations and partitions affirms that each
equivalence relation generates a unique partition of the set,
and conversely, each partition corresponds to an equivalence
relation defined by its classes.

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Chapter 5 Summary : 5 Functions

5 Functions

5.1. Functions

A function is defined as a relation where each element in set

A corresponds to exactly one element in set B. The chapter
introduces the concept of functions and illustrates it with
various examples, checking whether certain relations qualify
as functions. It explains important terms such as identity
relations and sets, providing scenarios like the relation
between people and their children or cities and countries to
clarify the concept.

5.2. One-to-one and Onto

A function is one-to-one (injective) if it never assigns the

same value in the codomain to two different values in the
domain. A function is onto (surjective) if every element of
the codomain is the image of at least one element from the
domain. The chapter discusses determining whether given

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functions are one-to-one or onto, with examples and
theorems that provide equivalences for these properties. It
also explains how compositions of functions inherit these
properties.

5.3. Inverses of Functions

The section discusses the conditions under which the inverse

of a function exists. If a function is both one-to-one and onto,
its inverse itself is a function. The chapter addresses how to
calculate the inverse of a function when one exists and
highlights the important relationship between a function and
its inverse through composition, leading to the identity
function. Theorems are presented to clarify the relationships
between one-to-one, onto, and the behavior of (inverse)
functions.

5.4. Images and Inverse Images: A Research Project

This section invites exploration of how functions map

subsets of their domains and codomains. It defines 'image'
and 'inverse image' under a function and explores properties
of these concepts through examples and counterexamples.
The discussion revolves around relationships between images

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and inverse images for unions, intersections, and differences
of sets, including implications if a function is one-to-one.
Research questions are posed for further investigation into
these properties and their implications, requiring proofs and
counterexamples to guide understanding.

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Chapter 6 Summary : 6 Mathematical
Induction

6 Mathematical Induction

6.1 Proof by Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is a proof technique especially useful

for proving statements about natural numbers. The process
involves two main steps: the base case and the induction
step.
1.
Base Case
: Show the statement is true for the initial natural number (0
or 1).
2.
Induction Step
: Assume the statement is true for some arbitrary natural
number n, then prove it for n+1.
This establishes that if the property holds for an initial value,
and holds from n to n+1, it holds for all natural numbers.

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Example 6.1.1
: Proving the formula \(2^0 + 2^1 + \cdots + 2^n = 2^{n+1} -
1\) via induction, where we validate the base case \(P(0)\)
and perform induction to show \(P(n) \rightarrow P(n+1)\).

Example 6.1.2
: Proving \(3 | (n^3 - n)\) using similar inductive strategies.

Example 6.1.3
: Proving \(2^n > n^2\) for \(n \geq 5\), demonstrating the
applicability of induction in inequalities.

6.2 More Examples

Induction is versatile and can be applied to various

mathematical structures beyond natural numbers.

Example 6.2.1
: Every finite, nonempty set has a minimal element using
induction on the number of elements.
Install Bookey App to Unlock Full Text and
Example 6.2.2 Audio
: Every partial order can be extended to a total order.

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Chapter 7 Summary : 7 Infinite Sets

7 Infinite Sets

7.1 Equinumerous Sets

In this section, we explore methods to compare the sizes of

infinite sets, discovering that infinity has varying sizes. The
definition of equinumerous sets is introduced: sets A and B
are equinumerous if there exists a one-to-one, onto function
between them, denoted as A "< B. Finite sets can be counted
and assigned a unique cardiality |A|, but the concept extends
to infinite sets, leading to surprising results such as Z+ being
equinumerous with Z and Z+ × Z+ being equinumerous with
Z+. The section concludes with theorems establishing
properties of equinumerous sets, like the union of disjoint
finite sets being finite.

7.2 Countable and Uncountable Sets

Countable sets can be characterized as either finite or

denumerable, with the latter being in one-to-one

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correspondence with Z+. Different operations involving
countable sets, like Cartesian products and unions, maintain
countability. The section demonstrates that the union of
countably many countable sets remains countable. Using
Cantor's theorem, it reveals that the power set of Z+, P(Z+),
is uncountable, establishing a fundamental distinction in
sizes of infinite sets. Furthermore, R is shown to be
uncountable, and a noteworthy property of countable sets is
that they can be listed sequentially.

7.3 The Cantor–Schröder–Bernstein Theorem

This theorem asserts that if sets A and B have one-to-one

functions mapping between them, then they are
equinumerous. The proof hinges on constructing functions
that illustrate these relationships, demonstrating that
reflexivity, transitivity, and symmetry of these properties
allow for comprehensive comparisons. The significance of
Cantor's findings is emphasized, leading to questions about
potential sizes of infinite sets, including inquiry into the
continuum hypothesis, with results from Godel and Cohen
indicating the complexity of such questions.

Summary of Proof Techniques

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A systematic overview of various proof techniques is
provided, detailing methods for proving existence,
uniqueness, and properties of functions through logical and
mathematical induction. The techniques encourage structured
reasoning, allowing for robust mathematical arguments,
especially in discussions involving infinite sets and
cardinality.
Each technique is supported by operational guidelines on
how to apply them in mathematical contexts. The summary
encapsulates the mindset necessary for proofs, emphasizing
clarity, rigor, and logical flow.

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Critical Thinking
Key Point:The nature of infinity is more complex
than traditionally conceived.
Critical Interpretation:The chapter highlights the idea
that not all infinities are equal, introducing the concepts
of countable and uncountable sets, which challenges our
intuitive understanding of size. While Velleman
promotes Cantor’s theory and its implications as
definitive, critics such as mathematician Paul Cohen
argue that the Continuum Hypothesis remains unproven
within standard set theory frameworks, suggesting that
there may be more layers to the understanding of
infinite sets that the author does not fully address.

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Best Quotes from How to Prove It by
Daniel J. Velleman with Page Numbers
View on Bookey Website and Generate Beautiful Quote Images

Chapter 1 | Quotes From Pages -68

1.Therefore, we begin our study of mathematical
reasoning and proofs by examining how deductive
reasoning works.
2.We will say that an argument is valid if the premises cannot
all be true without the conclusion being true as well.
3.In other words, we’ll continue to use letters to stand for
statements, but only for unambiguous statements that are
either true or false.
4.But is this conclusion really correct? After all, isn’t it
possible that I’ll stay home today, and then wake up sick
tomorrow and end up staying home again?
5.The meanings of just a few words give us the key to
understanding what makes a piece of reasoning valid or
invalid.
6.In this chapter, we’ll concentrate on words used to combine

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 statements to form more complex statements.
7.Replacing certain statements in each argument with
letters...keeps us from being distracted by aspects of the
arguments that don’t affect their validity.
Chapter 2 | Quotes From Pages -97
1.To say that P(x) is true for every value of x in the
universe means that the truth set of P(x) will be the
whole universe U.
2.The first statement says that for every real number x, there
is a real number y such that x + y = 5. For example, when
we tried x = 2 we found that y = 3 worked in the equation x
+ y = 5.
3.For every person x, x likes someone means everyone likes
someone.
4.To say that A is not a subset of B is the same as saying that
there’s something in A that is not in B.
5.The symbols " and " apply only to the statements that
come immediately after them.
6.It might be the case that everyone likes someone, but no

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 one is universally liked.
Chapter 3 | Quotes From Pages -176
1.Proofs are a lot like jigsaw puzzles. There are no
rules about how jigsaw puzzles must be solved.
The only rule concerning the final product: All the
pieces must fit together, and the picture must look
right.
2.Never assert anything until you can justify it completely
using the hypotheses or using conclusions reached from
them earlier in the proof.
3.The primary purpose of any proof: to provide a guarantee
that the conclusion is true if the hypotheses are true.
4.If there is even one instance in which the hypotheses are
true but the conclusion is false, then the theorem is
incorrect.
5.With practice your proof-writing skills should improve,
and you’ll be able to tackle more and more challenging
proofs.
6.When trying to write a proof you may make a few false

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starts before finding the right way to proceed.

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Chapter 4 | Quotes From Pages -239
1.Thus, if we want to create a symmetric relation,
then we will have to add the ordered pair (x, y)
whenever (y, x) " H.
2.In general, for any two cities x and y, if there is a way to
get from x to y by bus, changing buses any number of
times at other cities, then we will eventually be forced by
the transitivity requirement to add the pair (x, y).
3.Now it is not hard to check that S is a symmetric relation,
so it must be the symmetric closure of R.
4.This suggests an alternative approach to proving Theorem
4.5.5.
5.To say that a relation R is symmetric involves reversing the
roles of two variables in a way that may remind you of the
definition of R"1.
6.Thus, we have shown that if R is an equivalence relation on
A then A/R is a partition of A.
Chapter 5 | Quotes From Pages -273
1.For every a " A, there is exactly one b " B such

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 that (a,b) " F.
2.Because some people have no children and some people
have more than one child, C is not a function from P to P.
3.The definition of function does not require that each
element of B be paired with exactly one element of A.
4.Thus, we can call i_A the identity function on A.
5.To say that f is onto means that every element of B is the
image under f of some element of A.
6.Thus, we can conclude that if there is a one-to-one
correspondence between two finite sets, then the sets must
have the same number of elements.
7.If f is any function from a set A to a set B, then f is a
relation from A to B, so it makes sense to talk about the
domain of f, which is a subset of A, and the range of f,
which is a subset of B.
8.We will say that f is one-to-one if ¬"a1 " A"a2 " A( f(a1) =
f(a2) "' a1 "` a2).
9.If there is a function g: B !’ A such that g(f(a)) = a for all a
" A, then f is one-to-one.

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10.A function f from a set A to another set B is often
specified by giving a rule that can be used to determine
f(a) for any a " A.
Chapter 6 | Quotes From Pages -319
1.The key idea behind mathematical induction is
that to list all the natural numbers all you have to
do is start with 0 and repeatedly add 1.
2.To prove a goal of the form "n " NP(n): First prove P(0),
and then prove "n " N(P(n) !’ P(n + 1)).
3.As we saw in the last example, the hardest part of a proof
by mathematical induction is usually the induction step, in
which you must prove the statement "n " N(P(n) !’ P(n +
1)).
4.But now we know that both P(0) and P(0) !’ P(1) are true,
so applying modus ponens we can conclude that P(1) is
true too.
5.The assumption that P(n) is true is sometimes called the
inductive hypothesis, and the key to the proof is usually to
work out some relationship between the inductive

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 hypothesis P(n) and the goal P(n + 1).
6.Once we’ve checked that the inequality holds when n = 5,
the induction step will show that the inequality must
continue to hold if we repeatedly add 1 to n.
7.To say that something is a minimal element of B is a
negative statement, so in both cases we use proof by
contradiction.

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Chapter 7 | Quotes From Pages -394
1.‘Surprisingly, we’ll find that, in a sense, infinity
comes in different sizes!’
2.‘Thus, counting the elements of A is simply a method of
establishing a one-to-one correspondence between the sets
{1, 2, . . . , n} and A, for some natural number n.’
3.‘We have now found three sets, Z, Z+ × Z+, and Z × Z, that
are equinumerous with Z+.’
4.‘A set A is called denumerable if Z+ "< A.’
5.‘If the counting process ends at some point, then the set is
finite; and if it never ends, then the set is denumerable.’

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How to Prove It Questions
View on Bookey Website

Chapter 1 | 1 Sentential Logic| Q&A

1.Question
What makes deductive arguments valid?
Answer:An argument is valid if the premises cannot
all be true without the conclusion also being true.
This means that if we assume the premises are true,
the conclusion must necessarily follow.

2.Question
Can we guarantee the truth of a conclusion based on true
premises?
Answer:No, we cannot guarantee that the conclusion is true
in every case, but the conclusion can only be false if at least
one of the premises is also false.

3.Question
What is the significance of the words used in logical
statements?
Answer:The meanings of certain logical words like 'and', 'or',

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and 'not' are crucial for understanding the validity of
arguments. They determine how statements combine to form
new statements, affecting the overall logical structure.

4.Question
What is the role of truth tables in logical reasoning?
Answer:Truth tables help clarify how different logical
connectives operate and assist in determining the validity of
arguments by showing all possible truth values for given
premises and conclusions.

5.Question
How does the form of an argument affect its validity?
Answer:The form of an argument determines its validity
rather than the subject matter. Valid arguments follow
specific logical forms that guarantee the conclusion follows
from the premises.

6.Question
What does it mean when an argument is invalid?
Answer:An argument is invalid if it is possible for the
premises to be true while the conclusion is false. This occurs

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when the relationship between the premises does not
logically lead to the conclusion.

7.Question
How do we denote logical connectives in mathematical
reasoning?
Answer:We use symbols: '"(' for 'or', '"'' for 'and', '¬' for 'not',
and '!’' for 'if ... then'. These symbols help create clear logical
expressions that can be analyzed for validity.

8.Question
Why is understanding the logical structure important in
mathematics?
Answer:Understanding logical structure is essential as it
allows mathematicians to create rigorous proofs and ensure
that conclusions drawn from premises are justified and valid.

9.Question
What is a tautology in logical terms?
Answer:A tautology is a statement that is always true,
regardless of the truth values of its components. For example,
'P or not P' is a tautology because it covers all possibilities.

10.Question

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What is the concept of biconditional statements?
Answer:Biconditional statements, denoted as 'P !” Q', assert
that both P implies Q and Q implies P. This captures the idea
that both statements are true under the same conditions.
Chapter 2 | 2 Quantificational Logic| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of using quantifiers in
mathematical statements?
Answer:Quantifiers allow us to express statements
about collections of objects in a precise way,
indicating whether a property holds for all objects
(universal quantifier) or at least one object
(existential quantifier). For example, the statement
"x P(x) asserts 'for every x, P(x) is true,' while "x
P(x) states 'there exists an x such that P(x) is true.'
This precision is crucial in mathematics for
formulating general truths, proofs, and reasoning.

2.Question
How do quantifiers change the meaning of logical

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statements?
Answer:Quantifiers can drastically alter the interpretation of
a statement depending on their order and type (universal vs
existential). For instance, "x"y P(x, y) indicates that for
every individual x, there is a potentially different y making P
true, whereas "y"x P(x, y) means there is one specific y that
works for every x. These subtle differences highlight the
importance of carefully analyzing the structure of quantifiers
in logical expressions.

3.Question
Can you give an example of how the order of quantifiers
affects the truth of a statement?
Answer:Consider the statements "x "y (x + y = 5) and "y "x
(x + y = 5). The first asserts that for every x, there exists a
corresponding y such that their sum is 5 (which is true, as y
can be expressed as y = 5 - x). The second statement claims
that there is a single y that works for all x (which is false, as
no single value of y satisfies the equation for every possible
x). This illustrates how switching quantifiers can change the

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logical structure and truth value.

4.Question
What is the interpretation of the expression "x"y L(x, y)
in the context of like or admire?
Answer:The expression "x"y L(x, y) translates to 'For every
person x, there is at least one person y such that x likes y.'
This implies that everyone likes someone. In contrast, "y"x
L(x, y) translates to 'There exists a person y such that
everyone likes y,' suggesting that there is someone who is
universally liked. This difference in interpretation shows that
an individual's liking can be conditional on the person or can
describe a universal affection.

5.Question
What are quantifier negation laws and why are they
important?
Answer:Quantifier negation laws state that ¬"x P(x) is
equivalent to "x ¬P(x), and ¬"x P(x) is equivalent to "x
¬P(x). These laws are important because they help us
rephrase negative statements into positive statements that are

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often easier to understand and work with, particularly in
proofs and logic.

6.Question
How does the concept of 'vacuously true' apply when
discussing quantifiers?
Answer:A statement is said to be vacuously true if it asserts
something about an empty set. For example, if we say 'All
unicorns are purple,' since there are no unicorns, the
statement is considered vacuously true. This allows for
certain universal quantifications to hold even without
positive instances, which is relevant in set theory and logic.

7.Question
What does the intersection of a family of sets represent?
Answer:The intersection of a family of sets, denoted as ")F,
represents the set of elements that are common to all sets in
the family F. Symbolically, it can be expressed as {x | "A " F
(x " A)}. This allows us to analyze common properties or
attributes present in a collection of sets.

8.Question
What is the difference between "x(P(x) "' Q(x)) and

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"xP(x) "' "xQ(x)?
Answer:The expression "x(P(x) "' Q(x)) means there exists at
least one specific element x such that both properties P and Q
hold true for that element, indicating a shared member. In
contrast, "x P(x) "' "x Q(x) means there exists at least one
element x for which P(x) is true, and possibly a different
element for which Q(x) is true, making these statements
potentially not about the same element. This distinction is
important in both mathematical logic and set theory.
Chapter 3 | 3 Proofs| Q&A
1.Question
What proof strategies should a mathematician consider
when approaching a proof?
Answer:Mathematicians consider strategies such as
experimentation with examples, trial and error, and
the necessity of providing a formal proof to confirm
the correctness of answers. They often approach
proofs like solving jigsaw puzzles, using methods
that best fit the problem's structure.

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2.Question
How can the process of writing a proof be compared to
solving a jigsaw puzzle?
Answer:Both processes involve assembling pieces to see how
they fit together. In proofs, there is no defined method for
assembling; instead, the focus is on ensuring that all steps
lead logically to the conclusion, similar to ensuring that all
jigsaw pieces create a cohesive picture.

3.Question
Why is it important to leave a proof out for a while before
finalizing it?
Answer:Leaving a proof out for a short time allows the
mathematician to review their work with fresh eyes, which
can help spot errors or gaps in reasoning that might not be
apparent immediately after finishing the proof.

4.Question
What does it mean if a theorem has free variables in its
hypotheses and conclusion?
Answer:This means that the theorem applies to all elements
within a certain universe of discourse. A theorem's

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correctness relies on it holding true for every instance where
the hypotheses are met.

5.Question
What example demonstrates the importance of finding a
counterexample to prove a theorem incorrect?
Answer:The example of the theorem asserting that 'if x > 3,
then x^2 - 2y > 5' shows that dropping the hypothesis 'y < 2'
leads to the statement being false. A counterexample (like x
= 4, y = 6) shows where the conclusion fails.

6.Question
What are the logical forms of hypotheses and conclusions
in proofs?
Answer:Hypotheses present assumptions that must be true
for the conclusion to hold. The logical structure of proof
involves demonstrating that if the hypotheses are true, the
conclusion must also be true through valid deductive
reasoning.

7.Question
What can be said about the structure of a proof with a
conditional conclusion?

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Answer:The structure involves assuming the antecedent to
prove the consequent. If the conclusion is complex, further
transformations might help simplify the proof process.

8.Question
Why is skepticism important when drawing inferences in
a proof?
Answer:Skepticism ensures that each assertion is justified; if
the reasoning doesn't convince the prover, it won't convince
others either. This guarantees the soundness of the argument.

9.Question
How should circular reasoning be avoided in proofs?
Answer:By forming a strict rule that no assertion should be
made until it is fully justified by hypotheses or previous
conclusions, one can prevent circular reasoning.

10.Question
In a proof involving negations, what strategy should be
used?
Answer:If the goal is to prove a negative statement, it is
sometimes easier to assume the statement is true and derive a
contradiction.

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Chapter 4 | 4 Relations| Q&A
1.Question
What is the significance of ordered pairs in the context of
relations?
Answer:Ordered pairs (a, b) are fundamental in
defining relations because they represent a
connection from an element a in set A to an element
b in set B. The order matters; for instance, (a, b) is
distinct from (b, a). This order allows us to form
relations by specifying which elements are related.
By using ordered pairs, we can clearly define
properties and operations involving these relations,
facilitating mathematical reasoning.

2.Question
How does the Cartesian product relate to relations with
multiple free variables?
Answer:The Cartesian product A × B allows for the creation
of ordered pairs (a, b) where 'a' is from set A and 'b' is from
set B. When defining relations with two or more free

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variables, the Cartesian product helps us understand the
domain of potential assignments. For example, if P(x, y) is a
statement with free variables x and y, the truth set of P would
be a subset of A × B, indicating which pairs (a, b) satisfy the
condition given by P.

3.Question
What are the properties that characterize a relation as
being a partial order?
Answer:A relation is a partial order if it is reflexive (every
element is related to itself), antisymmetric (if one element is
related to another, then they cannot be distinct unless they are
equal), and transitive (if one element is related to a second,
and that second is related to a third, then the first is also
related to the third).

4.Question
What is an equivalence relation and how does it partition
a set?
Answer:An equivalence relation on a set A is a relation that
is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. It partitions the set

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into equivalence classes, where each class groups all
elements that are equivalent to each other. The collection of
these equivalence classes forms a partition of the original set,
meaning the classes are pairwise disjoint and their union
covers the original set.

5.Question
Can you provide an example of an equivalence relation
and its equivalence classes?
Answer:One example is the relation of having the same
birthday among people. The equivalence relation "B"
consists of pairs (p, q) where person p and q have the same
birthday. The equivalence classes are the sets of all people
that share a birthday. For instance, if January 1st has a class
[January 1st] that includes everyone born on that day. This
illustrates how equivalence relations create distinct
categories within a broader set based on shared
characteristics.

6.Question
How do we prove that a set of equivalence classes forms a
partition?

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Answer:To prove that equivalence classes form a partition,
we must verify three properties: first, that the union of all
classes equals the original set (i.e., all elements from the set
are included in some class); second, that classes are pairwise
disjoint (no element belongs to more than one class); and
third, that each class is nonempty. If all these properties hold,
we establish that the equivalence classes partition the original
set.

7.Question
What is the connection between reflexivity, symmetry,
and transitivity in defining equivalence relations?
Answer:Reflexivity ensures that every element is comparable
to itself in the relation, symmetry guarantees that if one
element is related to another, the relationship holds in both
directions, and transitivity allows for chains of relationships.
Together, these properties ensure that elements can be
grouped meaningfully into equivalence classes that exhibit a
consistent structure, forming a clear partition of the original
set.

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8.Question
How can we determine the reflexive closure of a relation?
Answer:The reflexive closure of a relation R is determined
by including all ordered pairs (a, a) for each element 'a' in the
original set A not already in R. Essentially, we take the
relation R and add the identity pairs that ensure that every
element related to itself, thus fulfilling the reflexive
requirement for the relation.

9.Question
What implications arise from the relationship between
equivalence relations and partitions?
Answer:The relationship between equivalence relations and
partitions means that every equivalence relation induces a
unique partition of the set into equivalence classes.
Conversely, any partition can be realized by an equivalence
relation formed by relating elements based on shared
membership in the same partition set. This duality is crucial
for understanding the structure of sets and the relationships
within them.

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10.Question
What does it mean for a relation to be transitive, and how
does this property relate to creating equivalence classes?
Answer:Transitivity states that if an element a is related to b,
and b is related to c, then a must also be related to c. This
property is essential for equivalence relations because it
guarantees that all elements related through a chain of
relationships belong to the same equivalence class, thereby
ensuring the consistency of the partition.
Chapter 5 | 5 Functions| Q&A
1.Question
What is the definition of a function according to the text?
Answer:A function from set A to set B is defined as
a relation F such that for every element a in A, there
exists exactly one element b in B for which the
ordered pair (a, b) is part of F.

2.Question
Can you provide an example of a function and explain
why it qualifies as such?
Answer:Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3} and the set B = {4, 5,

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6} with relation F = {(1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 5)}. F qualifies as a
function because each element of A is paired with exactly
one element from B. For instance, 1 corresponds to 5, 2 to 4,
and 3 to 5, with no element in A mapping to more than one
element in B.

3.Question
What conditions must a function meet to be classified as
one-to-one?
Answer:A function is classified as one-to-one if it never
assigns the same output to two different inputs; that is, if
f(a1) = f(a2) implies that a1 must equal a2.

4.Question
What is the 'range' of a function, and how is it defined in
the context of the text?
Answer:The range of a function is the subset of B that
consists of all the second elements (or outputs) in the ordered
pairs of the function. Formally, if f : A !’ B, then the range,
denoted Ran(f), is defined as { f(a) | a " A }.

5.Question
What does it mean for a function to be 'onto' or

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surjective?
Answer:A function is onto (or surjective) if every element of
the set B is the image of at least one element of set A under
the function f. In other words, for every b in B, there exists at
least one a in A such that f(a) = b.

6.Question
Explain what is meant by the composition of functions
based on the chapter.
Answer:The composition of two functions f : A !’ B and g : B
!’ C, denoted g %æ f, is a new function from A to C defined by
(g %æ f)(a) = g(f(a)) for every element a in A. This means you
apply f to an input from A, and then apply g to the result.

7.Question
How can we determine if two functions are equal
according to Theorem 5.1.4 presented in the chapter?
Answer:Two functions f and g from A to B are equal if and
only if for every element a in A, the outputs of both functions
must be the same, that is, f(a) = g(a) for all a in A. This is
sufficient to establish their equality.

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8.Question
Can you define the identity function and explain its
properties?
Answer:The identity function on a set A, denoted i_A, is
defined as i_A = {(a, a) | a " A}. This function has the
property that for every element a in A, i_A(a) = a, meaning it
returns each element to itself.

9.Question
What is the significance of demonstrating whether a
function is one-to-one or onto?
Answer:Determining whether a function is one-to-one or
onto is crucial for understanding its behavior, such as
whether it has an inverse. A function must be both
one-to-one and onto to guarantee that its inverse exists as a
well-defined function.

10.Question
What theorem connects the concepts of one-to-one and
onto functions with their inverses?
Answer:Theorem 5.3.1 states that a function f : A !’ B has an
inverse f^-1 : B !’ A that is a function if and only if f is both

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one-to-one and onto.

11.Question
What can we conclude about the images of subsets under
a function?
Answer:If f : A !’ B and W and X are subsets of A, then it is
true that f(W ") X) is a subset of f(W) ") f(X). If f is
one-to-one, then we also have equality, meaning f(W ") X) =
f(W) ") f(X).
Chapter 6 | 6 Mathematical Induction| Q&A
1.Question
What is the principle behind mathematical induction?
Answer:Mathematical induction is a proof technique
used to establish that a given property holds for all
natural numbers. It involves two main steps: first
proving the base case (usually for n = 0 or n = 1),
and then proving the inductive step, which shows
that if the property holds for an arbitrary natural
number n, it must also hold for n + 1.

2.Question
How does one establish the validity of a statement for all

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natural numbers using induction?
Answer:To prove a statement P(n) for all natural numbers n,
one must first verify P(0) (or P(1) based on context) as the
base case. Next, one assumes P(k) is true for some arbitrary k
(this is the inductive hypothesis) and then proves P(k + 1).
By establishing these two steps, it follows that P(n) holds for
all natural numbers.

3.Question
Can you give a specific example of a statement that can be
proved using mathematical induction?
Answer:A classic example is proving that the sum of the first
n natural numbers is given by the formula 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n
= n(n + 1)/2. The proof involves showing that 1) this holds
for n = 0, and 2) if it holds for k (the inductive hypothesis),
then it must hold for k + 1 by substituting and simplifying.

4.Question
What is the difference between ordinary induction and
strong induction?
Answer:Ordinary induction proves a property for n based on

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its truth for n-1, while strong induction proves a property for
n based on its truth for all integers less than n. Strong
induction is useful when the proof of P(n) requires
knowledge of multiple previous cases (e.g. P(0), P(1) up to
P(n-1)).

5.Question
In what scenarios could strong induction be utilized
instead of ordinary induction?
Answer:Strong induction is particularly useful when dealing
with recursive definitions or sequences where each term
relies on multiple prior terms—such as in the Fibonacci
sequence, where calculating F(n) requires F(n-1) and F(n-2).
It's also applicable in proofs involving complex structures
where dependencies extend beyond the previous number.

6.Question
What is an example problem where strong induction is
beneficial?
Answer:An example involves proving that every integer
greater than 1 is either prime or a product of primes. Using

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strong induction allows us to assume all integers less than n
are either prime or products of primes to show that n, which
factors into two smaller integers, must also follow the same
rule.

7.Question
How can the well-ordering principle be related to
mathematical induction?
Answer:The well-ordering principle states that every
nonempty set of natural numbers has a least element. This
principle underlies mathematical induction by implying that
if a property fails to hold for some numbers, we can find a
smaller number for which it would also fail, ultimately
leading to a contradiction.

8.Question
Can you summarize the methodology or format used in
proofs by mathematical induction?
Answer:A typical proof by induction follows this structure:
1. Base Case: Establish P(0) or P(1), confirming the property
for the starting point. 2. Inductive Hypothesis: Assume P(k)

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is true for an arbitrary k. 3. Inductive Step: Show that P(k)
implies P(k+1) holds. 4. Conclusion: By induction, the
property is proven for all natural numbers.

9.Question
When might counterexamples be utilized in a proof by
induction?
Answer:Counterexamples are valuable when attempting to
disprove a universal statement. If one tries to use induction
and finds that the inductive hypothesis cannot be satisfied for
certain integers or if an assumption leads to an incomplete
proof, a counterexample can effectively demonstrate that the
statement is false.

10.Question
What is a practical application of induction proofs?
Answer:Induction proofs are commonly used in computer
science for algorithm analysis, verifying correctness of
recursive functions, and proving properties of data structures
like trees and graphs by showing that the property holds at
base cases and propagates through recursive structures.

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Chapter 7 | 7 Infinite Sets| Q&A
1.Question
What is the main theme discussed in Chapter 7 of 'How to
Prove It' by Daniel J. Velleman?
Answer:The chapter focuses on methods for
comparing the sizes of infinite sets, particularly the
concept of equinumerous sets where surprisingly,
infinite sets can have different 'sizes' or
cardinalities.

2.Question
What is equinumerous, and how is it defined?
Answer:A set A is equinumerous with a set B if there exists a
function f: A !’ B that is one-to-one and onto. This is denoted
as A "< B.

3.Question
What surprising result regarding the natural numbers
(Z+) and the integers (Z) is presented in this chapter?
Answer:The chapter shows that the set of positive integers
(Z+) is equinumerous with the set of all integers (Z), which
might seem counter-intuitive since Z includes negative

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integers and zero.

4.Question
Can you describe a function that demonstrates that Z+ is
equinumerous with Z?
Answer:Yes, the function f: Z+ !’ Z can be defined as f(n) =
n/2 if n is even and f(n) = 1 - n/2 if n is odd. This function is
both one-to-one and onto.

5.Question
What is a denumerable set, according to the text?
Answer:A set A is called denumerable if it is equinumerous
with the positive integers Z+, meaning it can be put into
one-to-one correspondence with the positive integers.

6.Question
What is a countable set?
Answer:A set is countable if it is either finite or
denumerable.

7.Question
Explain the importance of the concept of countability in
set theory.
Answer:Countability helps distinguish between different

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sizes of infinity and is vital for understanding the properties
of infinite sets in mathematics.

8.Question
What does Theorem 7.1.5 state about countable sets?
Answer:Theorem 7.1.5 provides several equivalent
statements for a set A to be countable, including that there is
a function f from A to the natural numbers Z+ that is
one-to-one.

9.Question
How does Theorem 7.1.7 relate to finite sets?
Answer:Theorem 7.1.7 states that the union of two disjoint
finite sets is finite, and the cardinality of the union equals the
sum of the cardinalities of the two sets.

10.Question
What surprising conclusion does Cantor's theorem
present?
Answer:Cantor's theorem indicates that the power set of any
set (the set of all subsets) has a strictly greater cardinality
than the set itself, implying that there are infinitely many
sizes of infinity.

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How to Prove It Quiz and Test
Check the Correct Answer on Bookey Website

Chapter 1 | 1 Sentential Logic| Quiz and Test

1.An argument is valid if it guarantees the truth of
the conclusion when all premises are true.
2.A truth table can only be constructed for statements that
contain a single logical connective.
3.Free variables are context-independent while bound
variables are context-dependent.
Chapter 2 | 2 Quantificational Logic| Quiz and Test
1.The universal quantifier (") signifies that a
statement is true for at least one value in a set.
2.The statement "x (M(x) !’ B(x)) is true if there exists a man
who has not brown hair.
3.The equivalence ¬"x P(x) is equivalent to "x ¬P(x) holds
true in quantificational logic.
Chapter 3 | 3 Proofs| Quiz and Test
1.Mathematicians prefer experimentation over
proofs when solving problems.

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2.To prove a statement of the form "x P(x), it is sufficient to
show that P(x) holds for just one arbitrary object x.
3.To show that P "' Q is true, you need to prove both P and Q
separately.

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Chapter 4 | 4 Relations| Quiz and Test
1.The Cartesian product A × B consists of all
ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is an element of set
A and b is an element of set B.
2.A relation is defined as a subset of the Cartesian product
that can only include pairs where the first element is from
set B and the second element from set A.
3.An equivalence relation must satisfy the properties of
reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity.
Chapter 5 | 5 Functions| Quiz and Test
1.A function is defined as a relation where each
element in set A corresponds to at least one
element in set B.
2.A function that assigns the same value in the codomain to
two different values in the domain is called one-to-one.
3.If a function is both one-to-one and onto, then its inverse is
guaranteed to exist as a function.
Chapter 6 | 6 Mathematical Induction| Quiz and Test
1.Mathematical induction can only be used to prove

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 statements about integers, specifically natural
numbers.
2.In the induction process, the base case is the first step
where we show that the statement holds true for a specific
initial natural number.
3.Strong induction requires assuming that the statement is
true for all values less than n, and not just for n-1, to prove
it for n.

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Chapter 7 | 7 Infinite Sets| Quiz and Test
1.Sets A and B are equinumerous if there does not
exist a one-to-one, onto function between them.
2.The power set of Z+, denoted P(Z+), is countable
according to Cantor's theorem.
3.The Cantor–Schröder–Bernstein Theorem states that if
there exist one-to-one functions mapping both ways
between sets A and B, they can be considered
equinumerous.

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