CHAPTER 2

The DOT and CROSS Product

2.1 Introduction
Operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication were defined for our vectors and scalars
in
Chapter 1. Here, we define two new operations of multiplication for our vectors. One of the operations,
the DOT product, yields a scalar, while the other operation, the CROSS product yields a vector. We
then combine these operations to define certain triple products.

2.2 Dot or Scalar Product

The dot or scalar product of two vectors A and B, denoted by A • B (read: A dot B), is defined as the product
of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle 0 between them. In symbols,
A •B = IAMBI O,
We emphasize that A • B is a scalar and not a vector.
The following proposition applies.
2.1:
PROPOSITION Suppose A, B, and C are vectors and m is a scalar. Then the following laws hold:
(i) A •B = B • A Commutative Law for Dot Products
(ii) A • (B + C) = A • B + A • C DistributiveLaw
(iii) •B) = (mA) (mB)= (A.
(iv) i i
(v) If A • B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.
There is a simple formula for A • B when the unit vectors i, j, k are used.

2.2:
PROPOSITION Given A = Ali + A2j+A3k and B = Bli + B2j+ B3k.Then
A B = AlBl A2B2 A3B3
2.3:
COROLLARY Suppose A = Ali + A2j +143k. Then A • A = A} + A} + A;
2.1 GivenA=4i+2j-3k,
EXAMPLE B=5i-j -2k, C=3i+j+7k. Then:
A•B = 20-2+6=24, A.C= 12+2-21
B.C=15-1 -14=0, A. A _ 3)2 —
_ 16 4 9 29

Thus vectors B and C are perpendicular.

21
 22
CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product

2.3 Cross Product

The cross product of
vectors A The
magnitude of C = A x B is and B is a vector C = A x B (read: A cross B) defined as follows.
equal to the product of the magnitudesof A and B and the sine of the
angle e between them. The
direction of C = A x B is perpendicular to the plane of A and B so that A,
B, and C form a right-handed
system. In symbols,
Ax B = IAIIBI sin Ou 0< err
where u is a unit vector indicating the direction of A x B. [Thus A, B, and u form a right-handed system.]
If A = B, or if A is parallel to B, then sin 0 = 0 and we define A x B = O.
The following proposition applies.
PROPOSITION
2.4: Suppose A, B, and C are vectors and m is a scalar. Then the following laws hold:
(i) A x B = —(Bx A) Commutative Law for Cross Products Fails
(ii) A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C DistributiveLaw
(iii) m(A x B) = (mA)x B = A x (mB)= (A x B)m
(iv) ixi=j xj=kxk=0, i x j ± k, j x k = i, kxi=j
(v) If A x B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel.
(vi) The magnitude of A x B is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A
and B.
There is a simple formula for A x B when the unit vectors i, j, k are used.

PROPOSITION
2.5: Given A = Ali +A2j +A3k and B = Bli + B2j + B3k. Then

EXAMPLE
2.2 Given: A = 4i +2j —3k and B = 3i +5j + 2k. Then
k
Ax B = 42 —191- + 14k
2

2.4 Triple Products

Dot and cross multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C may
produce meaningful products, called triple
products, of the form (A • B)C, A • (B x C), and A x (B
x C).
The following proposition applies.
PROPOSITION 2.6: SupposeA, B, and C are vectors
and m is a scalar. Then the following
laws hold:
(i) In general, (A. • C).
(ii) A • (B x C) = B • (C x A) =
C • (A x B) = volume of a
A, B, and C as edges, or the negative parallelepiped having
of this volume, according as A, B,
or do not form a right-handed and C do
system.
(iii) In general,A x (B x C) # (A
x B) x C
(Associative Law for Cross Products
Fails)

There is a simple
formula for A • (B x C) when
the unit vectors i, j, k are
used.
cHAPTER2 The DOT and CROSS Product
23
2.7:
Ropos1TION Given A = Ali +A2j +A3k, B
p Bli+B2j +B3k, C = Cli+C2j+ Gk. Then
Al 142 143
x Bl B2 133
2.3 Given A = 4i +2j
EXAMPLE 3k, B = +j -2k, C= -j +2k. Then:
4
1

2.5 Reciprocal Sets of Vectors

The sets a, b, c and a', b', c/ are called reciprocal sets or reciprocal systems of vectors if:

a •a! = bb cc/

That is, each vector is orthogonal to the reciprocal of the other two vectors in the system.
pROPOSITION2.8: The sets a, b, c and a/, b', c/ are reciprocal sets of vectors if and only if
c xa ax b
a•bxc
wherea • b x c # 0.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Dot or Scalar Product
A B = B • A.
2.1. Prove Proposition 2.1(i):
Solution cos O= B • A.
A •B = IAIIBIcos O= IBIIAI
valid.
law for dot products is
Thus the commutative of B.
equal to A b where b is a unit vector in the direction
projection of A on B is
2.2. Prove that the

to B at G and H as Fig. 2-1. Thus

of A pass planes perpendicular
and terminal points
Through the initial A •b
= GH = ÉÉ = A cos 0 =
Projection of A on B

Fig. 2-2
Fig. 2-1
 Product
24 CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS

2.3. Prove Proposition 2.1(ii): A • (B + C) +A • C.

Solutlon
pictured in Fig. 2-2
Let a be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then, as
+ Proj(C) on A and so (B + C) • a = B • a + C • a
Proj(B+ C) on A Proj(B) on A

Multiplying by A,
(B+C) and

Then by the commutative law for dot products,

Thus the distributive law is valid.

2.4. Prove that (A + B) • (C + D)

•C+B •D.
Solution
A • D + B • C + B • D.
By Problem 2.3, (A + B) • (C + D) = A • (C + D) + B • (C + D) = A c +
The ordinary laws of algebra are valid for dot products.

2.5. Evaluate: (a) i •i, (b) i. k, (c) k •j, (d) j • (2j —3j + k), (e) (2i
Solution
(a) i •i = lillil cos00 =
(b) i •k = lillkl cos 900

k = 0-3+0 = -3
— (3i+k) = 6i •i + 2i•k 3J 1 J k —

2.6. Suppose A = Ali A2j '43k and B = Bli + B2j + B3k. Prove that A • B = Al Bl A2B2+ A3B3.

Solution
Since i • • •j = k • k = I, and all other dot products are zero, we have:
A • B = (Ali • (Bli + B2j + B3k)
= Ali • (Bli + B2j + B3k) A2j • (Bli + B2j + B3k) + A3k • (Bli + B2j + B3k)
= Al Bli • i + AIB2i • j AIB3i • k A2B1j • i A2B2j • j A2B3j • k
A3B1k • i A3B2k • j A3B3k • k
= AlBl + A2B2+ A3B3

2.7. Let A +A3k. Show

Solutlon
A. A = = N. ThenA= VFR.
By Problem 2.6 and taking B = A, we have

A •A (Ali + A2j • (Ali A2j

Then A Y/ÄGÄ = is the magnitude of A. Sometimes A • A is written A2

2.8. Suppose A • B = 0 and A and B are not zero. Show that A is perpendicular to B.
Solution
If A • B = ABcos 8 0, then cos 0 = 0 or 0 = 900.Conversely, if 0 = 900, A • B = 0.
 cHAPTER2 The DOTand CROSS Product
25

2.9. Find the angle between A = 2i + 2j -- k and B = 7i + 24k.

Solution
we have A •B = IAIIBIcos O.

IAI = (2)2 and IBI= (7)2+ + (24)2= 25

Therefore,
cos e — =
-10 — -2
¯ — = —0.1333and e = 980 (approximately).
¯ IAIIBI 15
2.10. Determine the value of a so that A = 2i + aj + k and B = i +3j -- 8k are perpendicular.
Solutlon
By Proposition 2. I(v), A and B are perpendicular when A • B = 0. Thus,

andif a = 2.
2.11. Show that the vectors A = —i+ j, B = —i—j —2k, C = 2j + 2k form a right triangle.
Solution
First we show that the vectors form a triangle. From Fig. 2-3, we see that the vectors form a triangleif:
(a) one of the vectors, say (3), is the sum of (1) and (2) or
(b) the sum of the vectors (1) + (2) + (3) is zero
according as (a) two vectors have a common terminal point, or (b) none of the vectors have a common terminal
point. By trial, we find A = B + C so the vectorsdo form a triangle.
Since A • B = (— + + (0)(—2) = 0, it follows that A and B are perpendicular and the triangle
is a right triangle.

(3) (2)
(2) (3)

(1)

(a) (b)

Fig. 2-3

2.12. Find the angles that the vector A = 4i —8j + k makes with the coordinate axes..
Solution
Let a, p, y be the angles that A makes with the positive x, y, z axes, respectively.

(4)2 + (—8)2+ (1)2 cos a = 9 cos a

A •i (4i —8j + k) • i = 4

Then cos a = 4/9 = 0.4444 and a = 63.60 approximately.Similarly,

cosß= -8/9, 152.70 and 1/9, 83.60

The cosines of a, p, y are called the direction cosines of the vector A.

 26
CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product

2.13. Find the projection

of the vector A = i -- 2j + 3k on the vector B = i + 2j + 2k.
Solution
We use the result of Problem 2.2. A unit vector in the direction of B is

b = B/IBI= (i + 2j + = i/3 + 2j/3 + 2k/3

The projection of A on vector B is

A •b = (i -2j + 3k) • (i/3 + 2j/3 -t 2k/3)

2.14. Without making use of the cross product, Aetermine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of
A = 2i —6j —3k and B 4i + 3j —k.
Solution
Let vector C = Cli + C2j+ C3kbe perpendicular to the plane of A and B. Then C is perpendicular to A and also
to B. Hence,

= 0 or (1) 2C1—6C2=
C •B = +3c2 -83 = 0 or (2) + 3C2=

=— i —¯ j + k
1 1 1
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously: C3,c = c3
2

-i— j+k
1 1

c
Then a unit vector in the direction of C is — =
3. 2. 6
ICI 7 7 7
2 2
1 1

2.15. Prove the law of cosines for plane triangles.

Solution
From Fig. 2-4,

B+C=A or
Then

and

—2AB cos 0

Fig. 2-4 Fig. 2-5

CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product 27

2.16. prove the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular. (Refer to Fig. 2-5.)
Solution

OR+RP=OP or B+RP=A and

Then, since IAI = IBI,

OQ • (A —B) = IA12 - IB12 —O

Thus OQ is perpendicular to RP.

2.17. Let A = Ali + A2j + A3k be any vector. Prove that A

Solutlon
Since A = Ali A2j

Similarly, A •j = A2 and A • k = A3.Then

A = Ali A2j 143k= (A • (A • —(A • k)k.

2.18. Find the work done in moving an object along a vector r = 3i + j —5k if the•applied force is

Solution
Consider Fig. 2-6.
Work done = (magnitudeof force in directionof motion)(distancemoved)
= (F cos • + j -5k)
= F • r = (2i—j —k) • (31
—6-1+5=10
z

P(x, y, z)

Fig. 2-6 Fig. 2-7

to the vector A —2i —3j + 6k and passing through the

2.19. Find an equation of the plane perpendicular
3k. [See Fig. 2-7.1
terminal point of the vector B = i + 2j +
 28 CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product

Solutlon
Since PQ = B —r is perpendicular to A, we have (B ---r) • A = 0 or r • A = B • A is the required equation of
the plane in vector form. In rectangular form this becomes

(xi+yj + zk) • (2i - 3j + 6k) = (i + 2j + 3k) • (2i - 3j + 6k)

or

2.20. Find the distance from the origin to the plane in Problem 2.19.
Solutlon
The distancefrom the origin to the plane is the projection of B on A. A unit vector in the direction of A is

2
a = A/IAI=
(2)2 + (—3)2+ (6)2 7

Then the projection of B on A is equal to

2 3 2 6
B • a = (i + 2j + 3k) 7

Cross or Vector Product

2.21. ProveA x B -(A x B).
Solution
A x B = C has magnitude 44Bsin 0 and direction such that A, B, C form a right-handed system as in Fig. 2-8(a).
B x A = D has magnitude BA sin 9 and direction such that B, A, D form a right-handed system as in Fig.
2-8(b).
Then D has the same magnitude as C but in the opposite direction, i.e. C = —D.Thus A x B = —(Ax
B).
Accordingly, the commutative law for cross products is not valid.

AxB=C

BxA=D

(a) (b)

Fig. 2-8

2.22. Suppose A x B = 0 and A and B are not zero. Show that A is parallel
to B.
Solutlon
Since A x B = ABsin 0 u O, we have sin 0 = 0 and hence 0 = 00 or 1800.
 cHAPTER2 The DOT and CROSS Product 29

2.23. Show that IA x B12+ IA = IA121B12.

Solutlon
IA x Bf + IA • B12= IABsin e up + IABcos 012
= A 2B2 sin 2 9 + A 2B2 cos 2

= A 2B2 = IA12 1B12

2.24. Evaluate: (a) 2j x 3k (b) 2j x —k (c) —3i x -2k, 2j x 3i

Solutlon
(a) (2j) x (3k) = 60 x k) = 6i
(b) (2j)x = -20 x k) = -2i
(c) (-3i) x (-2k) = x k) = —6j
(d) 2jx x i) 6k-k = -7k.
2.25. Prove that A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C for the gase where A is perpendicular to both B and C,
[See Fig. 2-9.]
Solutlon
Since A is perpendicular to B, A x B is a vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B and having magnitude
AB sin 900 = AB or magnitude of AB. This is equivalent to multiplying vector B by A and rotating the resultant
vector through 900 to the position shown in Fig. 2-9.
Similarly, A x C is the vector obtained by multiplying C by A and rotating the resultant vector through 900 to
the position shown.
In like manner, A x (B + C) is the vector obtained by multiplyingB + C by A and rotating the resultant
vector through 900 to the position shown.
Since A x (B + C) is the diagonal of the parallelogramwith A x B and A x C as sides, we have

Cll
c
AxB

Fig. 2-9 Fig. 2-10

2.26. Prove that A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C for the general case where A, B, and C are non-coplanar.
[See Fig. 2-10.]

Solutlon
to A, and denote them by
Resolve B into two component vectors, one perpendicular to A and the other parallel
Ba and B], respectively. Then B = BI + B].
of A x BL is AB sin 0, the same as
If 9 is the angle between A and B, then BL = B sin 0. Thus the magnitude of A x B. Hence
as the direction
the magnitudeof A x B. Also, the direction of A x BL is the same
parallel and perpendicular respectively to
Similarly, if C is resolved into two component vectors Cll and CL,
A,thenA x CI = A x C
 30
CHAPTER2 The and CROSSProduct

Also, since B + C = + + + = (Bl + CD + (Bli+ it followsthat

Now BI and CI are vectors perpendicular to A and so by Problem 2.25,

Then

and the distributive law holds. Multiplying by —1, using Problem 2.21, this becomes (B + C) x A =
B x A + C x A. Note that the order of factors in cross products is important. The usual laws of algebra
apply only if proper order is maintained.
i
2.27. Suppose A = Ali +A2j +A3k and B = Bli -FB2j +B3k. Prove A x B = Al A2 A3 .
Solution
A x B = (Ali + A2j A3k) x (Bli B2j B3k)
= Ali x (Bli + B2j+ B3k) A2j x (Bli -+-B3k) x (Bli B2j + B3k)
x i + AlB2ix j + AIB3ix k + A2B1jx i + A2B2jx j + A2B3jx k
—F
143B 1k x i x j + A3B3kx k
i
= (A2B3 —A3B2)i + (A3B1 —AIB3)j (Al B2 —A2B1 Al 442 '43 .

2.28. SupposeA = j + 2k and B = i + 2j + 3k. Find: (a) A x B, (b) B x A, (c) (A + B) x (A —B).

Solution
i j k
(a) Ax B o 1 2
1 2 3
o 1
13 1 2
i j k
1 2 3
o 1 2
13 1 2
12 k
o 1

Comparing with (a), we have A x B = —(Bx

A). Note this is equivalent to the
determinant are interchanged, the determinant theorem: If two rows of
changes sign.
(c) A+B=i+3j+5k
= —j —k. Then
i
3 5 1 5
1 3 5 1 3
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
= 2i —4j + 2k.
 CHAPTER2 The DOT and CROSS Product 31

2.29. SupposeA • - k. Find: (a) (A x B) x C, (b) A x (B x C).

Solution
i j k
(a) Ax B = -1 1
1

j k
Then (A x B) x C = 2 2
1

i j k
1 =2j+2k.
1 1 —1

Then A x (B x C) = (-i +j +k) x (2j + 2k) 1 1 =2j-2k.

022
Thus (A x B) x C A x (B x C). This shows the need for parenthesesin A x B x C to
avoid ambiguity.
2.30. Prove: (a) The area of a parallelogram with touching
sides A and B, as in Fig. 2-11, is IA x Bl.
(b) The area of a triangle with sides A and B is IA x Bl.
Solution
(a) Area of parallelogram = hlBl = IAIsin OIBI= IA x Bl.
(b) Area of triangle = area of parallelogram= IA x Bl.

c
b

c
Fig. 2-11 Fig. 2-12 Fig. 2-13

2.31. Prove the law of sines for plane triangles.

Solution
Let a, b, c represent the sides of a triangle ABC as in Fig. 2-12. Then, a + b + c = 0. Multiplyingby ax, bx,
and cx in succession,we find
axb=bxc=cxa
that is

ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B

or
sinA sin B sin C
a b

2•32. Consider a tetrahedron, as in Fig. 2-13, with faces Fl, F2, F3, F4. Let be vectors whose
magnitudes are equal to the areas of Fl, F2, F3, F4, respectively, and whose directions are perpen-
dicular to these faces in the outward direction. Show that VI + V2 + V3 + V4 = O.
Solution
By Problem 2.30, the area of a triangular face determined by R and S is } IR x Sl.
 32
CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product

The vectors associated with each of the faces of the tetrahedron are

Then

This result can be generalized to closed polyhedra and in the limiting case to any closed surface.
Because of the application presented here, it is sometimes convenient to assign a direction to area and we
speak of the vector area.

2.33. Find the area of the triangle having vertices at P(l, 3, 2), Q(2, —1, 1), R(—l, 2, 3).
Solution
PQ = (2 -l)i + (-1 -3)j + (1 -2)k = i -4j—k
PR = (-1 -l)i + (2-3)j + (3-2)k -2i -j + k
From Problem 2.30,

area of triangle= } IPQ x PRI = -I(i-4j

i j k
1
1
4 -1 = 'l -5i+j-9kl
1
+ (1)2+ (—9)2= —N/föfi.
(—5)2
5
1

2.34. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A = 2i - 6j —3k and B = 4i +3j - k.
Solution
A x B is a vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B.

i
Ax B = 2 —151- 10j + 30k
4

Ax B 15i —10j + 30k 3. 2. 6

A unit vector parallel to A x B is
7

Another unit vector, opposite in direction, is (—3i+ 2j —6k)/ 7. Compare with Problem 2.14.

2.35. Find an expression for the moment of a force F about a point P as in Fig. 2-14.
Solution
The moment M of F about P is in magnitude equal to P to the line of action of F. Then, if r is the vector from P
to the initial point Q of F,
M= = rFsinO= Ir x Fl
 CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product 33

Ifwe think of a right-threaded screw at P perpendicular to the plane of r and F, then when the
force F acts, the screw
will move in the direction of r x F. Because of this, it is convenient to define the moment as the vector M
= r x F.

Fig. 2-14 Fig. 2-15

236. As in Fig. 2-15, a rigid body rotates about an axis through point O with angular speed o. Prove that
the linear velocity v of a point P of the body with position vector r is given by v = o x r, where o is
the vector with magnitude whose direction is that in which a right-handed screw would advance
under the given rotation.
Solution
Since P travels in a circle of radius r sin 0, the magnitude of the linear velocity v is tD(rsin 0) = 10 x rl. Also, v
must be perpendicular to both and r and is such that r, 0), and v form a right-handed system.
Then v agrees both in magnitude and direction with x r; hence v = x r. The vector o is called the
angular velocity.

Triple Products
2.37. Suppose A = Ali A2j '43k, B = Bli B2j + B3k, C = C2j + C3k.
Show that
A '42 143

Solution
i j k

= (Ali + A2j+A3k) • [(B2C3- B3C2)i+ (B3Cl- BIC3)j+ (BIG - B2Cl)k]

= Al(B2C3 —B3C2)+A2(B3Cl - BIG) + A3(BlC2 - B2Cl)
Al '42 143

2.38. Evaluate (i +2j + 3k) • (i + 3j + 5k) x (i + j + 6k).

Solution 1 2 3
By Problem 2.37, the result is 1 3
1 1 6
 Product
34 CHAPTER 2 The DOTand CROSS

2.39. Prove that A.(B x C) = B. (C x A) x B).

Solutlon
By Problem 2.37, x Bl B2 B3 .
changes its sign, we have
rows of a determinant
By a theorem of determinants which states that interchange of two

443

2.40. Show that A • (B x C) = (A x B) • C.

Solution
From Problem 2.39, A • (B x C) = C • (A x B) = (A x B) • C.
such a case, there cannot be any
Occasionally,A • (B x C) is writtenwithoutparenthesesas A • B x C. In The latter, however, has no
ambiguity since the only possible interpretations are A (B x C) and (A • B)
x C.
meaning since the cross product of a scalar with a vector is undefined.
the dot and cross can be
The result A • B x C = A x B • C is sometimes summarized in the statement that
interchanged without affecting the result.

2.41. Show that A • (A x C) = 0.

Solution
From Problem 2.40 and that A x A = 0, we have A • (A x C) = (A x A) • C = 0.

2.42. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for the vectors A, B, and C to•be coplanar is that

Solution
Note that A • B x C can have no meaning other than A • (B x C).
If A, B, and C are coplanar, the volume of the parallelepiped formed by them is zero. Then, by Problem 2.43,

Conversely, if A • B x C = 0, the volume of the parallelepiped formed by vectors A, B, and C is zero, and so
the vectors must lie in a plane.

2.43. Show that the absolute value of the triple product A • (B C) is the volume of a parallelepiped with
sides A, B, and C.
Solution
Let n be a unit normal to a parallelogram I, having the direction of B x C, and
let h be the height of the terminal
point of A above the parallelogram I. [See Fig. 2-16.]

Volume of parallelepiped= (height h)(area of parallelogram

I)

If A, B, and C do not form a right-handedsystem, A • n < 0 and the volume

= IA • (B x C)l.
CHAPTER 2 The Dor and CROSSProduct
35

2
P

Fig. 216 Fig. 2-17

2.44. Let rl = Xli + Y'lj+ Zlk, r2 = X2i+ Y2j+ Ok, and r3 = X3i+ Y'3j-k Z3kbe the position vectors of
points PI(XI, Yl, Zl), P2(X2,Y'2,Q), and P3(X3,Y3, Q). Find an equation for the plane passing through
Pi, P2, andP3.
Solutlon
We assume that PI, P2, and P3 do not lie in the same straight line; hence they determine a plane.
Let r = xi +yj +zk denote the position vector of any point P(x, y, z) in the plane. Considervectors
PIP2 = r2 —rl, PIP3 r3 —rl, and PIP = r —r! , which all lie in the plane. [See Fig. 2-17.]
By Problem 2.42, PIP • PIP2 x PIP3 = Oor (r - rt) • (r2 - n) x (r3 rl) = O.
In terms of rectangular coordinates, this becomes

[(x —Xl)i + (y —yDj + (z —Zl)k] • [(x2 —Xl)i + (Y2—yDj + (Z2—zDk] x [03 —Xl)i+ —Yl)j
+ (Z3—Zl)k] = 0

or, using Problem 2.37,

Z3 ¯ Zl

—1, 1), P2(3, 2, —l), and

2.45. Find an equation for the plane determined by the points PI (2,

Solution
z) are, respectively, rt = 2i —j + k, r2 = 3i +2j —k,
The position vectors of PI, P2, P3 and any point P(x, y,
r3 = —i 3j + 2k, and r = Xi +
lie in the required plane, so that
Then PPI = r —rl, P2P1 = r2 —ris P3Pl = r3 —rl all
(r —rl) • (r2 —rD x (r3 —rD = 0
that is,

[(x- + (y+ + (z- l)k] • 5j + 13k] = O

13(z- or = 30.
a, b, and
Suppose the points P, Q, and R, not all lying on the same straight line, have position vectors
2.46. planeof
x c + c x a is a vector perpendiculartothe
c relative to a given origin. Show that a x b + b
P, Q, and R.
Solution
a, b —a, and c —a are
position vector of any point in the plane of P, Q, and R. Then the vectors r —
Let r be the
coplanar, so that by Problem 2.42
a) • (a x b+b x c-l-c x a) = 0.
(r —a) • (b —a) x (c —a)= 0 or (r — of P, Q, and R.
therefore perpendicular to the plane
r —a and is
Thus a x b + b x c + c x a is perpendicular to
 The CROSS
36 HAPTER2

• С) - • С).
2.47. Prove: (а) Ах (В х С) = • С) - • В). (Ь) (А х В) х С =

Solutlon
Then
(а) Let +Азк, + ВЗК, C=Cli+Cj+C3k.

-ВIС3]ј + - В2С1]К)
= - вз
+A3k)х ([B2C3 +
К
Аз

- вза взб -щсз '

—АзВзС2-AlBlC2 +AlB2Cl)j
= (А2ВIС2-A2B2Cl -А3В3С1+ 3BlC3)i+ (АзВ2Сз
+А2ВзС2)К
-AlBlC3 - А2В2Сз
+ (А1В3С1
Also
А2В2 Аз Вз)
• С) — • В) = (Bli В2ј + Н-АзСз) — (C1i + С2ј -4-
С!
= (A2BlC2 +A3BlC3 —А2СIВ —A3CIB3)i -4-(В2АIС1 В2А3С3 — C2AlBl — С2А3Вз)ј

+ (ВзАIС1+ ВзА2С2- C3AlB1- СзА2В2)К

and the result follows.
= -{А(С • В) - • А)} = • С) - • С) ироп replacing А, В,
and С in (а) by С, А, and В, respectively.
NotethatА х (В х С) (А х В) х С, thatis, thelassociative
law for yector crossproductsis not valid for
all vectorsА, В, and С.

2.48. Prove:(А х В) • (С х D) = (А • • D) - (Д • • С).

Solutlon
FromProblem2.41,Х • (С х D) = (Х х С) • о. Let = А х В; then

= (А • • D) -(А • • С), using Problem 2.47(b).

2.49.Prove:Ах (В х С) +В х (С х А) х (А х В) = О.
Solutlon
ву Problem
2.47(а),Ах (В х С)= • С) - cdA • В)

Adding, the result follows.

2.50. Prove:(А х В) х (С х D) = • С х D) -
Solutlon
ву Problem2.47(а), х х (С х = • D) - • С). Let Х = А х В; then
cHAPTER2 The DOT and CROSS Product

By Problem 2.47(b), (Ax B) x Y = •Y) - • Y). Let Y = C x D; then

2.51. Let PQR be a spherical triangle whose sides p, q, r are arcs of great circles. Prove that
sin P sinQ sin R
sinp sinq sinr

Solution
B, C be drawn from the center
suppose that the sphere, pictured in Fig. 2-18, has unit radius. Let unit vectors A,
O of the sphere to P, Q, R, respectively. From Problem 2.50,
(1)

becomes
A unit vector perpendicular to A x B and A x C is A, so that (1)

(sin r sin q sin P) A = (A • B x C)A or (2)

sin r sinq sin P = A •B x C (3)

obtain
By cyclic permutation of p, q, r, P, Q, R and A, B, and C, we
(4)
sinp sin r sinQ = B •C x A
(5)
sinq sinp sinR = C •A x B

equal (Problem 2.39)

Then, since the right-hand sides of (3), (4), and (5) are

sin r sin q sin P = sinp sin r sin Q = sin q sinp sinR

from which we find

sinP sinQ sin R
sinp sinq sinr

triangles.
This is called the law of sines for spherical

Fig. 2-18
 38 CHAPTER 2 The DOTand CROSSProduct

2.52. Prove: (A x B) • (B x C) x (C x A) = (A • B x cf.

Solution
By Problem 2.47(a), x x (C x A) = CcX • A) • C). Let X —B x C; then

Thus

c xa ax b , suppose a • b x c # 0. Show that

and c' =
2.53. Given the vectors a' = b/
a•bxc a•bxc

(c) if a •b x c V, then a/ • b' x c'

(d) a', b', and c' are non-coplanarif a, b, and c are non-coplanar.
Solution
a'=a• a•bxc
a•bxc
c xa b •c xa a•bxc
a•bxc a•bxc a•bxc
ax b c •ax b a•bxc
c •c=c•c a•bxc a•bxc a•bxc

a•bxc a•bxc a•bxc

Similarly, the other results follow. The results can also be seen by noting, for example, that a/ has the direction of
b x c and so must be perpendicular to both b and c, from which a' • b = 0 and a' • c = 0.
From (a) and (b), we see that the sets of vectors a, b, c and a', b', c' are reciprocalvectors. See also
Supplementary Problems 2.104 and 2.106.

b'
c xa ax b

Then a' • b/ x c' — V3

using Problem 2.52.

V3

(d) By Problem 2.42, if a, b, and c are non-coplanara • b x c # 0. Then, from part (c), it follows that
a' • b' x c' # 0, so that a', b', and c/ are also non-coplanar.
CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product

2.54. Show that any vector r can be expressed in terms of the reciprocal vectors of Problem
2.53 as

r = (r • a')a + (r • b/)b + (r • c')c.

Solutlon
FromProblem2.50, •C x D) •C x D) = 0B x D) - •B x C). Then

Let A = a, B = b, C = c, and D = r. Then

r•bxc r •c xa r •ax b
a•bxc a•bxc a•bxc c
a+r• c xa ax b
a•bxc a•bxc b+r• a•bxc c
= (r • a')a + (r • b')b + (r • c/)c.

SUPPLEMENTARYPROBLEMS

2.55. Evaluate: (a) k • (i + j), (b) (i —2k) • (j + 3k), (c) (2i —j + 3k) • (3i +2j —k).
2.56. Suppose and B=4i-2j+4k. Find: (a) A.B, (b) A, (c) B, (d) 13A+2Bl,
(e) (2A + B) • (A - 2B).

. Find the angle between (a) A = 3i +2j —6k and B = 4i —3j + k; (b) C
= 4i —2j +4k and
D= - 2k.
2/58. Find the values of a for which vectors A and B are perpendicular where:
(a) A = ai —2j + k and B = 2ai + aj —4k, (b) A = 2i + j + ak and B = 2i + aj + k.
2.59. Find the acute angles that the line joining the points (1, —3, 2) and (3, —5, makes
1) with the coordinate axes.
2.60. Find the direction cosines of the line joining the points:
(a) (3, 2, -4) and (1, -1, 2), (b) (-5, 3, 3) and (-2, 7, 15).
2.61. Determine the angles of a triangle where two sides of a triangle
are formed by the vectors:
(a)A = 3i-4j-k andB = 4i -j +3k, (b)A = -2i +5j +6k andB = 3i +j +2k.
2.62. The diagonals of a parallelogram are given by A = 3i —4j
-—k and B = 2i + 3j —6k. Show that the paralle-
logram is a rhombus and determine the length of its sides and angles.
2.63. Find the projection of the vector A on the
vector B where:
(a) A = 2i —3j + 6k and B = i +2j + 2k, (b) A = 2i -I-j —k
and B —6i-h2j —3k.
2K Find the projection of the vector A = 4i —3j + k on the line passing
through the points (2, 3, —1)and

26'. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both vector A and vector

B where:
(a) A = 4i —j + 3k and B = —2i+ j —2k, (b) A =
6i -k 22j —5k and B = i + 6j —2k.
2.66. Find the acute angle
formed by two diagonals of a cube.
 CROSS Product
40 CHAPTER 2 The DOT and

to the vector 4i 3j + k.
perpendicular
2.67. Find a unit vector parallel to the xy-plane and
unit vectors where:
2.68. Show that A, B, and C are mutually orthogonal
and C = (2i - 2k)/3
(a) A = (2i-2j+k)/3, 12j -4k)/13.
(4i+3j+ 12k)/13, and C = (3i+
(b)
a straight line:
Find the work done in moving an object along
field given by F = 4i —
3j + 2k.
(a) from (3, 2, —1) to (2, 21, 4) in a force
given by F = -3i +5j
- 6k.
(b) from (3, 4, 5) to (—1,9, 9) in a force field
any closed polygon
Show that the work done in moving an object around
2.70. Let F be a constant vector field force.
in this force field is zero.
is a right angle.
2.71. Prove that an angle inscribed in a semicircle ——2
+ + CD + DA2 = ÄC2 + BD
2.72. Let ABCD be a parallelogram. Prove that Äb2
that
the midpoints of its diagonal. Prove
2.73. Let ABCDbe any quadrilateralwhere P and Q are
—2
4PQ
Äb 2 + + CD 2 + DÄ 2 = ÄC 2 + FD 2 +

This is a generalization of the preceding problem.

the origin. (a) Find an equation of the
2.74. Consider a plane P perpendicular to a given vector A and distance p from
plane P. (b) Express the equation in (a) in rectangular coordinates.

2.75. Let rl and r2 be unit vectors in the xy-plane making angles a and with the positive x-axis.
(a) Provethat rl = cos ai + sin aj and r2 = cos ßi + sin ßj.
(b) By considering rl • r2, prove the trigonometric formulas
cos(a —ß) = cosacos ß + sin asinß and cos(a + P) = cos a cos ß + sin a sin ß

2.76. Let a be the position vector of a given point (Xl, yr, Zl), and let r be the position vector of any point (x, y, z).
Describe the locus of r if: (a) Ir —al = 3, (b) (r —a) •a = 0, (c) (r —a) •r = 0.

2.77. Suppose A = 3i + j + 2k and B = i —2j —4k are the position vectors of points P and Q, respectively.
(a) Find an equation for the plane passing through Q and perpendicular to the line PQ.
(b) Find the distance from the point (—1, 1, 1) to the plane.

2.78. Evaluate each of the following: (a) 2j x (3i —4k), (b) (i + 2j) x k, (c) (2i —4k) x (i + 2j),
(d) -2k)x (3i+k), (e) (2i -k) x (3i-2j+4k).
2.79. Suppose A = 3i -j -2k and B=2i+3j+k. Find: (a) IA x Bl, (b) (A +2B) x (2A -B),

2.80. SupposeA = i -2j - 3k, B = 2i +j -k, C = i +3j - 2k.

Find:

2.81. Suppose A 0 and both of the following conditions

hold simultaneously: (a) A • B
and (b) A x B = A x C. Show that B = C but, if only = A • C,
one of the conditions holds, then
B * C necessarily.
2,0. Find the area of a parallelogram having diagonals:
(a) A = 3i + j —2k and b = i
(b) A = 2i +4j and B = -4i + 4k. -- 3j -- 4k,
 CROSS Product
CHAPTER 2 The DOT and 41

area of a triangle with vertices at: (a) (3, -1, 2), (1, -1, -3), and (4, -3, 1),
2.3'. Find the
Z (b) (2, -3, -2), (-2, 3, 2), and (4, 3, -1).

2.84. suppose A = 2i + j —3k and B = i —2j + k. Find a vector

of magnitude 5 perpendicular to both A and B.

2.75 to derive the formulas:

2.85. Use Problem
sin(a —P) = sin acosß —cos asinß and sin(a + P) = sin acosß + cos asin ß

2.86. Supposea force F = 3i +2j —4k is applied at the point (1, —1,
2). Find the moment of F about the point:

2.87. The angular velocity of a rotating rigid body about an axis of rotation is given by o = 4i + j 2k. Find the
linear velocity of a point P on the body whose position vector relative to a point on the axis of rotation is

2.88. Simplify: (a) (A + B) (B + C) x (C + A), (b) A • (2A +B) x C.

2.89. Prove that (A •B x C)(a •b x c) = B •a B •b B •c

y. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are represented by:
B=i+2j-k, andC=3i-j+2k.
(b)A=i-j+2k, B=i+j-k, andC=i-j-4k.
2.91. Suppose A •B x C = 0. Show that either (a) A, B, and C are coplanar but no two of them are collinear,
or (b) two of the vectors A, B, and C are collinear, or (c) all the vectors A, B, and C are collinear.

2.92. Find the constant a so that the following vectors are coplanar:
(a) 2i —j + k, i +2j —3k, 3i + aj + 5k, (b) 3i —3j—k, -3i -2j+2k, 6i+aj-3k.
2.93. Suppose A = + Ylb + ZIC, B = x2a -Fhb + QC, and C = X3a+ Y3b+ z3c. Prove that

A.BxC= Y2 (a.bxc)

2.94. Prove that (A x C) x B = 0 is a necessary and sufficient condition that A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C. Discuss

the cases where A • B = 0 or B • C = 0.

2.95. Let points P, Q, and R have position vectors rl = 3i —2j —k, r2 = i + 3j + 4k and r3 = 2i + j —2k relative
to an origin O. Find the distance from P to the plane OQR.

2•96. Find the shortest distance: (a) from (6, —4,4) to the line joining (2, 1, 2) and (3, —1,4),
(b) from (1, —7, 5) to the line joining (13, —12,5) and (23, 12, 5).

2•97. Consider points P(2, 1, 3), Q(l, 2, l), R(—l, —l, —2),S(l, —4,0). Find the shortest distancebetween lines
PQ and RS.
2.98. Prove that the perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides (extended if necessary) meet
at a point (called the orthocenter of the triangle).
2•99• Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle meet at a point (called the circumcenterof the
triangle).
2.100. Prove that (A x B) • (C x D) + (B x C) • (A x D)
+ (C x A) • (B x D) = O.

O)

s
 42 CHAPTER 2 The DOT and CROSS Product

cosines for spheri_

triangle whose sides p, q, rare arcs of great circles. Prove the law of
2.101. Let PQR be a spherical
cal triangles,
cosp = cos q cos r + sin q sin r
Interpret both
r obtained by cyclic permutation of the letters. Hint:
with analogous formulas for cos q and cos
sides of the identity

to the set vectors:

2.102. Find a set of vectors reciprocal
(a) 2i+3j -k, i -j -2k , —i+2j + 2k, (b) i +2j + 3k, 5i —j —k, i + j —k.
c xa ax b Provethat
a' =
2.103. Suppose a•bxc a•bxc

2.104. Suppose a, b, c and a', b', c/ have the following properties:

Prove that the hypothesis of Problem 2.103 holds, that is,

c xa ax b
a•bxc a•bxc a•bxc
2.105. Prove that the only right-handed self-reciprocal sets of vectors are i, j, k.

2.106. Prove that there is one and only one set of vectors reciprocal to a given set of non-coplanar vectors a, b, c.

ANSWERS TO SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

2.55. 2.57. (a) 900, arc 8/21 = 67036'

2.56. (a) -10, (b) Via, (c) 6, (d) (e) -14 2.58. (a) a = 2, -1, (b) a
2.59. arc cos 2/3, arc cos 2/3, arc cos 1/3 or 48012', 48 012', 70032'
2.60. (a) 2/7, 3/7, -6/7 or -2/7, -3/7, 6/7, (b) 3/13, 4/13, 12/13 or -3/13, -4/13, -12/13
2.61. (a) arc cos7/Vi5, arc cosMf6/Nfi5, 900 or 3604', 53056', 900 (b) 68.60, 83.90, 27.50
2.62. 50/2, arc cos 23/75, 1800 -arc cos 23/75; or 4.33, 7208', 107052'
2.63. (a) 8/3, (b) -1 2.66. arc cos 1/3 or 70032'
2.64. 1 2.67. +4j)/5
2.65. (a) -2j - 2k)/3, (b) -j - 2k)/3 2.69. (a) 15, (b) 13
2.74. (a) r • n = p wheren = A/IAI = A/A, (b) AIX+ 442)'
4-A3Z= Ap
2.76. (a) Sphere with center at (Xl, h, ZD and radius
= 3.
(b) Plane perpendicular to a and passing through its
terminal point.
(c) Sphere with center at (Xl/2, Yl/2, /2) and radius v/R¯5Fäfi/2•, or a sphere with a as diameter.
2.77. (a) (r - B) • (A -B) = O or + 6z = -28; (b) 5
cHAPTER2 The DOT and CROSS Product 43

—6k, (b) 2i —j, (c) 8i —4j + 4k, (d) i —loj —3k, (e) 2i— lij —7k
2.78. (a) —8i
(b) -25i + 34j - 55k, (c) 2403
2.79. (a) N/TÝ5,
(b) 3410, (c) —20,(d) —20,(e) —40i—20j + 20k, (f) 35i —35j + 35k
2.80. (a) 5416,
2.82. (a) 545, (b) 12
2.92.

2.83. (a) „565/2, (b)

21 2.95. 3

2.84. 2.96. (a) 3, (b) 13

2.86. (a) 2i —7j - 2k, (b) —3(6i+5j + 7k) 2.97.

8. 7 7
•— 5
2.87. —51 8j — 14k 2.102.
31 + J
2.88. (b) (2i +4j + 6k)/28, (5i —4j + k)/28,

2.90. (a) 7, (b) 12

- 11k)/28