Design of Machine Elements-II

(MEPC-306)

Prepared by:
Dr Saurabh Kango
Assistant Professor
NIT Jalandhar
 Springs: Types of Springs, terminology – Stresses in Helical coil springs of circular and
noncircular cross sections. Concentric springs, springs under fluctuating loads, - Energy stored
in springs, torsion, Belleville springs. Leaf Springs: Stresses in leaf springs, Nipping. Equalized
stresses.
Springs
These are the elastic members which distort under load and regain their original shape when load is removed
Applications: Railway Carriage; Motor Cars; Scooters, motor Cycles etc.
Function:
1. To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage springs
2. To store energy as in clock springs
3. To apply forces to & to control motions; brakes & clutches
4. To measure forces in spring balance.

Materials: High Carbon steel (0.7 to 1.0%) or medium carbon steel etc.

Types: 1. Helical Springs 2. Leaf spring 3. Torsion spring 4.

Circular spring 5. Flat Spring
Springs
SPRING TERMINOLOGY
• Proof Load : It is the maximum load a spring can be subjected without undergoing permanent
deformation.
• Proof stress : It is the stress corresponding to the proof load.
• Resilience : It is the strain energy stored in the spring when loaded within elastic limit. Once the load
is removed, the energy is given up or released.
• Proof resilience : It is the maximum strain energy stored in the spring when loaded within elastic
limit.
• Modulus of Resilience : It is the maximum strain energy stored per unit volume.
• Stiffness: It the load required to produce unit deflection in the spring
 Closed Coiled Helical Spring
Important Terms:
STYLES OF END
There are four common methods which are used in forming the ends of the helical compression spring as shown in Fig. 1—
plain ends, plain and ground ends, square ends and square and ground ends.
 SPRING MATERIALS

Selection of material for the spring wire depends upon the following factors:
• Load acting on the spring
• Range of stress through which the spring operates
• The limitations on Mass and Volume of spring
• Expected fatigue life
• Environmental conditions in which the spring will operate such as temperature and corrosive atmosphere

Four basic varieties of steel wire which are used in springs

(i) patented and cold-drawn steel wires (unalloyed);

(ii) oil-hardened and tempered spring steel wires and valve spring wires;
(iii) oil-hardened and tempered steel wires (alloyed); and
(iv) stainless steel spring wires.

Most extensively used spring material is high-carbon hard-drawn spring steel. It is often called ‘patented and cold-drawn’
steel wire
Note: Each section of coil is under torsion but there are small
bending & shear stresses which being small, so usually neglected
To Accommodate the effect of curvature of
spring & direct shear stress, A. M. Wahl
introduce the factor K (Wahl’s correction
factor)
 CLOSE COILED HELICAL SPRINGS

Three objectives:

• It should possess sufficient strength to withstand the external load.

• It should have the required load-deflection characteristic.
• It should not buckle under the external load.

It is possible to design a number of springs for a given application by changing the three basic parameters, viz., wire diameter
(d), mean coil diameter (D) and the number of active turns (n).

Practical limitations:
In certain applications, there are space limitations, e.g., the spring is to fit in a hole of certain diameter, where the outside coil
diameter (Do) is restricted. In some applications, the spring is to fit over a rod, where the minimum inside diameter (Di) of
the coil is specified. Before proceeding to design calculations, the designer should specify the limits on these diameters.

Main dimensions to be calculated in the spring design are wire diameter, mean coil diameter and the number of active
coils.
Factor of Safety: :1.5 or less

The permissible shear stress is, therefore, 30% of the ultimate tensile strength of the spring wire

The Indian Standard 4454–1981 has recommended a much higher value for the permissible shear stress.
Basic procedure for the calculation of helical spring consists of the following steps:
(i) For the given application, estimate the maximum spring force (P) and the corresponding required deflection (d) of the
spring. In some cases, maximum spring force (P) and stiffness k, which is (P/d), are specified.
(ii) Select a suitable spring material and find out ultimate tensile strength (Sut) from the data.
Calculate the permissible shear stress for the spring wire by following relationship:
(iii) Assume a suitable value for the spring index (C). For industrial applications, the spring index varies from 8 to 10. A
spring index of 8 is considered as a good value. The spring index for springs in valves and clutches is 5. The spring index
should never be less than 3.
(iv) Calculate the Wahl factor by the following equation:

(v) Determine wire diameter (d)

(vi) Determine mean coil diameter (D) by the following relationship:

(vii) Determine the number of active coils (N) Modulus of rigidity (G) for steel wires is 81370 N/mm2

(viii) Decide the style of ends for the spring depending upon the configuration of the application. Determine the number of
inactive coils. Adding active and inactive coils, find out the total number of coils (Nt).

(ix) Determine the solid length of the spring by the following relationship:
(x) Determine the actual deflection of the spring
(xi) Assume a gap of 0.5 to 2 mm between adjacent coils, when the spring is under the action of maximum load. The
total axial gap between coils is given by,

In some cases, the total axial gap is taken as 15% of the maximum deflection

(xii) Determine the free length of the spring by the following relationship:

(xiii) Determine the pitch of the coil by the following relationship:

(xiv) Determine the rate of spring

(xv) Prepare a list of spring specifications

A helical compression spring that is too long compared to the mean coil diameter, acts as a flexible column and may buckle at a comparatively low axial force.
The spring should be preferably designed as buckle-proof. Compression springs, which cannot be designed buckle-proof, must be guided in a sleeve or over an
arbor. The thumb rules for provision of guide are as follows:

However, provision of guide results in friction between the spring and the guide and this may damage the spring in the long run.
A helical compression spring, made of circular wire, is subjected to an axial force, which varies from 2.5 kN to 3.5 kN. Over this
range of force, the deflection of the spring should be approximately 5 mm. The spring index can be taken as 5. The spring has
square and ground ends. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel wire with ultimate tensile strength of 1050 N/mm2
and modulus of rigidity of 81370 N/mm2. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 50% of the
ultimate tensile strength.
Design the spring and calculate
(i) wire diameter;
(ii) mean coil diameter;
(iii) number of active coils;
(iv) total number of coils;
(v) solid length of the spring;
(vi) free length of the spring;
(vii) required spring rate; and
(viii) actual spring rate
 DESIGN AGAINST FLUCTUATING LOAD
The springs subjected to fluctuating stresses are designed on the basis of two criteria—design for infinite life and design
for finite life
Let us consider a spring subjected to an external fluctuating force, which changes its magnitude from Pmax. to Pmin. in the
load cycle. The mean force Pm and the force amplitude Pa are given by,

The mean stress (τm) is calculated from mean force (Pm) by using shear stress correction factor (KS). It is given by,

KS is the correction factor for direct shear stress and it is applicable to mean stress only. For torsional stress amplitude
(τa), it is necessary to also consider the effect of stress concentration due to curvature in addition to direct shear stress.
Therefore,

where K is the Wahl factor, which takes into consideration the effect of direct shear
stress as well as of stress concentration due to curvature.
 There is a basic difference between the Rotating beam specimen and Fatigue testing of spring wires.
A spring is never subjected to a completely reversed load, changing its magnitude from tension to compression and passing
through zero with respect to time.
A helical compression spring is subjected to purely compressive forces. On the other hand, a helical extension spring is
subjected to purely tensile forces.
In general, the spring wires are subjected to pulsating shear stresses, which vary
from zero to (S’se) as shown in figure. (S’se) is the endurance limit in shear for the
stress variation from zero to some maximum value.
The data regarding the experimental values of endurance strength of
spring wires is not readily available. In absence of such values, the
following relationships suggested by HJ Elmendorf can be used.
For Patented and cold-drawn For oil-hardened and tempered
steel wires (Grade-1 to 4), steel wires (SW and VW grade), Pulsating Stress Cycle
 Point A with coordinates

indicates the failure-point of the spring wire in fatigue test

with pulsating stress cycle.

Point B on the abscissa indicates the failure under static

condition, when the mean stress (τm) reaches the torsional yield
strength (Ssy). Therefore, line is called the line of failure.

To consider the effect of the factor of safety, a line is

constructed from the point D on the abscissa in such a way that
Fatigue Diagram for Spring Design
Fatigue Diagram for Spring Design
 An oil-operated hydraulic compensating valve is shown in figure. Initially when (p1 = p2) there is a pre-load of 100 N in the
spring. The plunger moves through 10 mm when,

This is the normal operating condition of the valve. The spring is

to be fitted in a cylindrical space of 25 mm diameter. There is no
restriction on the free length of the spring. The permissible shear
stress in the spring wire is recommended as 30% of the ultimate
tensile strength. Design the spring from static considerations and
determine the factor of safety against fluctuating stresses. Neglect
the effect of inertia forces.

Step I Maximum spring force The spring force is minimum when the plunger
The spring is subjected to fluctuating stresses. Therefore, an does not move through 10 mm.
oil-hardened and tempered valve spring wire of Grade-VW is
selected for this application.
The spring index for such applications varies from 6 to 8. Since
there is restriction on the maximum coil diameter, a low value
of 5 is selected as the spring index.
SPRING DESIGN—TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD
In practice, helical springs are designed by trial and error method.
Basic procedure of spring design: based on the assumption that the value of
tensile strength for a given grade of spring wire is constant.
However, it is observed from Table 10.1 and 10.2 that tensile strength of the
material is not constant, but it varies with wire diameter.
Let us consider Grade-1 of patented
and cold-drawn steel wire. From
Table 10.1, the values of tensile
strength for various wire diameters
are as follows:
It is observed from the above values that tensile strength decreases as wire diameter increases. Therefore, tensile strength is
inversely proportion to wire diameter.
The trial and error procedure consists of the following steps:

(i) Assume some wire diameter (d).

(ii) Find out the corresponding tensile strength from Tables and using
this value find out permissible stress by .
(iii) Find out induced stress by

(iv) Check up whether permissible stress is more than induced stress. If

not, increase the wire diameter and repeat the above steps.
(v) The above mentioned procedure is repeated till the value of induced
stress comes out to be less than permissible stress.

it is observed that permissible

stress is inversely proportional to
(1/d), while induced stress is
proportional to (1/d2).
 An oil-operated hydraulic compensating valve is shown in figure. Initially when (p1 = p2) there is a pre-load of 100 N in the
spring. The plunger moves through 10 mm when,

This is the normal operating condition of the valve. The spring is

to be fitted in a cylindrical space of 25 mm diameter. There is no
restriction on the free length of the spring. The permissible shear
stress in the spring wire is recommended as 30% of the ultimate
tensile strength. Design the spring from static considerations and
determine the factor of safety against fluctuating stresses. Neglect
the effect of inertia forces.

Step I Maximum spring force The spring force is minimum when the plunger
The spring is subjected to fluctuating stresses. Therefore, an does not move through 10 mm.
oil-hardened and tempered valve spring wire of Grade-VW is
selected for this application.
The spring index for such applications varies from 6 to 8. Since
there is restriction on the maximum coil diameter, a low value
of 5 is selected as the spring index.
 The spring force is maximum when the plunger moves through 10
mm. The maximum spring force consists of initial pre-load and
additional spring forces.

The permissible shear stress is denoted by τd in order

to differentiate it from induced stress τ. It is given by,

Step II Design against static load

When the spring force varies from 100 N to 225.66 N, the spring is
Equations (a) and (b) are solved by the trial and error
compressed by 10 mm.
method.
Trial 1

From Table
Trial 2 The outer diameter of the spring is 21.6 mm, leaving sufficient
margin for diametral expansion. The spring can be easily fitted
in a cylindrical space of 25 mm diameter.

It is assumed that the spring has square and ground ends.

The design is satisfactory and the wire diameter should be 3

mm. However, the spring is subjected to fluctuating stresses
and to account for these stresses, the wire diameter is
increased to 3.6 mm
It is assumed that there will be a gap of 0.5 mm
between consecutive coils when the spring is
subjected to the maximum force. The total
number of coils is 26.
The total axial gap between the coils will be (26 – 1) \ 0.5 =
12.5 mm.
From Table No. , (d = 3.6 mm)

Step III Factor of safety against fluctuating stresses

 Stresses in Helical Springs

Figure 1a shows a round-wire helical compression spring loaded by the axial force F.
We designate D as the mean coil diameter and d as the wire diameter.
Isolate a section in the spring, as shown in Figure b. For equilibrium, the isolated section contains a
direct shear force F and a torsional moment T = FD∕2. The maximum shear stress in the wire may be
computed by superposition of the direct shear stress with V = F and the torsional shear stress given
by Torsion Equation. The result is

at the inside fiber of the spring. Substitution of τmax = τ, T = FD∕2, r = d∕2, J = πd4 ∕32, and A = πd2 ∕4
gives

where Ks is a shear stress-correction factor and is defined by the

equation

which is a measure of coil curvature

Above equation is based on the wire being straight. However, the curvature of the wire causes a localized increase in stress on the
inner surface of the coil, which can be accounted for with a curvature factor. This factor can be applied in the same way as a stress
concentration factor.
For static loading, the curvature factor is normally neglected because any localized yielding leads to localized strain
strengthening. For fatigue applications, the curvature factor should be included. The curvature of the wire increases the stress on
the inside of a spring but decreases only slightly on the outside. This curvature stress is important only in fatigue because the
loads are lower and there is no opportunity for localized yielding.

Wahl factor Since the results of these two equations differ by the order of 1 percent

Bergsträsser factor

Now, Ks, KB or KW, and Kc are simply stress-

correction factors applied multiplicatively to Tr∕J at
curvature correction factor
the critical location to estimate a particular stress.
There is no stress-concentration factor.
Concentric springs or Composites springs or cluster spring or parallel springs

Fig.2
Fig.1
Both spring with different free length
Both spring with same free length
(inner is shorter than outer)
PURPOSES
1. To obtained a greater spring force in given space.
2. To insure the operation of mechanism, for a same time, if one spring breaks.
3. To obtained a change in load deflection curve. The shorter spring act only after the long spring is
compressed a certain amount.
SAE committee- 2- spring nest (outer spring 2/3, inner spring 1/3 of total load); 3- spring nest ( outer spring 4/7, middle spring
2/7 and inner spring 1/7 of total load)
Greater spring force & insure the operation of mechanism (same free
length condition)- automobile clutches and railway trucks.

change in load deflection curve (different free length)- Governors of

variable speed engines to take care of the variable centrifugal force.
• Design
1. Equal stressing of two spring.
8𝐹1 𝐷1 8𝐹2 𝐷2
=
𝜋𝑑13 𝜋𝑑23
𝐹1 𝐷1 𝐹2 𝐷2
= 3 −−−−−−−− −(1).
𝑑13 𝑑2

Here, subscripts 1 & 2 for stand for outer and inner springs,
F is the load
D is mean diameter
d is wire diameter
• Design
For a same index
𝐷 𝐷
2
= 1 …………………..(2)
𝑑 𝑑
2 1

Combine with
2
equation (1)
𝐹1 𝑑1
𝐹2
=
𝑑2
…………………(3)
• Design
1. For equal deflection

8𝐹1 𝐷13 𝑁1 8𝐹2 𝐷23 𝑁2

=
𝐺𝑑14 𝐺𝑑24
𝐹1 𝐷13 𝑁1 𝐹2 𝐷23 𝑁2
= −−−−−−−−−−−− −(4).
𝑑14 𝑑24

2. Using eq. (2) and (3) in eq.(4)

𝑁1 𝑑1 = 𝑁2𝑑2 --------------------------------------------(5)
• Design
𝑑1 − 𝑑2
1. Radial clearance 2
𝐷1 − 𝑑1 − 𝐷2 + 𝑑2 = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
𝐷1 − 𝐷2 = 2𝑑1
𝑜𝑟
𝐶𝑑1 − 𝐶𝑑2 = 2𝑑1
𝑑1 𝐶
=
𝑑2 𝐶 − 2

𝑑1 𝐶
= ------------------------(6)
𝑑2 𝐶−2
A concentric spring is used as a valve spring in a heavy duty diesel engine. It consists of two helical compression springs
having the same free length and same solid length. The composite spring is subjected to a maximum force of 6000 N and
the corresponding deflection is 50 mm. The maximum torsional shear stress induced in each spring is 800 N/mm2. The
spring index of each spring is 6. Assume same material for two springs and the modulus of rigidity of spring material is
81370 N/mm2. The diametral clearance between the coils is equal to the difference between their wire diameters.
Calculate: (i) the axial force transmitted by each spring; (ii) wire and mean coil diameters of each spring; and (iii) number
of active coils in each spring.

Step II Wire and mean coil diameters

Step I Axial force transmitted by each spring
Step II Wire and mean coil diameters
Step III Number of active coils
Outer spring Inner spring
Step I Axial force transmitted by each spring
The diametral clearance between the coils is equal to the
difference between their wire diameters
Step III Number of active coils

It is assumed that the springs have square and

ground ends. Therefore,
Since the springs have the same solid length,
 HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS
Torsion springs are the components that upon twisting, exert a force in the opposite direction. This force is directly
proportional to the twisting. When twisted, these springs store mechanical energy. When released, these springs
come back to their original position. The torsion springs are helical shaped springs that are capable of producing
torsional or rotational forces. Based on the application for which they are used, these springs are either clockwise or
anti-clockwise wound. Thus, depending on its use, these springs have a capability to work in both the directions.
Top 5 Applications of Torsion Springs

1.Clocks: Torsion springs are used in torsion pendulum clocks.

2.Clothes Pins: This is one of the most common applications of these springs.
3.Automotive: Torsion springs are known for providing even tension, along with smooth and
frictionless motion. This is the reason why these springs are widely used in the automotive industry
for various parts such as a vehicle suspension system, chassis, automotive valves, clutches, and
gear shifters.
4.Medical Equipment: In the medical industry, the torsion springs are used in a number of
complex equipment. Different medical equipment that make use of these springs include medical
immobilization devices, hospital beds, several dental applications, wheelchair lifts and many
more. For additional strength, these springs are made from high carbon steel, which also helps
increase the life span of the spring.
5.Door Hinges: These springs are widely used in different types of door hinges.

http://www.stmarysspring.com/blog/5-major-applications-torsion-springs/
The construction of the helical torsion spring is similar to that of compression or
extension springs, except that the ends are formed in such a way that the spring is
loaded by a torque about the axis of the coils.
The helical torsion spring resists the bending moment (P * r), which tends to wind up
the spring.
The primary stresses in this spring are flexural in contrast with torsional shear
stresses in compression or extension springs.
The term ‘torsion spring’ is somewhat misleading, because the wire of the spring is
subjected to bending stresses.
Each individual section of the torsion spring is, in effect, a portion of a curved beam. Helical Torsion Spring
Using the curved beam theory, the bending stresses are given by

where K is the stress concentration factor due to curvature.

AM Wahl analytically derived the expressions for the stress
For a wire of circular cross-section, concentration factor K. They are given by,

where Ki and Ko are stress

concentration factors at the
inner and outer fibres of the
coil respectively.
 The strain energy stored in the spring is given by

The integration is to be carried over the entire length of the

wire, i.e., from 0 to (pi*D*N). Therefore,

Angular Deflection of Spring

The deflection in the direction of the force P is approximately

(rθ ). The design of the helical torsion spring is based on the torque-
stress and the torque-deflection equations.
The spring index is generally kept from 5 to 15.
When it is less than 5, the strain on the coiling arbor of the
torsion winder causes excessive tool breakage. When it is more
than 15, the control over the spring pitch is lost.
It is required to design a helical torsion spring for a window shade. The spring is made of patented and cold-drawn steel
wire of Grade-4. The yield strength of the material is 60% of the ultimate tensile strength and the factor of safety is 2.
From space considerations, the mean coil diameter is kept as 18 mm. The maximum bending moment acting on the spring
is 250 N-mm. The modulus of elasticity of the spring material is 207000 N/mm2. The stiffness of the spring should be 3 N-
mm/rad. Determine the wire diameter and the number of active coils.

Step I Wire diameter

The wire diameter is calculated by the trial and error method.
Trial 1 d = 1.4 mm
Trial 2 d = 1.6 mm
From Table 10.1, Step II Number of active coils
Sut = 2290 N/mm2

N = 393 coils
 BELLEVILLE SPRING or Conical Disk Springs

A BELLEVILLE SPRING or disc spring or as Belleville Washers is a conical shell which can be loaded along its axis either
statically or dynamically. The loads are normally applied to the upper inner edge and the lower outer edge. Either a single spring or
a stack of springs can be used. Due to this slight cone shape, that deform to a shorter height when subjected to a load along their
axis of symmetry. This elastic deformation characterizes the spring action.
Name of the Inventor:Julian Belleville, who patented its design in France in 1867
Advantages: A wide range of load/deflection characteristics, High load capacity with small deflection, Space savings –
high load to size ratio, Consistent performance under design loads, Longer fatigue life, Inherent dampening especially
with parallel stacking, Flexibility in stack arrangement to meet your application requirements

Belleville springs are used in plate clutches and brakes, gun recoil mechanisms,
relief valves and a wide variety of bolted connections.

d0 = outer diameter of washer (m) t = thickness of washer (m)

di = inner diameter of washer (m) h = free height minus thickness (m)
 These combinations provide a variety of
spring constants without changing the
design. When two Belleville springs are
arranged in series, double deflection is
obtained for the same force. On the
other hand, when two Belleville springs
are in parallel, almost double force is
obtained for a given deflection.

Nesting of Belleville Springs: (a) Series Combination (b) Parallel Combination

(c) Parallel Series Combination
where,
P = axial force (N)
δ= deflection of spring (m)
E = modulus of elasticity (N/m2)
σ = stress at the inside circumference
(N/m2)
μ = Poisson’s ratio ( 0.3 for steel)
 A Belleville spring is made of silicon steel. The spring is compressed completely flat when it is subjected to an axial force of
4500 N. The corresponding maximum stress is (1375 * 106) N/m2. Assume,

Calculate: (i) thickness of the washer; (ii) free height of the washer minus thickness (h); (iii) outer diameter of the washer;
and (iv) inner diameter of the washer.
Step I Thickness of washer
When the spring is compressed completely flat,
Step II Free height of washer minus thickness (h)
h = 1.5 t = 1.5 (2.65) = 3.98 mm = 4 mm (ii)

Step III Outer diameter of washer

 MULTI-LEAF SPRING
A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for the suspension in wheeled vehicles.

Originally called a laminated or carriage spring, and sometimes referred to as a semi-elliptical spring, elliptical spring,
or cart spring, it is one of the oldest forms of springing, appearing on carriages in France in the mid-17th century in the
form of the two-part elbow spring (as the illustrated example from Lisbon), and from there migrating to England and
Germany
Multi-leaf springs are widely used for the suspension of cars, trucks and railway wagons. A multi-leaf spring consists of a
series of flat plates, usually of semi-elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 1.
The flat plates are called leaves of the spring. The leaves have graduated lengths.
The longest leaf at the top is called master leaf. It is bent at both ends to from the spring eyes. Two bolts are inserted through
these eyes to fix the leaf spring to the automobile body.
The leaves are held together by means of two U-bolts and a centre clip.
Rebound clips are provided to keep the leaves in alignment and prevent lateral shifting of the leaves during operation. At the
centre, the leaf spring is supported on the axle. Multi-leaf springs are provided with one or two extra full length leaves in
addition to master leaf. The extra full-length leaves are stacked between the master leaf and the graduated length
leaves. The extra full-length leaves are provided to support the transverse shear force.
For the purpose of analysis, the leaves are divided into two groups namely, master leaf along with graduated-length leaves
forming one group and extra full-length leaves forming the other. The following notations are used in the analysis:

nf = number of extra full-length leaves

ng = number of graduated-length leaves including master leaf
n = total number of leaves
b = width of each leaf (mm)
t = thickness of each leaf (mm)
L = length of the cantilever or half the length of semi-elliptic spring (mm)
P = force applied at the end of the spring (N)
Pf = portion of P taken by the extra full-length leaves (N)
Pg = portion of P taken by the graduated-length leaves (N)
The group of graduated-length leaves along with the master leaf can be treated as a triangular plate, as shown in Fig.

In this case, it is assumed that the individual leaves are separated and the master leaf
placed at the canter.
Then, the second leaf is cut longitudinally into two halves, each of width (b/2) and
placed on each side of the master leaf.
A similar procedure is repeated for the other leaves.
The resultant shape is approximately a triangular plate of thickness t and a maximum
width at the support as (ngb).
Bending stress in the plate at the
support It can be proved that the deflection (dg)
at the load point of the triangular plate
is given by,

Graduated-length Leaves as
Triangular Plate
 Similarly, the extra full-length leaves can be treated as a
rectangular plate of thickness t and uniform width (nf b), as
shown in figure.

bending stress at the support

The deflection at the load point is given by,

Extra full-length leaves as
rectangular plate
Since the deflection of full-length leaves is equal to the deflection of graduated- length leaves,

It is seen from the above equations that bending stresses in full-

length leaves are 50% more than those in graduated-length leaves.
 Multi-leaf springs are designed using load stress and load-deflection equations. The standard dimensions for the width and
thickness of the leaf section are as follows: Nominal thickness (mm): 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 16
Nominal width (mm): 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 and 125
The leaves are usually made of steels, 55Si2Mn90, 50Cr1 or 50CrlV23. The plates are hardened and tempered.
The factor of safety based on the yield strength is from 2 to 2.5 for the automobile suspension.

NIPPING OF LEAF SPRINGS

The stresses in extra full-length leaves are 50% more than the
stresses in graduated-length leaves.
One of the methods of equalizing the stresses in different leaves is to
pre-stress the spring. The pre-stressing is achieved by bending the
leaves to different radii of curvature, before they are assembled with
the centre clip.
As shown in Fig., the full-length leaf is given a greater radius of
curvature than the adjacent leaf. The radius of curvature decreases
with shorter leaves. The initial gap C between the extra full-length
leaf and the graduated-length leaf before the assembly, is called a
‘nip’.
Such pre-stressing, achieved by a difference in radii of curvature, is
known as ‘nipping’.
Nipping is common in automobile suspension springs.

Nipping of Leaf Spring

 Under the maximum force P, the deflection of graduated-
Assuming that pre-stressing results in stress equalization
length leaves will exceed the deflection of extra full-length
leaves by an amount equal to the initial nip C.

Substituting Eqs (iii) and (iv) in the above expression,

The initial pre-load Pi required to close the gap C between

the extra full-length leaves and graduated length leaves is
determined by considering the initial deflection of leaves.
 Under the action of pre-load Pi,

Since the stresses are equal in all leaves,

The resultant stress in the extra full-length leaves

is obtained by superimposing the stresses due to
initial pre-load (Pi) and the external force (P).
A semi-elliptic leaf spring consists of two extra full-length leaves and eight graduated length leaves, including the master
leaf. The centre-to-centre distance between the two eyes of the spring is 1 m. The maximum force acting on the spring is 10 kN
and the width of each leaf is 50 mm. The spring is initially pre-loaded in such a way that when the load is maximum, the
stresses induced in all the leaves are equal to 350 N/mm2. The modulus of elasticity of the leaf material is 207 000 N/mm2.
Determine
(i) the thickness of leaves; and
(ii) the deflection of the spring at maximum load.

2L=1=1000mm 2P=10kN
L=500 mm P=5kN
t=10mm
n=2+8=10
A semi-elliptic leaf spring used for automobile suspension consists of three extra full-length leaves and 15 graduated-length
leaves, including the master leaf. The centre-to-centre distance between two eyes of the spring is 1 m. The maximum force
that can act on the spring is 75 kN. For each leaf, the ratio of width to thickness is 9:1. The modulus of elasticity of the leaf
material is 207 000 N/mm2. The leaves are pre-stressed in such a way that when the force is maximum, the stresses induced
in all leaves are same and equal to 450 N/mm2. Determine (i) the width and thickness of the leaves; (ii) the initial nip; and
(iii) the initial pre-load required to close the gap C between extra full-length leaves and graduated-length leaves.
A semi-elliptic multi-leaf spring is used for the suspension of the rear axle of a truck. It consists of two extra full-length
leaves and ten graduated-length leaves including the master leaf. The centre-to-centre distance between the spring eyes is
1.2 m. The leaves are made of steel 55Si2Mo90 (Syt = 1500 N/mm2 and E = 207 000 N/mm2) and the factor of safety is 2.5.
The spring is to be designed for a maximum force of 30 kN. The leaves are pre-stressed so as to equalize stresses in all
leaves. Determine: (i) the cross-section of leaves; and (ii) the deflection at the end of the spring.

Multi-leaf springs are designed using load stress and load-

deflection equations. The standard dimensions for the width and
thickness of the leaf section are as follows: Nominal thickness
(mm): 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 16
Nominal width (mm): 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100
and 125
A semi-elliptic leaf spring consists of two extra full-length A semi-elliptic leaf spring consists of two extra full-length
leaves and eight graduated length leaves, including the master leaves and six graduated - length leaves, including the master
leaf. The centre-to-centre distance between the two eyes of leaf. Each leaf is 7.5 mm thick and 50 mm wide. The centre-to-
the spring is 1 m. The maximum force acting on the spring is centre distance between the two eyes is 1 m. The leaves are pre-
. kN and the width of each leaf is 50 mm. The spring is
10 stressed in such a way that when the load is maximum, stresses
initially pre-loaded in such a way that when the load is induced in all the leaves are equal to 350 N/mm2. Determine the
maximum, the stresses induced in all the leaves are equal to maximum force that the spring can withstand.
350 N/mm2. The modulus of elasticity of the leaf material is
207 000 N/mm2. Determine (i) the thickness of leaves; and
(ii) the deflection of the spring at maximum load
A multileaf spring of an automobile is to carry a load of 5kN. The spring is to be made 1000 mm between the supports. Design
the spring. No. of leaves may be taken as 8 with two of them of full length. Distance between U-bolts May be taken as 60 mm

 
2 L  span  2  dis tan ce betweenU  bolts
3
 1000  2  60  960mm
3
2 P  5000 N
P  2500 N

6  2500  480
b 
8  bt 2
Need to select the material & also suitable factor of
safety 6  2500  960
375 
b6   2400
2
For springs subjected to frequent load variation (fatigue 8  bt 2
loading), a factor of safety of 1.5 based on endurance
b  66.7 mm
strength or 2 or 2.5 based on elastic limit. bt 2  2400
 2400
b 2
t

2400
b  234.5mm
3.22

Usually no. of leaves are 5 to 10 & width in the range of 45 to 100 mm

2400
b  118mm
4.52
b
2400
 49mm
7 2

2400
b  96mm
52
b
2400
 42mm
7.52

Effective length
2400 Smallest leaves( L1 )  1  ineffective length
b  66.7 mm n 1
62

L1 
960 2
8 1

3
 
 dis tan ce between U  bolts

b
2400
 56.8mm L1  177mm L3 , L4 , L5 , L6 , L7  451,588,721,863,1000mm
6.52

L7  L8  1000mm
960
L2next to smallest leave    2  40  314
 Q.1 A close coiled helical spring is made of 5 mm diameter wire. It is made up of 30 coils, each of mean diameter 75 mm.
If the maximum stress in the spring is not to exceed 200 MPa, then determine (a) the proof load (b) the extension of the
spring when carrying this load. Take G = 80 GPa

Q.2 A leaf spring is required to satisfy the following specification : L = 0.75 m, W = 5 kN, b = 75 mm, maximum stress = 210
MPa, Maximum deflection = 25 rnm, E = 200 GPa. Find the number of leaves, their thicknesses and initial radius of
curvature.
Problem Description:
Leaf springs experience fluctuating loads with static loads of the vehicle and pay loads during its life time cycle.
The springs were arranged in concentric arc model where each of them has contact at all loading conditions, the loads are
transferred to the vehicle chassis through this contact load transfer, and this causes each leaf members experience the stress
under all loading conditions.
These leaf springs absorb road loads and shocks. While in riding, continuous change in the road surfaces bumps and pot
holes make fluctuation loads in the spring members, this decrease service life of the spring members and in turn the whole
system. Minimization of the load absorption between leaf members or minimize contact will increase the life. But, the cost of
the new or modified system must be an economical one and in terms of maintenance and replacement. So, there is a strong
need for a new and innovative economical stress minimization system.
Thank You