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Chapter 2
Classical Control System
Design
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Steady-state errors
Steady-state errors
Type k systems
Type k systems
Integral control
Integral control
Frequency response plots
Frequency response plots
Bode plots
Bode plots
Nyquist plots
Nyquist plots
Nichols plots
Nichols plots
Classical design specifications
Classical design specifications
Lead, lag, lead-lag compensation
Lead, lag, lead-lag compensation
Quantitative Feedback Theory
Quantitative Feedback Theory
Introduction
Introduction
Classical design techniques
Classical design techniques
Ch. 2. Classical control system design
Ch. 2. Classical control system design
M- and N-circles
M- and N-circles
Guillemin-Truxal method
Guillemin-Truxal method
Root locus
Root locus
Overview
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Steady-state errors-1
Tracking behavior: Assume
Tracking error
r y
F C P
+

( ) 1( )
!
n
t
r t t
n
=
1
1

( )
n
r s
s
+
=
$
( )
( )
( )
( )
$
( )
( )
y s
L s
L s
F s r s
H s
=
+ 1
1 2 44 3 44
Response

( ) ( ) ( ) [1 ( )] ( ) s r s y s H s r s = =
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Steady-state errors-2
Steady-state tracking error
If F(s)=1 (no prefilter) then
( )
0 0
1 ( )

lim ( ) lim ( ) lim

n
n
t s s
H s
t s s
s

= = =
( )
0
1
lim
[1 ( )]
n
n
s
s L s

=
+
1
1 ( )
1 ( )
H s
L s
=
+
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Type k system
A feedback system is of type k if
Then
( )
( ) , (0) 0
o
o
k
L s
L s L
s
=
( )
0
0
1
lim
[1 ( )]
0 for 0
lim 1/ (0) for
( )
for
n
n
s
k n
o
k
s
o
s L s
n k
s
L n k
s L s
n k

=
+
<

= = =

+

>

Dutch Institute of Systems and Control

Steady-state errors-3
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Integral control-1
Integral control:
Design the closed-loop system such that
Type k control:
Results in good steady-state behavior
Also:
( )
( )
o
L s
L s
s
=
( )
( )
o
k
L s
L s
s
=
1
( ) ( ) for 0
1 ( )
( )
k
k
k
o
s
S s s s
L s
s L s
= = =
+
+
O
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Integral control-2
then the steady-state error is zero if n < k (rejection)
Hence if
( ) ( ) for 0
k
S s s s = O
1
1

( ) 1 ( ), ( )
!
n
n
t
v t t v s
n
s
+
= =
k = 1: Integral control: Rejection of constant disturbances
k = 2: Type-2 control: Rejection of ramp disturbances
Etc.
Type k control:
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Integral control-3
Integral control:
Natural integrating action is present if the plant transfer
function has one or several poles at 0
If no natural integrating action exists then the compen-
sator needs to provide it
The loop has integrating action of order k
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
o
k
L s
L s P s C s
s
= =
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Integral control-4
Pure integral control:
1
( )
i
C s
sT
=
1
( ) 1
i
C s g
sT
| |
= +
|
\ .
1
( ) 1
d
i
C s g sT
sT
| |
= + +
|
\ .
PI control:
PID control:
Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules
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Internal model principle
Asymptotic tracking if model of disturbance is included in
the compensator
Francis, D.A. and Wonham, W.M., (1975) The internal model principle for
linear multivariable regulators, Applied Mathematics and Optimization, vol 2,
pp. 170-194
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Frequency response plots
Bode plots
N
i
c
h
o
l
s

p
l
o
t
s
N
y
q
u
i
s
t
p
l
o
t
s
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Bode plots-1
2
2 2
( )
( ) 2 ( )
o
o o o
L j
j j

=
+ +
Bode plot:
doubly logarithmic
plot of |L(j)| versus

semi logarithmic plot

of arg L(j) versus
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Bode plots-2
Helpful technique:
By construction of the asymptotic Bode plots of
elementary first- and second-order factors of the form
1 2
1 2
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
m
m
j z j z j z
L j k
j p j p j p

=

L
L
The shape of the Bode plot of
2 2 2
0
( ) 2 ( )
o o
j j j + + + and
may be sketched
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Nyquist plots
Nyquist plot: Locus of
L(j) in the complex plane
with as parameter
Contains less information
than the Bode plot if is
not marked along the
locus
2
2 2
( )
( ) 2 ( )
o
o o o
L j
j j

=
+ +
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
M- and N-circles-1
M-circle: Locus of points z in the complex plane where
Closed-loop transfer function:
N-circle: Locus of points z in the complex plane where
H
L
L
T =
+
=
1
z
z
M
1+
=
arg
z
z
N
1+
=
L

r
y
+
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M- and N-circles-2
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Nichols plots
Nichols plot: Locus of
L(j) with as para-
meter in the
log magnitude
versus
argument
plane
Nichols chart: Nichols plot
with M- and N-loci
included
2
2 2
( )
( ) 2 ( )
o
o o o
L j
j j

=
+ +
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T
i
m
e
d
o
m
a
i
n
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
d
o
m
a
i
n
Bandwidth,
resonance peak,
roll-on and roll-off of
the closed-loop
frequency response
and sensitivity
functions; stability
margins
Rise time, delay time,
overshoot, settling time,
steady-state error of the
response to step
reference and
disturbance inputs;
error constants
Classical design specifications
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Classical design techniques
Lead, lag, and lag-lead compensation (loopshaping)
(Root locus approach)
(Guillemin-Truxal design procedure)
Quantitative feedback theory QFT (robust loopshaping)
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Classical design techniques
Change open-loop L(s) to achieve certain closed-loop specs
first modify phase
then correct gain
Rules for loopshaping
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Lead compensation
Lead compensation:
Add extra phase in the
cross-over region to
improve the stability
margins
Typical compensator:
Phase-advance
network
1
( ) , 0 1
1
j T
C j
j T

+
= < <
+
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Lead/lag compensator
1
( )
1
j T
C j
j T

+
=
+
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Lag compensation
Lag compensation:
Increase the low frequency gain without affecting the
phase in the cross-over region
Example: PI-control:
1
( )
j T
C j k
j T

+
=
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Lead-lag compensation
Lead-lag compensation: Joint use of
lag compensation at low frequencies
phase lead compensation at crossover
Lead, lag, and lead-lag compensation are always used
in combination with gain adjustment
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Notch compensation
(inverse) Notch filters:
suppression of parasitic dynamics
additional gain at specific frequencies
Special form of general second order filter
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Notch compensation
1 2
1 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
+ +
+ +
= =

s s
s s
u
H
Notch-filter :
1
=
2
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Notch compensation
ampl.
fase
2
1

0
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Root locus method-1
Important stage of many designs: Fine tuning of
gain
compensator pole and zero locations
Helpful approach: the root locus method (use rltool!)
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Root locus method-2
Closed-loop characteristic polynomial
Root locus method: Determine the loci of the roots of as
the gain k varies
1 2
1 2
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
m
n
s z s z s z N s
L s k
D s s p s p s p

= =

L
L
1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
n m
s D s N s
s p s p s p k s z s z s z
= +
= + L L
L

Dutch Institute of Systems and Control

Root locus method-3
Rules:
For k = 0 the roots are the open-loop poles p
i
For k a number m of the roots approach the
open-loop zeros z
i
. The remaining roots approach
The directions of the asymptotes of those roots that
approach are given by the angles
1 2 1 2
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
n m
s s p s p s p k s z s z s z = + L L
2 1
, 0, 1, , 1
i
i n m
n m

+
=

L
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Root locus method-4
The asymptotes intersect on the real axis in the point
Those sections of the real axis located to the left of
an odd total number of open-loop poles and zeros on
this axis belong to a locus
The loci are symmetric with respect to the real axis
....
(sum of open-loop poles) (sum of open-loop zeros)
n m

Dutch Institute of Systems and Control

Root locus method-5
( )
( 2)
k
L s
s s
=
+
( 2)
( )
( 1)
k s
L s
s s
+
=
+
( )
( 1)( 2)
k
L s
s s s
=
+ +
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Guillemin-Truxal method-1
Procedure:
Specify H
Solve the compensator from
Closed-loop transfer
function:
1
PC
H
PC
=
+
1
1
H
C
P H
=

C
P

+
y r
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Guillemin-Truxal method-2
Example: Choose
This guarantees the system to be of type m + 1
1
1 0
1 1
1 1 0
( )
m m
m m
n n m m
n m m
a s a s a
H s
s a s a s a s a

+ + +
=
+ + + + + +
L
L L
How to choose the denominator polynomial?
Well-known options:
Butterworth polynomials
Optimal ITAE polynomials
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Butterworth and ITAE polynomials
Butterworth polynomials
Choose the n left-half plane poles on the unit circle so
that together with their right-half plane mirror images
they are uniformly distributed along the unit circle
ITAE polynomials
Place the poles so that
is minimal, where e is the tracking error for a step input
0
( ) t e t dt

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Butterworth and ITAE
0 m =
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Guillemin-Truxal method-3
Disadvantages of the method:
Difficult to translate the specs into an unambiguous
choice of H. Often experimentation with other design
methods is needed to establish what may be
achieved. In any case preparatory analysis is
required to determine the order of the compensator
and to make sure that it is proper
The method often results in undesired pole-zero
cancellation between the plant and the compensator
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Quantitative feedback theory QFT-1
Ingredients of QFT:
For a number of selected frequencies, represent the
uncertainty regions of the plant frequency response
in the Nichols chart
Specify tolerance bounds on the magnitude of T
Shape the loop gain so that the tolerance bounds
are never violated
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QFT-2
Example: Plant
Parameter uncertainties:
Nominal parameter values:
Tentative compensator:
2
( )
(1 )
g
P s
s s
=
+
1, 0 g = =
( ) , 1, 1.414, 0.1
1
d
d o
o
k sT
C s k T T
sT
+
= = = =
+
0.5 2, 0 0.2 g
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QFT-3
Responses of the nominal design
Specs on |T |
Frequency
[rad/s]
0.2
1
2
5
10
Tolerance band
[dB]
0.5
2
5
10
20
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Uncertainty regions
Uncertainty
regions for the
nominal design
The specs are
not satisfied
Additional
requirement:
The critical area
may not be
entered
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QFT-4
Design method: Manipulate the compensator frequency
reponse so that the loop gain
satisfies the tolerance bounds
avoids the critical region
Preparatory step 1: For each selected frequency,
determine the performance boundary
Preparatory step 2: For each selectedfrequency,
determine the robustness boundary
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Performance and robustness boundaries
Nominal plant
frequency
response
Robustness
boundaries
Performance
boundaries
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QFT-5
Design step: Modify the loop gain such that for each
selected frequency the corresponding point on the loop
gain plot lies above and to the right of the corresponding
boundary
For the case at hand this may be accomplished by a lead
compensator of the form
1
2
1
( )
1
sT
C s
sT
+
=
+
Step 1: Set T
2
= 0, vary T
1
Step 2: Keep T
1
fixed, vary T
2
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QFT-6
Eventual
design:
T
1
= 3
T
2
= 0.02
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QFT-7
Responses of the
redesigned system
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cl
( ) 0.02 ( 2.7995)( ( 46.819 0.38 0)
( ) 1
15) D s s s
s
s
N
= + + +
=
Prefilter design-1
2-degree-of-freedom
configuration
Closed-loop transfer
function
For the present case:
H
NF
D
F
o
=
cl
P

+
+
r
z
u
Y
F
X
X
C
o
e
F
o
Dutch Institute of Systems and Control
Prefilter design-2
Use the polynomial F to cancel the (slow) pole at 0.3815,
and let
Perturbed
responses
F s
s s
o
o
o o o
o o
( ) , , =
+ +
= =

2
2 2
1
2
2
1 2