Nervous System: Coordination and Control

The nervous system is the major control and communication system of the body. It
coordinates the activities of the body by transmitting signals between different parts,
enabling rapid responses to internal and external stimuli. Nervous coordination
involves the participation of our sense organs, nerves, spinal cord, and brain. The
changes, which occur around us, can be easily detectable by our sense organs. This
is because the nervous system has neurons at their tips, which consist of dendrites,
cell body, nucleus, and axon. The information detected by dendrites is converted into
impulses and are passed onto the cell body. Axon collects these impulses. At the
nerve ending, electrical impulses are converted into chemicals and released. The
chemicals will be passed to the next neuron through a gap called a synapse. This is
how one neuron transfers the messages to another neuron.
NEURONS
Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. Each neuron
is specialized to carry electrical impulses.
Functions of Neurons:
● Detect stimuli (e.g., light, heat, sound).
● Transmit impulses to and from the central nervous system.
● Activate effectors like muscles or glands.
TYPES OF NEURONS
1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
These neurons carry impulses from sensory receptors (like skin, eyes, ears, tongue,
nose) to the Central Nervous System (CNS) -the brain or spinal cord.
Function: They detect changes (stimuli) in the environment such as touch, heat, light,
or sound, and send that information as nerve impulses toward the brain or spinal
cord for processing e.g. If you touch a hot surface, sensory neurons in your skin
detect the heat and send signals to your spinal cord.
2. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)
These neurons carry impulses away from the CNS to effectors, such as muscles or
glands, to trigger a response.
Function: They act on the decision made by the brain or spinal cord and send
commands to muscles to move or glands to secrete hormones or fluids. E.g After
sensing heat, motor neurons carry impulses from the spinal cord to your arm
muscles to pull your hand away.
3. Relay Neurons (Interneurons or Association Neurons)
Found only in the Central Nervous System (CNS), especially the brain and spinal
cord. They connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.
Function: Relay neurons process incoming impulses from sensory neurons and pass
them to motor neurons. They help in reflex actions and also in complex thought
processes. E.g During a reflex action, relay neurons in the spinal cord immediately
send the message from sensory neurons to motor neurons without involving the brain
, allowing a quick response.

Part Description
 Branch-like extensions that receive impulses from other neurons or
Dendrites receptors.
Cell Body
(Soma) Contains the nucleus and cell organelles; site of metabolism.

Axon A long fiber that transmits impulses away from the cell body.
A fatty layer that insulates the axon and speeds up nerve impulse
Myelin Sheath transmission.
Nodes of Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate the rapid conduction of
Ranvier impulses.
Axon Endings where the neuron communicates with other cells (neurons
Terminals or effectors).

The neural/nervous system controls three types of actions: voluntary action,

involuntary action, and reflex action.

Reflex action:

Reflex action or reflex is an involuntary action in response to a stimulus. This is a

spontaneous action without thinking. For example, we adjust our eyes when exposed
to bright light. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a system of nerves which
connect the central nervous system (CNS) (includes the brain and spinal cord) with
other parts of the body. Reflex action is the result of the coordination of the spinal
cord and peripheral nervous system. This action does not involve the brain. The
pathway in which impulses travel during the reflex action is called a reflex arc.
Steps in a Reflex Arc:
● Stimulus: This is a change in the environment that triggers a reaction. E.g. a
sharp object (like a pin) pricks the skin, or being burnt by fire.
● Receptor: it is located in the skin or other sense organs, it detects the
stimulus. It converts the physical pain (pinprick) or burn into a nerve impulse.
● Sensory Neuron: This nerve fiber carries the impulse from the receptor to the
spinal cord. It transmits the message that "something is wrong."
● Relay Neuron (Interneuron) in the Spinal Cord. This neuron receives the
impulse from the sensory neuron and processes it quickly. It connects to the
motor neuron and ensures a fast response, without needing to send the
message to the brain.
● Motor Neuron: This neuron carries the response message from the spinal
cord to the effector (muscle or gland). It delivers the command to react.
● Effector (Muscle or Gland): The effector carries out the response. E.g. the
muscle in the arm contracts to pull the hand away from the pin.
This whole process is an automatic and rapid process to protect the body from injury
and that's why it's called a reflex action.

Voluntary action:

When an action is produced with the involvement of thoughts, they are called
voluntary action. It involves actions like walking, eating, jumping and running. These
actions are produced consciously. Both spinal cord and brain are involved and these
coordinate with PNS to generate necessary movements.

Involuntary action:

Actions which take place without consciousness or willingness of an individual are

called the involuntary action. Digestion, heart beating, sneezing, etc are few
examples of involuntary actions.

Both involuntary and voluntary actions are controlled by the same parts of the brain.
Hindbrain and midbrain control involuntary actions like salivation, vomiting, etc. All
the body’s voluntary actions are controlled by the motor cortex in the frontal lobe of
the cerebrum.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the body.
It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Brain
The brain is one of the important, largest and central organ of the human nervous
system. It is the control unit of the nervous system, which helps us in discovering
new things, remembering and understanding, making decisions, and a lot more. It is
enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The
human brain is composed of three major parts:

1. Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum,

Hypothalamus and Thalamus.

2. Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum
and Tegmentum.

3. Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla

and Pons.

Functions of major parts of the brain

1. Cerebrum: it is the largest part of the brain and it controls thinking, memory,
intelligence, voluntary movements, and emotions. It is divided into two hemispheres
and four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).
2. Hypothalamus: it controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotions. It
links the nervous system to the endocrine system by controlling the pituitary gland
and helps maintain homeostasis.

3. Thalamus: it acts as a relay station for sensory signals and directs incoming
messages (except smell) to the appropriate areas of the cerebrum. It plays a role in
alertness and consciousness.

4. Cerebellum: it coordinates balance, posture, and smooth, precise movements. It

works with muscles to maintain body coordination. It helps in motor learning (e.g.,
riding a bicycle).

5. Medulla Oblongata: it controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing,

digestion, and blood pressure. It also acts as a connection between the brain and
spinal cord.

6. Pons: it serves as a bridge between different parts of the nervous system,

especially the cerebrum and cerebellum. It also helps to regulate breathing and sleep
cycles.

7. Midbrain: it processes visual and auditory information, controls eye movements

and pupil reflexes.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues
enclosed within the spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain. It begins in
continuation with the medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed in a bony cage
called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called meninges. The spinal
cord is concerned with spinal reflex actions and the conduction of nerve impulses to
and from the brain.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that
develops from the central nervous system which connects different parts of the body
with the CNS. Both voluntary and involuntary actions are carried out with the help of
peripheral nerves.

PNS includes two types of nerve fibers:

1. Afferent nerve fibers – These are responsible for transmitting messages

from tissues and organs to the CNS.
2. Efferent nerve-fibers – These are responsible for conveying messages from
 CNS to the corresponding peripheral organ.
Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary
actions in the body by transmitting impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It
consists of the somatic nerves.

Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in

involuntary actions like regulation of physiological functions (digestion, respiration,
salivation, etc.). It is a self-regulating system which conveys the impulses from the
CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart, bladder and pupil). The
autonomic neural system can be further divided into:

Sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body for "fight or flight" an emergency or
stressful situation where the body needs to respond quickly.
Effects on the body:
● Increases heart rate and blood pressure
● Dilates pupils
● Opens up the airways (bronchodilation) for more oxygen
● Slows down digestion
● Stimulates the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands
● Increases sweating
● Converts stored energy (glycogen to glucose) for use
Parasympathetic nervous system: it controls the "rest and digest" responses. It calms
the body down after a stressful event and conserves energy.
Effects on the Body:
● Slows down the heart rate
● Constricts pupils
● Stimulates digestion
● Promotes salivation
● Stimulates urination and defecation
● Constricts airways (back to normal after stress)
● Encourages relaxation and sleep